Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism FEATURE History and Meaning of the Chima-Jeogori Uniform for Korean Schools in Japan By Han Tong-hyon What is a Chima-Jeogori Jeogori with a black (or navy) non-natu- uniform? ral fiber skirt. They call this special one- piece uniform ‘jeoksam.’ I wonder if you have ever seen school girls There have been no ready-made who go to Korean high schools in Chima- uniform shops for Chima-Jeogori uni- Jeogori uniforms. You might have seen the forms, unlike Japanese school uniforms. uniform in films such as ‘GO’ or Parents need to order uniforms from tra- ‘Pacchigi’. These are so-called Korean ditional dress makers or tailors, as there is school-related films. You might have seen no ready-to-wear uniform industry for these school girls before, either on TV or Chima-Jeogori. Parents order them at the in your area, as they sometimes venture individual or school level from dress mak- out to collect signatures for their petitions ers owned by Zainichi (Koreans living in or to seek approval from authorities. Their Japan). petitions were for free education for Ko- The present day Chima-Jeogori rean high school students, as it is for Japa- uniform has several unique features. First, nese students. the uniform has been improved by intro- The design of the uniform itself is ducing western style features, such as the almost the same anywhere in Japan. It is pleated skirt and metal hook for the hold- comprised of two pieces, a Jeogori (shirt) back. However the basic structure, design and a Chima (skirt), a sleeveless one-piece and sewing process still follow the tradi- dress with a pleated skirt. Students wear tional Chima-Jeogori dress. the Jeogori on top of the Chima, then fas- Secondly, the uniform differs from ten them with a ribbon-style sash, called the traditional Chima-Jeogori dress usu- Goreum, on the breast line. In the winter ally worn by present-day Korean women they wear black (navy blue is acceptable during festivities on the Korean Peninsula in some schools) wool uniforms. In the (or abroad, including Japan) in color, ma- summer, students wear the one-piece uni- terial and the length of the Chima. form, combined with a white hemp (or According to several records and sometimes manmade fiber blended) documents, the Chima-Jeogori uniform Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 21 FEATURE Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism was first introduced in the early 1960s. ing media reports (that were related to the The uniform became a symbol of Korean abduction), abusive language, and physi- schools. But, in the late 1980s there were cal assaults have been happening on and frequent incidents of harassment of Korean off since the summit meeting. school girls, called ‘Chima-Jeogori Jiken’1 . They were easily targeted because The Birth of the “Chima- of their distinctive uniform. Female stu- Jeogori Uniform” dents claimed that it lead to discrimina- tion, as only girls wore the Chima-Jeogori Korean schools in Japan originated as uniform. For this reason, the Korean school small local Korean-language schools. board reviewed its Chima-Jeogori uniform These ‘terakoya’-style schools (literally practice and, in April 1999, Korean ‘temple schools’) were established by schools introduced a second uniform con- Zainichi Koreans who wanted to return to sisting of a blazer (in winter), blouse and their home country after the liberation on skirt. From then on, girls could choose their August 15 1945. These schools were cre- uniform from one of the two styles. ated for Korean children who had been In recent years, almost all young stu- banned from using their own language and dents have chosen the second uniform. This writing-style, under Japan’s Imperial state is because there have been an increasing education. number of harassment incidents since the After the liberation, many Korean Japan-North Korea summit meeting in people found an alternative way of stay- September 17 2007, when the DPRK ing in Japan. The main reasons for this (North Korea) acknowledged the abduc- were the setback of the repatriation pro- tion of Japanese citizens. The DPRK-bash- gram due to an increasingly complex North Korean political situation, and the Gen- eral Headquarters of the Allied Forces’ (GHQ) disruption to the repatriation pro- gram. The Association of Korean Resi- dents in Japan (‘Choren’) was established in October 1945 and started to organize education systems. In September 1948, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) was established in the north and the Republic of Korea (ROK) was established in the south. The Choren that had controlled Korean schools chose North Korea and backed DPRK’s political system. There- fore, Korean schools were suppressed se- Current Korean Junior and High School uniform. From verely by the GHQ and the Japanese Gov- left, the secondary school blazer uniform introduced in ernment until 1950 when the Korean War 1999, the summer style of Chima-Jeogori and the winter style of Chima-Jeogori. broke out. 22 Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism FEATURE In spite of fierce resistance, the During this time, notable changes Japanese Government ordered the closure took place. In April 1957, the DPRK Gov- of all Korean schools just after the Choren ernment sent educational support grants was given a ‘compulsory dissolution or- and scholarship money to Korean schools der’ from the government. Ethnic educa- for the first time2 . And in December 1959, tion for Zainichi Koreans continued in the the door was opened to North Korea un- form of Japanese public branch schools. der a repatriation program after a massive ‘Ethnic classes’ were classified as extra- campaign3 . curricular activities. However, there still These changes boosted Korean na- were several independent Korean schools tionalism among Zainichi Koreans and in some parts of Japan. brought them innovative changes in their It took time for Korean schools to life-style and culture. The Chima Jeogori establish their own control again. The uniform was one of the results of this move- change was brought about by the forma- ment. tion of the ‘General Association of Korean The 7th General Meeting of the Residents in Japan’ (Chosen Soren) by General Association of Korean Residents Zainichi Koreans in 1955, after the cease- in Japan (Chosen Soren) was held in June fire of the Korean War. The Chosen Soren 1964. The Association stated in its offi- was formed following the dissolution of cial report that Zainichi Koreans had Choren. Korean schools then regained raised ethnic spirit in their daily life. It their autonomous education system. pointed to the use of the Korean language The Association made ethnic edu- in schools as an example. It also cited the cation one of the essential policies in its Chima Jeogori uniform worn by Korean organizational agenda. It worked very hard school girls every day. to reorganize decentralized Korean In the years around 1960, almost no schools as independent schools. It focused one except the first-generation wore the on rich education content emphasizing Chima Jeogori as everyday wear. There- basic academic skills—centering on their fore, the Chima Jeogori uniform was a national Korean language—construction phenomenon of ethnic revival with the re- of new schools and its approbation, and interpretation of Korean tradition, not the improvement of educational facilities. direct inheritance of the ethnicity. 1 A series of incidents occurred in the 1980s to 1990s December 1959 to the final 187th ship in 1984, with when Japanese society as well as the Japanese media two intervals. The 93,340 repatriated individuals began to criticize heavily the DPRK as a response to included Japanese spouses who emigrated to the events including the 1987 Korean Air Incident, the 1989 DPRK. Although most of them originated from the Pinball Financial Scandal, the 1994 suspicion of nuclear Southern part of the Korean Peninsula, they returned development and the 1998 suspicion of nuclear missile to the North Korea as their “home.” development 4 A simple although perhaps limited definition could 2 The first remittance was 12,109,068 yen be “women from an intellectual background, who were (USD150,000) in total. The remittance still comes to educated in the 1920s and 30s under the colonial period, Japan from the DPRK a few times a year. a n d ad v oc at e d a wa r en e s s - r a i s i n g an d 3 The repatriation program was carried out from reconceptualising of daily life.” Voices from Japan No.25 March 2011 23 FEATURE Feminist Challenge to Continued Colonialism Under these circumstances, in ethnicity. Without ethnic schools, in a around 1959 young school girls voluntar- worst case scenario, I would have been ily started to wear Chima Jeogori as their assimilated into Japanese culture. uniform in Korean schools. Then some Under this situation, what moti- classes chose Chima Jeogori as their offi- vated us to recall our ethnicity was the cial uniform. This move prompted Korean educational support from Great Gen- schools to institutionalize the uniform. eral Kim Il-Sung. He sent us educa- At that time, there was no school tional assistance. He advised us that uniform model in North or South Korea. ethnic education had to be continued. The Chima Jeogori uniform was differ- I felt that my home country was ent from a traditional uniform. The Chima much closer when I knew the repatria- Jeogori was very much like western-style tion program had started. Before that, clothing in design after gradual modern- I had been struggling with how to gain ization. Historically, the Chima Jeogori my own sense of ethnicity even though uniform was similar to the clothing worn I had been studying at a Korean by so-called ‘New Women’4 in the 1920- school.