Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism FEATURE History and Meaning of the - Uniform for Korean Schools in Japan

By Han Tong-hyon

What is a Chima-Jeogori Jeogori with a black (or navy) non-natu- uniform? ral fiber skirt. They call this special one- piece uniform ‘jeoksam.’ I wonder if you have ever seen school girls There have been no ready-made who go to Korean high schools in Chima- uniform shops for Chima-Jeogori uni- Jeogori uniforms. You might have seen the forms, unlike Japanese school uniforms. uniform in films such as ‘GO’ or Parents need to order uniforms from tra- ‘Pacchigi’. These are so-called Korean ditional dress makers or tailors, as there is school-related films. You might have seen no ready-to-wear uniform industry for these school girls before, either on TV or Chima-Jeogori. Parents order them at the in your area, as they sometimes venture individual or school level from dress mak- out to collect signatures for their petitions ers owned by Zainichi (Koreans living in or to seek approval from authorities. Their Japan). petitions were for free education for Ko- The present day Chima-Jeogori rean high school students, as it is for Japa- uniform has several unique features. First, nese students. the uniform has been improved by intro- The design of the uniform itself is ducing western style features, such as the almost the same anywhere in Japan. It is pleated skirt and metal hook for the hold- comprised of two pieces, a Jeogori (shirt) back. However the basic structure, design and a Chima (skirt), a sleeveless one-piece and sewing process still follow the tradi- dress with a pleated skirt. Students wear tional Chima-Jeogori dress. the Jeogori on top of the Chima, then fas- Secondly, the uniform differs from ten them with a ribbon-style sash, called the traditional Chima-Jeogori dress usu- Goreum, on the breast line. In the winter ally worn by present-day Korean women they wear black (navy blue is acceptable during festivities on the Korean Peninsula in some schools) wool uniforms. In the (or abroad, including Japan) in color, ma- summer, students wear the one-piece uni- terial and the length of the Chima. form, combined with a white hemp (or According to several records and sometimes manmade fiber blended) documents, the Chima-Jeogori uniform

Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 21 FEATURE Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism was first introduced in the early 1960s. ing media reports (that were related to the The uniform became a symbol of Korean abduction), abusive language, and physi- schools. But, in the late 1980s there were cal assaults have been happening on and frequent incidents of harassment of Korean off since the summit meeting. school girls, called ‘Chima-Jeogori Jiken’1 . They were easily targeted because The Birth of the “Chima- of their distinctive uniform. Female stu- Jeogori Uniform” dents claimed that it lead to discrimina- tion, as only girls wore the Chima-Jeogori Korean schools in Japan originated as uniform. For this reason, the Korean school small local Korean-language schools. board reviewed its Chima-Jeogori uniform These ‘terakoya’-style schools (literally practice and, in April 1999, Korean ‘temple schools’) were established by schools introduced a second uniform con- Zainichi Koreans who wanted to return to sisting of a blazer (in winter), blouse and their home country after the liberation on skirt. From then on, girls could choose their August 15 1945. These schools were cre- uniform from one of the two styles. ated for Korean children who had been In recent years, almost all young stu- banned from using their own language and dents have chosen the second uniform. This writing-style, under Japan’s Imperial state is because there have been an increasing education. number of harassment incidents since the After the liberation, many Korean Japan-North summit meeting in people found an alternative way of stay- September 17 2007, when the DPRK ing in Japan. The main reasons for this (North Korea) acknowledged the abduc- were the setback of the repatriation pro- tion of Japanese citizens. The DPRK-bash- gram due to an increasingly complex North Korean political situation, and the Gen- eral Headquarters of the Allied Forces’ (GHQ) disruption to the repatriation pro- gram. The Association of Korean Resi- dents in Japan (‘Choren’) was established in October 1945 and started to organize education systems. In September 1948, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) was established in the north and the Republic of Korea (ROK) was established in the south. The Choren that had controlled Korean schools chose North Korea and backed DPRK’s political system. There- fore, Korean schools were suppressed se- Current Korean Junior and High School uniform. From verely by the GHQ and the Japanese Gov- left, the secondary school blazer uniform introduced in ernment until 1950 when the Korean War 1999, the summer style of Chima-Jeogori and the winter style of Chima-Jeogori. broke out.

22 Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism FEATURE

In spite of fierce resistance, the During this time, notable changes Japanese Government ordered the closure took place. In April 1957, the DPRK Gov- of all Korean schools just after the Choren ernment sent educational support grants was given a ‘compulsory dissolution or- and scholarship money to Korean schools der’ from the government. Ethnic educa- for the first time2 . And in December 1959, tion for Zainichi Koreans continued in the the door was opened to North Korea un- form of Japanese public branch schools. der a repatriation program after a massive ‘Ethnic classes’ were classified as extra- campaign3 . curricular activities. However, there still These changes boosted Korean na- were several independent Korean schools tionalism among Zainichi Koreans and in some parts of Japan. brought them innovative changes in their It took time for Korean schools to life-style and culture. The Chima Jeogori establish their own control again. The uniform was one of the results of this move- change was brought about by the forma- ment. tion of the ‘General Association of Korean The 7th General Meeting of the Residents in Japan’ (Chosen Soren) by General Association of Korean Residents Zainichi Koreans in 1955, after the cease- in Japan (Chosen Soren) was held in June fire of the Korean War. The Chosen Soren 1964. The Association stated in its offi- was formed following the dissolution of cial report that Zainichi Koreans had Choren. Korean schools then regained raised ethnic spirit in their daily life. It their autonomous education system. pointed to the use of the The Association made ethnic edu- in schools as an example. It also cited the cation one of the essential policies in its Chima Jeogori uniform worn by Korean organizational agenda. It worked very hard school girls every day. to reorganize decentralized Korean In the years around 1960, almost no schools as independent schools. It focused one except the first-generation wore the on rich education content emphasizing Chima Jeogori as everyday wear. There- basic academic skills—centering on their fore, the Chima Jeogori uniform was a national Korean language—construction phenomenon of ethnic revival with the re- of new schools and its approbation, and interpretation of Korean tradition, not the improvement of educational facilities. direct inheritance of the ethnicity.

1 A series of incidents occurred in the 1980s to 1990s December 1959 to the final 187th ship in 1984, with when Japanese society as well as the Japanese media two intervals. The 93,340 repatriated individuals began to criticize heavily the DPRK as a response to included Japanese spouses who emigrated to the events including the 1987 Korean Air Incident, the 1989 DPRK. Although most of them originated from the Pinball Financial Scandal, the 1994 suspicion of nuclear Southern part of the Korean Peninsula, they returned development and the 1998 suspicion of nuclear missile to the North Korea as their “home.” development 4 A simple although perhaps limited definition could 2 The first remittance was 12,109,068 yen be “women from an intellectual background, who were (USD150,000) in total. The remittance still comes to educated in the 1920s and 30s under the colonial period, Japan from the DPRK a few times a year. a n d ad v oc at e d a wa r en e s s - r a i s i n g an d 3 The repatriation program was carried out from reconceptualising of daily life.”

Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 23 FEATURE Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism

Under these circumstances, in ethnicity. Without ethnic schools, in a around 1959 young school girls voluntar- worst case scenario, I would have been ily started to wear Chima Jeogori as their assimilated into Japanese culture. uniform in Korean schools. Then some Under this situation, what moti- classes chose Chima Jeogori as their offi- vated us to recall our ethnicity was the cial uniform. This move prompted Korean educational support from Great Gen- schools to institutionalize the uniform. eral Kim Il-Sung. He sent us educa- At that time, there was no school tional assistance. He advised us that uniform model in North or South Korea. ethnic education had to be continued. The Chima Jeogori uniform was differ- I felt that my home country was ent from a traditional uniform. The Chima much closer when I knew the repatria- Jeogori was very much like western-style tion program had started. Before that, clothing in design after gradual modern- I had been struggling with how to gain ization. Historically, the Chima Jeogori my own sense of ethnicity even though uniform was similar to the clothing worn I had been studying at a Korean by so-called ‘New Women’4 in the 1920- school. However, educational support 30s. These women improved the design of from North Korea and the repatria- their clothing by incorporating the influ- tion program changed the situation, ence of western–style clothing. and brought me a sense of affinity to- ward my home country. I think the Ko- Achievement of Ethnic/ rean people wanted to share a sense National Self-esteem and Its of intimacy in their life-style by wear- Expression ing Chima-Jeogori uniforms. I had a strong determination to According to an interview survey by the keep my pride and dignity as I lived author, female students wearing this uni- in Japan. Many Korean people were form first appeared in 1959. In some cases, forced to change their mother tongue female students wore the uniform in class to Japanese. They changed their given as part of a teacher’s initiative. Until 1963- names into Japanese-style names. 64, the Chima-Jeogori-style uniform was They also needed to change their the only approved uniform for all Korean clothing from Chima- Jeogori to schools (all junior/senior high schools and ‘Monpe’ (Japanese working wear for universities). women). One woman, who attended Korean After the restoration, Zainichi Ko- University in 1958 and started voluntar- reans strongly believed that they ily wearing the uniform when she was at should live life with pride as a liber- the university, talked with me, looking ated ethnic group in Japan. They back on that time. Her story follows. thought that they should have been treated equally because Korea had My parents were brought to this restored their sovereignty. country during Japan’s era of imperi- alism. They lost their dignity and Young students wanted to express

24 Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism FEATURE something, such as ethnic identity or na- ditional/conservative, male-dominated tionalism, in any way they could. The ideology”. Chima-Jeogori uniform was a way of do- At that time, the Chima-Jeogori ing this. Students actively presented their symbolized their ethnic pride. They felt feelings using the uniform as their own that they were finally able to gain a posi- ‘media’. tive image through the rise of Korean na- The things they wanted to express tionalism. Before that time, they internal- were not only naturally inherited from their ized their self-esteem as Korean people parents or ancestors, but also were com- were often seen in a negative image in Ja- prised of their innate characteristics. These pan. feelings were later developed within them Because of its positive self-image, and inspired by their ‘home country’. They Chima-Jeogori became fashionable (or a had learned it through the Zainichi com- popular trend). Chima-Jeogori made it munity and their school lives. possible to show Korean pride to other Young Korean students often wit- people as a form of visual media. nessed the hardships of first-generation Even now, many Korean women Korean people. During the colonial period, talk about the uniform. They say, remem- they almost rejected their human nature bering their own student days, “it was fash- as their ethnic identity was ignored. What ionable” and “so cute.” It is certain that was worse, the situation continued after when they recall their joyful student days, the liberation. they pay gratitude to their ethnic/national The distinctiveness of language and pride. culture is generally defined as one’s own ethnicity. These students, who were born Conclusion: Multiple Meanings in the later years of colonization or just of “Clothing” after the liberation, were still deprived of their Korean identity, as the Japanese gov- In modern society, clothing has become a ernment banned the use of the Korean lan- form of communication media used to ex- guage at school. press the identity of the person wearing it. Speaking more about the uniform, Since clothing is something intrinsic to young students chose the ‘New Women’- people’s everyday life, wearing clothing style Chima- Jeogori as their own uniform. is not an act which can be simply inter- The style was created in the 1920s by preted as an ideology. By looking at the ‘New Women’ who were in the midst of act of wearing clothes and at clothing it- plight under Japan’s control. The design self, this article could redefine the image was born from both the modern and tradi- of ethnic minority women from one of pas- tional styles. sivity to subjective agency (although I have Viewing this history spoken by not explored issues of gender-power rela- women who first wore the Chima-Jeogori tions in Korean society in Japan as it is uniform, one cannot simplify the logic and beyond the scope of this article). say, “wearing Chima-Jeogori was not a Because clothing is a visual expres- good idea because it was a symbol of tra- sion, it is inevitably being observed by

Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 25 FEATURE Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism others. In this sense, clothing is a conspicu- rean women in their housing area and the ous medium of identity expression. If one price was quite reasonable. In addition, conceives of ethnicity as a socially con- there were a large number of women who structed entity, clothing as a visual expres- were able to sew at home. sion often becomes a way of defining one’s The other factor is that Chima- own ethnicity. Jeogori remade for school uniforms were On the other hand, the Korean created under the influence of westernized school girls utilized clothing as a medium clothing with the advent of modernity in of performative identity expression. As I the 1920s. Therefore, functionally, Chima- mentioned earlier, clothing in the modern Jeogori were westernized and the shoes, time is a medium of expressing identity, handbag, and underwear for Chima- which is also relevant to Chima-Jeogori Jeogori were the same as for western cloth- Korean school uniforms. They are visible ing. During the period of late 1950s to as well as performative because clothing early 1960s, Zainichi Korean school girls is the thing you choose to wear or not to who completely got used to western cloth- wear, which includes an aspect of perfor- ing could easily put on Chima-Jeogori and mance compared to other forms of expres- spent their school life without any uncom- sion. fortable feelings5 . But, even though Korean women It may be just about “clothing,” but would have liked to express their ethnic it certainly has its own history. identity through clothing, if there was no access to specific clothing items, or if such clothing was impractical, they could not HAN Tong-hyon is lecturer at the School of Film have chosen this medium. According to my Studies, Japan Institute of the Moving Image interview, there were plenty of tailors who Translated by Akemi MARUMO and Risa TOKUNAGA were the first generation of Zainichi Ko-

5 I am often asked why only women wear the Korean which had become marginalized as the Western clothes style uniform. It was female students in the 1950s who had become normalized. created the Chima-Jeogori school uniform. They had Chima-Jeogori which were worn by Korean school a collective image of ‘Korean female students’ in the girls in the 1950s and 60s, however, were not as 1920s when New Women modified Chima-Jeogori and “traditional” as above mentioned. In fact, they were a it inspired the making of the Chima-Jeogori uniform. In blending of tradition and modernity, which Korean New addition, students could rely on their mothers who were Women in the 1920s customized with a practical able to sew, or tailors who provided services at a function for modernized daily life. By the 1920s, men reasonable price. who had already become westernized in their clothing However, if male students in the 1950s had come did not create clothes like Chima-Jeogori. Therefore, up with the idea of making a Korean style uniform, they male students of Korean Schools in the 1950s and 60s could not have worn “ethnic clothing”. This is because did not have an option to create a uniform like Chima- by the 1950s, men had completely westernized their Jeogori. clothing, except for a few elders who were the first However, male Korean School students wearing generation in Japan. In the early 20th century, men the school uniform became a symbol of nationalism in were influenced by Western clothing prior to females relation to Japanese society, and their street fights with as men worked in the public sphere such as in politics Japanese high school students became an analogy of and diplomacy. On the other hand, females who were the tensions between the two nations. in the private sphere continued to wear ethnic clothes

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