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EASTM 38(2013): 17-53

The Northern Song State’s Financial Support for Astronomy

Sun Xiaochun and Han Yi

[Sun Xiaochun is Professor of the History of Science at the Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences. He received his Master’s degree in Astronomy from Nanjing University in 1989 and his Ph.D. in History of Astronomy from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1993. He also studied History and Sociology of Science at the University of Pennsylvania and received his second Ph.D. in 2007. He has published primarily on the history of Chinese astronomy and co-authored The Chinese Sky during the Han (Leiden: Brill, 1997). His current research interests are history of astronomy and science and society in Song China. Contact: [email protected]]

[Han Yi is Associate Professor at the Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences. He received his Ph.D. from Hebei University in 2004. His book State Governance and Development of Medicine：A Study of Song Imperial Edicts on Medicine is being published by China Science and Technology Press in 2013. His research interests are the history of Chinese science and the history of traditional Chinese Medicine. He is currently working on the compilation and dissemination of medical recipe book in the Song Dynasty. Contact: [email protected]] * * * Abstract: Astronomy was politically relevant to the imperial state in ancient China because a good astronomical system was believed to indicate the legitimacy of rule and symbolize good governance. This political signi- ficance meant that astronomy was a state enterprise. China saw many important astronomical achievements during the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127) when astronomy received sustained organizational and financial support from the imperial government. Alongside astronomy’s high profile in state politics, this fiscal support contributed to its development, along with the eight major astronomical reforms which the Northern Song dynasty made. It maintained a state-supported Astronomical Bureau which had more than 100 members of staff. In addition, the government invested

17 18 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014 a lot of money in astronomical instrument making. For example, the water- powered astronomical clock tower constructed in 1092 cost more than 5000 strings of money, accounting for about one thousandth of the total annual fiscal income of the imperial state. The purpose of this study is to ascertain to what degree the state supported astronomical research financially. Based on sources such as the Song huiyao jigao 宋會要輯稿 (Re-Collection Draft to Essentials of the Song Period), we give an estimate of the Song government’s financial investment in astronomy—an investment which comprised a substantial part of the state’s total fiscal income. We believe that this investigation of the Northern Song state’s financial support for astronomy will help to explain why there were so many great innovations in astronomy during this period.

Introduction

In a recent study, Nathan Sivin applies the concept of “cultural manifold” to the Season Granting system of mathematical astronomy (shou shi li 授時曆) constructed by Guo Shoujing 郭守敬 (1231-1316) in 1280.17 His inquiry looks at many dimensions, including the political, the cultural, the personal and the bureaucratic. The astronomical system did not just consist of computational techniques for generating annual almanacs, but was also an important component of the imperial charisma, a means of livelihood for officials and others, a bureaucratic project. This concept of cultural manifold is therefore useful for studying astronomy during the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127), particularly the concept of astronomy as a bureaucratic project, because it was organized, sponsored, and controlled by the imperial government. The Northern Song period stands out in Chinese history for its many systematic and innovative contributions to astronomy. This was possible because astronomy was established in the imperial state’s highly developed bureaucratic system and received institutional support from the government.18 In this paper, we look at one specific dimension, the financial. Our question is, exactly how much did the Northern Song state invest in astronomy? Or to be more specific, what portion of the state’s fiscal income was spent on astronomical activities? Although it is difficult to determine the exact amount of financial input given to any science in the contempo-

17 Sivin (2009), pp. 11-34. 18 Sun Xiaochun (2007), pp. 27-30.

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 19 rary world, let alone in the Northern Song dynasty when financial information was fragmentary and incomplete, we nevertheless propose to provide an estimate of the expenditure on astronomy by the Northern Song imperial government. This is possible precisely because of the bureaucratic nature of astronomy. The expenditure on astronomy was largely spent on the salaries of astronomical officials in the state-supported astronomical institutions. The existent historic documents from the Northern Song dynasty contain much information about the establishment of astronomical institutions, the rank of astronomical officials and their salaries and subsidies. Using these data we can put together a fairly reasonable estimate of the Northern Song’s financial support for astronomy.

The Imperial Government’s Support for Astronomy

The imperial government supported astronomy through three major avenues. It established imperial astronomical institutions authorized to study astronomy. It funded large astronomical projects such as the construction of astronomical instruments and, sometimes, it bestowed imperial awards on successful astronomers. The Imperial Astronomical Bureau was responsible for providing the astronomical system that not only served as the basis for calculating the annual calendar and almanacs, but also symbolized imperial authority. It devised and implemented major projects on instrument making, astronomical observations, calendar calculations and evaluations of the astronomical system li 曆19 to see if there was any need to change it—such requirements usually came from the political side.20 As a matter of course, the bureau produced almanacs, observed celestial omens, and chose auspi- cious dates for imperial ceremonies. The astronomical bureau in the Hanlin Academy was the counterpart of the Imperial Bureau.21 It was established

19 The word li, usually translated as ‘calendar’, means much more than just the arrangement of years, months and days. It means a whole set of mathematical techniques for computing the times and locations of certain astronomical pheno- mena, and for producing astronomical ephemerides. We follow Nathan Sivin to translate it as ‘astronomical system’. See Sivin (2009), pp. 38-40. 20 In the Northern Song, when a new emperor came to the throne, a new astronomical system would be issued, symbolizing a new political phase. For a very stimulating study on how politics influenced astronomical reforms, see Christopher Cullen (1993). 21 The Hanlin Academy (Hanlinyuan 翰林院) had its origin in the seventh cen- tury. It had no significant status, but its members held substantial posts elsewhere

20 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014 in 1027 by emperor Renzong 仁宗 (r. 1022-1063) as a fall-back institution, controlling the performance of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau. Officials from this department were often put in charge of testing and verifying the proposed new astronomical systems.22 The number of officials and clerks employed at these astronomical institutions varied. According to an imperial edict from emperor Yingzong 英宗 (r. 1063-1067) in 1066, the Imperial Astronomical Bureau was established with a total of 127 positions, about 26 of which were for ranked officials, 35 for technicians and clerks, and 66 for students.23 In 1082, when the Northern Song dynasty reformed its bureaucratic institutions, the Im- perial Astronomical Bureau had about 100 roles. The Hanlin Academy’s Astronomical Bureau was run by about 60 employees. All these positions were funded by the imperial government through its bureaucratic rank and salary system, and the annual salaries stipulated for these positions give an insight into the governmental investment.24

Government Expenditure on the Salaries of Astronomical Personnel

The salary system of the Song dynasty officials was complex.25 An official’s annual stipend consisted of many different forms of payment and benefits depending on their rank and function. An astronomical official received a basic salary and variable subsidies. Salaries were paid monthly or annually, including: a monthly salary in cash (yueliaoqian 月料錢), a monthly food allowance (yuelushi 月祿食), and an annual payment in cloth (yici 衣賜), as a form of gifts from the emperor. Additional monthly subsidies (yuetianzhi 月添支) were paid in cash. The amount of salaries and their configurations changed from year to year. In the year 1057, the imperial ‘Order Regarding

in the central government. Gradually its staff gained governmental importance as palace counselors to the emperors. 22 Sun Xiaochun (2007), p. 37f. 23 Song huiyao jigao 宋會要輯稿 (1809), henceforth abbreviated as SHY, Zhiguan (Officialdom) 31, 3, p. 3002. 24 For the organization and management of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau in the Song era, see Dong Yuyu (2004), pp. 32-36, and Dong Yuyu (2005). 25 Shao Hongxia (1993); He Zhongli (1994).

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 21

Salaries in the Jiayou Period’ (Jiayou luling 嘉祐祿令 ) 26 determined a standard according to which, for example, the Director of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau received an annual stipend that consisted of the following items: Monthly salary in cash: 45 strings (guan 貫) of money; Monthly food allowance: 100 shi 石 of grain; Annual payment in cloth: 3 bolts (pi 匹) of damask silk (ling 綾) for spring and autumn respectively, 15 bolts of thin silk (juan 絹) 50 liang 兩 of cotton for winter, and 1 bolt of silk (luo 羅) for spring; Monthly subsidy: none. Qi Xia’s 漆侠 study of the Song dynasty’s economic history before reforms in the 1070s notes that the price for rice was 600-700 coins (wen 文) per shi. Wheat cost 300-500 wen per shi. The price for silks varied, depending on their quality, between 1000 wen and 1300 wen per bolt (pi).27 For better comparability, we adopt the following exchange rates to estimate the monetary equivalent of the salaries: 1 shi of rice or wheat = 600 wen; 1 pi of silk of any kind = 1000 wen; 1 liang of cotton = 760 wen. Therefore, the director’s annual stipend can be converted to money as follows: Monthly salary in cash: 45 strings; annually: 45 × 12 = 540 strings. Monthly food allowance: 100 shi 石 of grain; annually: 1,200 shi of grain. 1,200 × 0.6 = 720 strings. Annual payment in cloth: a total of 22 bolts of silk and 50 liang of cotton per year. 22 × 1000 + 50 × 760 = 60 strings. Monthly subsidy: none. Total: 540 + 720 + 60 = 1,320 strings. This calculation shows that the director’s annual stipend was equivalent to a total of approximately 1,320 strings of money (1 string = 1000 wen). Tables 1 and 2 provide an overview of the ranks and roles of officials and clerks employed at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau and the Hanlin Academy’s Astronomical Bureau, together with information about their

26 This document is cited in Songshi 宋史 (1343-1345), henceforth abbreviated as SS, and Xu zizhi tongjian changbian 續資治通鑒長編 (1183), henceforth abbreviated as XCB. 27 Qi Xia (1999), pp. 1239-1246.

22 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014 salaries.28 In some cases, the number of people employed in a role is not specified in the original sources, so the calculation is based on the assumption that only one person was employed. In the tables we have converted all salaries in cash and kind into their money equivalent, as with the salary of the director (above). During the year 1057, according to this calculation, the government spent approximately 15,255 strings of money on the personnel employed at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, and approximately 6,110 strings of money for the Hanlin Academy’s Astro- nomical Bureau. Based on the data presented in Tables 1 and 2, we estimate that the government’s total expenditure on salaries for those employed in astronomy in 1057 was approximately 21,365 strings of money. In addition, the sources also mention an unspecified sum of “money for public use” (gongshiqian 公使錢) which the government supplied for the daily mainte- nance of the two bureaus.

28 For the translation of Chinese official titles we rely heavily, but not exclusively, on Hucker (1985). For some titles not treated in Hucker (1985), we make our own translations.

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 23

職官

. 248, ol. 16, ol. 16,

v Sources

p. 6055 ZGFJ, v p. 404 ZhiguanSHY, 31, p. 3001 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002 ZGFJ, v p. 404 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002 XCB,

.0 .0 .0

195.8 195.8 195.8 2640 1500 1500 Total Annual Stipend

30 30 添支月 Subsidy Monthly Yuetianzhi

) Yici 11 11 11 60 60 60 衣賜 Gifts Gifts (cloth) Annual wen

(1000

s shi

(food) .0 .0 .0 2.4 2.4 2.4 60 30 30 月祿食 Yuelu Monthly Salary

y unit: string tar

.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 月傣錢 45 13 13 13 60 60 Monthly Mone Yuefengqian Salary (cash)

2 1 1 1 1 1 編制 No. No. of People Bianzhi

官品 Rank

Guanpin 3b dispatched dispatched dispatched dispatched dispatched Table 1. Expenditure on Salaries theat Imperial Astronomical Bureau, as 1057of

)

) 官名 tong tiju (

監 ) ) tiju sitianjian

( ) ) jian zhishi sitianjian

同提舉司天監 (

Guanming Title of Position Managing Director Supervisor - - tongpan shi sitianjian quanpan shi sitianjian Director ( Co ( 同判司天監事 Provisional Managing Director ( 權判司天監事 Commissioned Deputy Director 知司天監事 Supervisor 提舉司天監 Co sitianjian

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 24

. 51, . 51, . 16, . 17,

ol ol ol ol

v v v v

ZGFJ, p. 404 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3001 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002 ZGFJ, p. 407 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002 SLBY, p. 178 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002; SLBY, p. 178 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002

.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 36 900 298.6 110.2 459 979 118.8 111.6 111.6 180

1 1

9 60 11 37.8 21.4 17.4 17.4 17.4

.0 1.8 2.4 1.2 2.4 1.2 1.2 1.2 30

.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 5 5 3 2 2 2 2 40 20 13

1 1 1 5 5 2 2 2 5 1

lerk 4b dispatched 7a 7b 5a 8a 8b 8b Clerk C

)

) ) - -

司天 )

sitianjian 主簿

保章正 )

) ) 挈壺正

zhubu Apprentice Apprentice (

of rank 5a of rank 禮生 lingtai lingtai lang 曆生

er ( ) ) ) 司天監丞 huzheng 權知司天監少監事

sitianjian shaojian quanzhi shaojian sitianjian wuguanzheng baozhangzheng qie lisheng lisheng Deputy Director Deputy ( 監少監 Provisional Commis sioned Director Deputy ( shi DirectorAide to ( cheng Recorder Fellows ( 五官正 Gentleman of Obser vatory 靈台郎 Director of Calendar ( Director Clock of Water ( Ritual Apprentice ( Calend ( 17

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 25

1, 1,

運曆 2797 2797 2797 . 60, p.1348; . 60, p.1348; - - -

XCB, SHY, Zhiguan 31, p. 3002 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3002 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3003 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3003 Zhiguan31, SHY, p. 3003 Yunli SHY, p. 2134 Zhiguan18, SHY, pp. 2796 Zhiguan18, SHY, pp. 2796 Zhiguan18, SHY, pp. 2796

.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 36 12 12 12 14.4 12 12 12 1080

.0 3

.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 2 1 1 1 1.2 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 30

lerk echnician

C dispatched dispatched dispatched T dispatched dispatched dispatched

)

學生

曆算

ling )

lisuan ) ) (

監生 xuesheng

) ) ) ) lisuanke lisuanke cheng lisuanke zhubu zhubutianwenke lisuanke lisuanke lingtianwenke chengtianwenke ( ( (

jiansheng Official Students Official Students ( ( Students Director of Calendar Dept. 曆算科令 of CalendarAttendant ( Dept. 曆算科丞 Recorder of Calendar ( Dept. 曆算科主簿 Calculator Director of Astrology Dept. 天文科令 of AstrologyAttendant Dept. 天文科丞 Recorder of Astrology ( Dept. 天文科主簿

26 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

chao,

13501

2797

159 159

. 461,

. 3002

pp. 2795

SHY, Zhiguan18, SHY,

p. 2795

SHY, Zhiguan18, SHY,

pp. 148

Yunlu man

pp. 13500

SS, SS,

p. 3003

SHY, Zhiguan31, SHY,

pp. 2796

SHY, Zhiguan18, SHY,

pp. 2796

SHY, Zhiguan18, SHY,

pp. 2796

SHY, Zhiguan18, SHY,

SHY, Zhiguan31, SHY,

14.4

115.2

316.8

1.2

echnician

Technician

dispatched

)

sanshike sanshike

)

(

sanshike sanshike

(

)

Observation

tianwenguan tianwenguan

)

sanshike zhubusanshike

sanshike chengsanshike

sanshike lingsanshike

)

三式科遁甲

三式科六壬

(

天文院測驗記注官

三式科太乙

tianwenyuanxuanze guan

tianwenyuanceyan jizhu

天文院選擇官

(

Observatory

Ritual Ritual Divinersat

guan

(

at the Observatory

Diarists of

dunjia

Dunjia Diviner

taiyi

Taiyi Diviner

liuren

Liuren Diviner

三式科主簿

Dept.

Recorder of Divination

三式科丞

Dept. ( Dept.

Attendant of DivinationAttendant

三式科令

Dept. ( Dept.

Director of Divination

天文官 Observer (

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 27

. 20,

ZGFJ,

. 70, p.1588;

；

Zhiguan18,

. 16, p. 404 . 16, p.

p. 2795

SHY, Zhiguan18, SHY,

p. 2795

SHY,

SS, SS,

p. 2795

SHY, Zhiguan18, SHY,

p. 444

XCB,

p. 3002

SHY, Zhiguan31, SHY,

p. 3003

SHY, Zhiguan31, SHY,

p. 3003

SHY, Zhiguan31, SHY,

108

540

1080

lerk

echnician

)

鐘鼓院

ansheng

jieji

the the

)

(DBD)

hunyi cheng hunyi

鐘鼓院雞唱

zhongguyuan zhongguyuan

)

zhongguyuan zhongguyuan zhiguan

zhongguyuan

tianwenyuanxuesheng

tianwenyuanyageng

tianwenyuan j

jichang

DBD (

Morning Chanter at Morning Chanter

鐘鼓院直官

(

Watch Keeper at DBD

節級

(

and Drum and Drum

Guardian at Dept. of BellGuardian of at Dept.

渾儀丞

Spheres (

Attendant of ArmillaryAttendant

天文院學生

(

Observatory

Students at Students

天文院押更

(

Observatory

Timekeeperat

天文院監生

(

Observatory Official Students Officialat Students

28 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

p. 2134

SHY, Yunli SHY, 1,

p. 2134

SHY, Yunli SHY, 1,

p. 2134

SHY, Yunli SHY, 1,

p. 2134

SHY, Yunli SHY, 1,

144

302.4

1296

15255.2

25.2

dispatched

)

aoli

知算造

)

yinlisuo sili

jian z jian

(

)

i suan z

zhongguyuan zhongguyuan xuesheng

Total

(

Manager Calendar of

監造曆

Making

Supervisor of Calendar

印曆所司曆

Printing (

Director of Calendar

鐘鼓院學生

( Students at DBD Students

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 29

Sources SHY, Zhiguan 36, p. 3125 SHY, Zhiguan 36, p. 3125 SHY, Zhiguan 36, p. 3119 SHY, Zhiguan 36, p. 3125 SHY, Zhiguan 36, p. 3125 SHY, Zhiguan 36, p. 3125

.0 .0 .0 36 75.6 75.6 432 Total 3907.2 1080 Annual Stipend

20 Subsidy Monthly

40.8 Gifts Gifts (cloth) Annual (1000)

Academy’s AstronomicalAcademy’s Bureau, as 1057of .0 .0 .0 .0

3 3 6.3 6.3 3 33 (food) Salary Monthly unit: string

tary

25 (cash) Mone Salary Monthly

4 1 1 1 30 12 No. No. of People

Rank

lerk lerk

dispatched 7a C Military Clerk C

)

Table 2. Expenditure on Salaries theat Hanlin )

)

卒伍

局生節級

zuwu

) jieji jieji yulou ewai xuesheng (

tianwenguan jusheng Clepsydra ( ju xuesheng ju

) Title of Position anlin H Hanlin Astronomer ( 翰林天文官 ( Student 學生 Junior Serviceman ( Guardian ( Added Students sichen 玉漏額外司辰局學生

30 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

p. 2796

Zhiguan 18,

SHY,

p. 3125

Zhiguan 36,

SHY,

p. 3125

Zhiguan 36,

SHY,

p. 3125

Zhiguan 36,

SHY,

p. 3125

Zhiguan 36,

SHY,

144

288

6110.4

lerk

Technician

)

灑掃靈台

shoufe

測驗官

gongjiang

)

shi guan shi

)

liren

(

)

bserver

ceyan guanceyan

sashao lingtai sashao

bamen qinbamen

Total

(

Cleaner

工匠

Workman (

把門親事官

(

Reception

吏人手分 Scribe

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 31

Later Increases in Government Expenditure on the Salaries of Astronomical Personnel

Between 1060 and 1080, the economy of the Northern Song state expanded rapidly (see below). Astronomy received more support from the government because of this economic growth. The salaries of the staff of both the Imperial and Hanlin Academy’s Astronomical Bureaus were raised once in 1066, and again in 1071. In the twelfth month of the third year of Zhiping 治平 (1066), emperor Yingzong stipulated that the 127 “[members of the Astronomical Bureau], from the Director and Deputy Directors all the way down in ranks, should be given [an additional] monthly food allowance of 10 strings of money.”29 This raise amounted to an increase of 15,240 strings of money in the state’s annual expenditure on astronomical personnel—a total annual expenditure of 36,605 strings. In the second month of the fourth year of Xining 熙宁 (1071), at the high point of Wang Anshi’s 王安石 (1021-1086) New Policies Reform,30 emperor Shenzong 神宗 (r. 1067-1085) adopted a proposal from the Secretariat (zhongshusheng 中書省) authorizing the Imperial Astrono- mical Bureau to print and sell copies of the civil calendar, even though private printing was then prohibited. The profit from this practice was used to raise money to fund Bureau staff salaries “68 staff members received increases in their monthly ‘salary for food’ (shiqian 食钱), those ranked as high as Vice Director receiving 7 strings of money per month, and those with lower rankers receiving 3 strings of money per month.”31 This resulted in another increase in the government’s annual expenditure on the salaries of the astronomical personnel of about 2,928 strings compared to that of 1066, bringing the annual total expenditure to 39,533 strings of money.

29 SHY, Zhiguan 31, p. 3002. 30 For more on Wang Anshi’s reform, see Liu (1959) and Deng Guangming (2000). 31 XCB, p. 5360. 17 32 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

Expenditure on Astronomical Officials’ Salaries after the Institutional Reform of 1082

By the Xining period (1068-1077) the bureaucratic apparatus had become costly and inefficient. In particular, officials’ responsibilities were not always clearly allocated. It had become a habit to dispatch (paiqian 派遣) officials that is, putting scholars who had assigned positions in one department temporarily in charge of another. This practice reached far into the echelons of the Song government. The overlap of responsibilities caused disputes over important tasks, leaving the officials to their own devices, or even entirely ignoring them.32 During the Yuanfeng 元豐 period (1078-1085) the imperial government was forced to implement a major institutional reform that redefined official ranks, and made sure that officials’ responsibilities matched their titles. In spite of the general rise in officials’ salaries, the status of ranks of astronomical officials at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau and the Hanlin Academy’s Astronomical Bureau was reduced, slightly reducing the government’s expenditure on their salaries. Tables 3 and 4 show the government’s expenditure on officials’ salaries at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau and the Hanlin Astronomical Bureau respectively. The government’s total expenditure on these astronomical personnel amounted to 36,248 strings of money in 1082, slightly lower than that of 1071 (39,533 strings of money, see above).

32 Provisional chancellors were often even held in higher esteem than the regular holders of this post, see Schäfer (1995), pp. 78-172.

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 33

. 51, . 51, . 51, . 17, 178 ol ol ol ol - v v v v

Sources SHY, ZhiguanSHY, 18, 2795, p. 2802 SLBY, pp. 177 SLBY, p. 178 SLBY, p. 178 ZGFJ, p. 407 ZGFJ, p. 408

0 0 0

.00 .00 Total 930.3 835.8 724.8 699.12 Annual Stipend 3939 1410

32 25 20 25 20 20 Post 月職錢 Subsidy Monthly Yuezhiqian

Subsidy Monthly (1000)

0 0 0 0 .00 Gifts Gifts (cloth) 54.3 43.8 52.8 43.8 27.12 12 Annual

y unit: string

tar 21 21 16 17 16 15 (food) Salary Monthly Mone

20 20 20 20 20 20 (cash) Salary Monthly

1 1 1 5 1 2 No. No. of People

Table 3. Expenditure on Salaries theat Imperial Astronomical Bureau, as 1082of Rank

7b 8 8b 8b 8b 8b

)

直長

) ) of rank of

) ) ) 正丞

令 Title of Position wuguanzheng (

ling zheng cheng zhizhang lingtai lang Director ( Senior Fellow ( DirectorAide to ( Fellows 5a 五官正 Secretary ( Gentleman of Observatory ( 靈台郎

34 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

51, p 17,

ol ol

v v 2804 2804 2804 2804 Yunli

408; SHY, 2795 2134; SHY, 2795

. ZGFJ, p Zhiguan 18, p. SLBY, 178 SHY, p. Zhiguan 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p.

0 0 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 36 36 36 864 180 1360.8 1024.8

20 16

1 1 1 1

0 0 20.4 20.4

15 15 12

2 2 2 2 20 10

2 2 6 1 5 1

8b 9a dispatched Clerk Clerk Clerk

)

) ao

) ) heng 監生

z ) 禮生曆生

qiehuzheng ) ) 書神位官 (

御 Supervisor of - baozhang tongzhi suanz zhuguan yushu lisheng lisheng jiansheng Director of Calendar ( 保章正 Director of Water Clock 挈壺正 Co Calendar ( 同知算造 Ritual Arranger ( shenwei guan 主管 Ritual Apprentice ( Calendar Apprentice ( Official Students (

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 35

2878 2801 2801 2801 2801 2804 2804 Zhiguan

SHY, ZhiguanSHY, 22, p. SHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, p.

.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 156 156 156 156 312 2880 1440

3 1 13 13 13 13 12

5 2

1 2 30 10

Technician Technician Technician dispatched Technician

)

the the ) ) ) ) ) ) tianwen 學生

Diviner Diviner Diviner Diviner Diviner Diviner xuesheng liuren sanshike taiyisanshike dunjiasanshike lisuanke lisuan tianwenyuan Students Students ( Liuren ( 三式科六壬 Taiyi ( 三式科太乙 Dunjia ( 三式科遁甲 Calendar Calculator ( 曆算科曆算 Observer ( rizhuangguan 天文日狀官 at Students Observatory ( xuesheng 天文院學生

36 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

1600 -

. 164, . 70, . 2800 p ol ol

v v SS, SS, p. 3878 ZhiguanSHY, 18, p 2801 ZhiguanSHY, 18, 2804 p. ZhiguanSHY, 18, 2804 p. SS, pp. 1591 ZhiguanSHY, 18, 2800 p.

.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 36 36 72 36 960 1920

1 1 1 1

3 3

2 5 2 2 5 2

1 1 2 1 10 20

dispatched dispatched dispatched Clerk

)

- ) ceyan

) ) ) ) suo rmil 學生 yingbiao

A 測驗渾儀

lou

ke 主管影表官

Bell and Drum andBell Drum

xuesheng zhuguan zhongguyuan zhongguyuan zhongguyuan Manager the of of Dept. lary and Spheres Clepsydra ( hunyi zhuguan 刻漏所主管 Students ( Gnomon Manager ( guan Director of Dept. of (DBD) ( zhuguan 鐘鼓院主管 at DBD Students ( xuesheng 鐘鼓院學生 at DBD Scribe ( shoufen 鐘鼓院手分

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 37

1600 1600 . 220, . 220, - -

ol . 70, . 70, v ol ol v v

SHY, ZhiguanSHY, 18, 2804 p. SS, pp. 1591 SS, pp. 1591 ZhiguanSHY, 18, p. 2801 XCB, p. 5360

.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 72 36 36 108 108

1 1 1

3 3

2 2 2

2 3 3 1 1

Clerk Clerk

) lisuo

) ) ) yin liri guan

Time - lisuo sili lisuo sili

DBD 鼓院星漏官 )

zhongguyuan zhongguyuan zhongguyuan zhongguyuan yin Night Observer at DBD ( louguan 鐘 Watch Keeper at DBD ( zhiguan 鐘鼓院直官 Morning Chanter at ( jichang 鐘鼓院雞唱 Director of Calendar Printing ( 印曆所司曆 of Distributor Calendar ( jianmai 印曆所見賣曆日官

38 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

1952

. 82,

Yunli

p. 2134

SHY, SHY,

p. 2134

SHY, SHY,

p. 2134

SHY, SHY,

pp. 1929

SS, SS,

pp. 1929

SS, SS,

.00

144

298.8

698

52.8

24.9

dispatched

Calculator

strative

Admini

strative

Admini

liju

)

造曆

)

造曆局

)

造曆局提

)

造曆局提領

liju tidu

liju canding

supervisor of

li guan

aoliju tiling

局推算官

tuisuan guan

Calculator (

Calendar

督推算

tuisuan

(

Calculations

Calendar

Supervisor of

造曆局演撰官

yanzhuan guanyanzhuan

Compiler (

Calendar

參定造曆官

(

Calendar Making

造曆官

(

Calendar Making Supervisor of

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 39

1, 1, 1, 1,

Yunli Yunli Yunli Yunli

SHY, SHY, p. 2134 SHY, p. 2134 SHY, p. 2134 SHY, p. 2134

.00 .00 .00 .00 144 216 144 288 23527.42

12 18 12 12

1 1 1 2

dispatched Clerk Clerk

)

liju 吏 )

ao li z ( (

楷書草澤應聘 s xuesheng xuesheng

)

liren ao caoze yingpincaoze kanshu Student tuisuan 造曆局推算學生 FolkInvited Calendar Maker ( z 造曆人 Secretary Transcriber ( Total

40 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

3125 3125 3125 3125 3125 3125 3125 3125 2795 Zhiguan

Sources SHY, ZhiguanSHY, 36, p. ZhiguanSHY, 36, p. ZhiguanSHY, 36, p. SHY, 36, p. ZhiguanSHY, 36, p. ZhiguanSHY, 36, p. ZhiguanSHY, 36, p. ZhiguanSHY, 36, p. ZhiguanSHY, 36, p.

.0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 36 72 72 288 120 Total 6510 2880 1591.2 1152 Annual Stipend 12721.2

40 Post Subsidy Monthly

91.5 Annual

Gifts (cloth) Gifts

(1000)

3 3 3 3 3 3 5 53 6.3 (food) Salary Monthly y unit: string tar

5 5 5 35 (cash) Mone Salary Monthly

4 1 2 2 8 2 30 24 12 No. No. of People

Rank

dispatched 6a Clerk Military officer Clerk Clerk Clerk Clerk Clerk Technician

)

Table 4. Expenditure on Salaries theat Hanlin AstronomicalAcademy’s Bureau, as 1082of

) )

學

)

yuhu sichen sichen

) 灑掃靈台

測驗官 ) )

xuesheng ju xuesheng ju 工匠 shi guan shi (

)

s liren shoufen

sichen Title of Position

anlin tianwenguan ) H qinbamen gongjiang lingtai sashao guanceyan Hanlin Astronomer ( 翰林天文官 Student 生 Rated students ( xueshengenei zanwangju 司辰額內瞻望局學生 Added students ( ewai 玉壺額外司辰局學生 ( Scribe 吏人手分 Reception ( 把門親事官 Workman ( Cleaner ( Observer ( Total

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 41

Astronomical Projects—the Case of Su Song’s Clock Tower Observatory

The continuous increase in expenses on astronomical personnel in the period from 1068 to 1092 concurs with an extremely active phase of the astronomical bureau. One of the major figures was Shen Kuo [Shen Gua] 沈括 (1031-1095), who conducted an astronomical reform from 1072 to 1077. Apart from changes in the infrastructure of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, Shen Kuo also promoted the construction of new astronomical instruments which we know from the three treatises on the gnomon, the armillary spheres and the water clock which he submitted to the emperor. It is not clear if the general budget for the astronomical bureau included funds for instrument making. Shen Kuo’s request had, however, multiple purposes. It certainly aimed to obtain sufficient money to construct the instruments, but it also aimed to gain official imperial support for his more practical approach to astronomical observation and his new methods.33 His interest in instruments was shared by many of his colleagues. In 1086, Su Song 蘇頌 (1020-1101), proposed the construction of a water-powered astronomical clock tower and other instruments. One year later, following an imperial edict, Su Song put together a team to implement the project, which took six years to complete and involved a number of officials. Su Song gave a brief account of the team in his ‘Report to Present the Instruments to the Throne’ (Jin yixiang zhuang 進儀象狀) which is saved in his Xin yixiang fayao 新儀象法要 (Essentials of the New Instruments): On the sixteenth of the eighth month of the second year of the Yuanyou 元祐 period (1087), the emperor issued an edict, giving orders to establish a department, to summon officials and to procure materials for construction in order to implement the project as I [Su Song] proposed. Following the imperial order I presented memorials asking for assistant magistrate Wang Yunzhi 王沇之 , Assistant Magistrate of Yuanwu 原武 County of Zheng- zhou 鄭州 Prefecture, also Master of the Prefectural School of Shouzhou 壽州, to take the responsibility of supervising the construction and to take charge of the accounting of materials for public use; asking for Zhou Riyan 周日嚴 , Summer Fellow of the Astronomical

33 Sivin (1995). 17 42 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

Bureau, Yu Taigu 于太古, Autumn Fellow, and Zhang Zhongxuan 張仲宣, Winter Fellow, to join Han Gonglian 韓公廉 as heads of design and construction; Official Students Yuan Weiji 袁惟畿, Miao Jing 苗景, Zhang Duan 张端, Guardian Liu Zhongjing 劉仲景, and Students Hou Yonghe 侯永和 and Yu Tangchen 于湯臣 were to measure gnomon shadows and the water clock; and Member of Chief Manufactury under the Ministry [of Works] Yin Qing 尹清 was to take charge of drawing blueprints.

〔元祐〕二年八月十六日詔：如臣所請，置局差官及專作材料等。遂奏差鄭州原武縣主簿、充壽州州學教授王沇之，充專監造作兼管句收支官物。太史局夏官正周日嚴、秋官正于太古、冬官正張仲宣等與韓公廉同充制度，官局生袁惟畿、苗景、張端，節級劉仲景，學生侯永和、于湯臣測驗晷景刻漏等，都作人員尹清部轄指畫工作。34

Su Song’s team consisted not only of staff members of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, but also officials from other government departments. Su Song himself served as Prime Minister during the project, the chief designer Han Gonglian was a low-ranked clerk from the Ministry of Personnel, the manager Wang Yunzhi was recruited from the local government, and the architect Yin Qing came from outside the Astrono- mical Bureau. The team members’ salaries can be seen to demonstrate additional governmental support for the astronomical project. As the positions and ranks of the people involved are known, it is possible to calculate that the salaries for the project team amounted to an additional 40,261.8 strings of money for the 6-year project. Su Song asked for 20,000 jin 斤 of bronze, equivalent to 5,000 strings of money, for the construction of the clock tower. All together, on average, the state provided an additional 7,543.6 strings of money every year to support astronomy during the period of the project.

34 Xin yixiang fayao 新儀象法要 (1094), p. 123.

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 43

- -

57,

. 4101 . 4101

p p

36,

172, p 172, 172, p 172, - - - 2419 4152 Sources - -

. 171 . 171 . 171, . 171, . 171, . 171 ol ol ol ol ol ol v v v v v v . 2399 . 4101 p p

SS, SS, 4152; Zhiguan SHY, p. 3655 Zhiguan3,SHY, p SS, p SS, p. 4103 SS, p. 4103 SS, p. 4103 Zhiguan22, SHY, p. 2878 ZhiguanSHY, p. 3126 Zhiguan22, SHY, p. 2878 SS, 57, 4152 Zhiguan SHY, p. 36958

.0 .0 .0 .0 525.6 144 2606.4 4726.8 4726.8 4726.8 1728 1152 2462.4 Years 17463 40261.8 Total6 for

.0 .0 .0 87.6 24 434.4 787.8 787.8 787.8 288 192 410.4 2910.5 6710.3 Salary Annual

) wen

Rank

2b 8b 0b 6b 6b 6b 2

Role in Project the

Money Money unit: string (1000 General responsibility Design and computation Manager Observations Observations Observations Calculation Clerk Gnomon and Water Clock Blueprint

Expenditure on Salaries Membersof theof Clock Project Tower

Title

Table 5. ember of ember Chief

Minister of MinisterPersonnel, of Prime Minister Clerk Ministry of of the Personnel Supervisor Construction and Manager Fellow Summer of the Astronomical Bureau Fellow Autumn Winter Fellow Official Students Clerk Students M Manufactury

湯臣

韓公廉劉仲景

王沇之

于張端侯永和

周日嚴

太古袁惟畿于苗景尹清

蘇頌 Name Zhongxuan Zhongxuan

Su Song Su Han Gonglian Wang Yunzhi Zhou Riyan TaiguYu Zhang 張仲宣 Yuan Weiji MiaoJing Zhang Duan Liu Zhongjing YongheHou Tangchen Yu Yin Qing Total

44 EASTM 38 (2013)/2014

Financial Support for Astronomy in Relation to the Northern Song Government’s Fiscal Income

The period of the Northern Song witnessed a great expansion in the domestic economy. Rice production in the Yangtze basin and South China created enormous wealth.1 Millions of shi of rice (1 shi is approximately 59.2 kg) were carried annually on the major canal connecting the Hangzhou and Suzhou regions with the capital Kaifeng. In addition to the rice economy, the state’s principal wealth came from commerce and craftsmanship, largely from: monopolies in salt, tea, alcohol and spices; taxes and duties levied on intense commercial activities in the fields of ceramics, silks, iron, paper, and printed books; and from a per capita tax and taxes on land.2 The government’s fiscal income increased rapidly during the Northern Song period, whereas its expenditure was mainly on the imperial household, the bureaucratic system, the military forces, civil engineering, and disaster relief. Because the existent historical records on fiscal income are brief and scarce, and a considerable amount of the income was directly controlled by the Inner Treasury of the imperial court: “Nobody from outside the court knows its amount” (taren mo neng xiao 他人莫能晓),3 it is hard to obtain information on the precise amount of the Northern Song state’s total fiscal income. We can therefore only estimate the total annual fiscal income based on the money received by the Three Bureaus of the State Finance Commission (Sansi 三司).

1 Qi Xia (1999), pp. 28-33, 205-260. 2 Gernet (1985), pp. 319-324. 3 SS, chap. 179, p. 4371. 11

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 45

Table 6. The Northern Song Government’s Fiscal Income

Year Total Annual Sources Fiscal Income (strings)

979 16,000,000 Jianyan yilai chaoye zaji (JYZJ), chap. 14, p. 289. 997 22,245,800 SS, chap. 179, p. 4349. 1021 26,530,000 XCB, chap. 97, pp. 2259-2260. Also: JYZJ, p. 289; SS, p. 4349. 1041-1048 28,136,000 Gujin yuanliu zhilun houji, p. 209. 1049-1054 39,000,000 SS, chapter 355, p. 11194. 1056-1063 36,822,541 Cai Xiang quanji, p. 436. 1064-1067 44,000,000 SS, chapter 355, p. 11194. 1065 60,000,000 Guling ji, p. 549. 1068-1077 50,600,000 SS, chap. 355, p. 11914. Also: JYZJ, p. 289. 1078-1085 60,000,000 JYZJ, p. 289. 1085 48,480,000 Qunshu kaoshuo heji, chap. 63, p. 859. 1086 48,000,000 JYZJ, p. 289.

Figure 1. Growth of Fiscal Income of the Northern Song

Fiscal Income of the Northern Song

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000 Ten thousand string thousand Ten 1000

0 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060 1080 1100 Year

46 EASTM 38 (2013)

The government’s fiscal income grew steadily during the entire Northern Song period, accelerating rapidly from 1060 to 1080, reaching a climax in 1080. This was probably the result of Wang Anshi’s New Policies Reform, since the main aim of Wang’s reform was to improve the imperial state’s fiscal situation.4 While these numbers are just approximations, they clearly indicate the general fiscal context against which to understand the level of the Northern Song government’s financial support for astronomy. We currently have data for the government’s annual expenditure on astronomy for 1057, 1066, 1071, and 1082. In comparison to the total fiscal income for each corre- sponding year, the Northern Song government’s annual expenditure on astronomy was about 0.07 per cent (see Table 7)—a remarkably strong and consistent figure. Costs of constructing astronomical instruments during the period are not included in our calculation, meaning that the actual expenditure on astronomy comprised an even larger percentage of the state’s total fiscal income. Assuming that expenditure on astronomers’ salaries remained at the same level as in 1082, then the government’s annual financial support for astronomy amounts to 43,792.2 strings (36,248.6 + 7,543.6), or 0.09 per cent of its total fiscal income. It would be interesting to compare the Northern Song case with that of the earlier Tang dynasty (618-907), during which the imperial astronomical establishments were similar.5 Although it is even more difficult to estimate the Tang government’s expenditure on astronomy due to lack of data, we can still find some information about astronomers’ salaries. From existing sources such as the Tang huiyao 唐會要 (Collected Essentials of the Tang Dynasty), we estimate that the government’s expenditure on astronomical staff salaries for the years 666 and 736 was 1,636 and 3,763 strings of money respectively.6 The available sources often give contradictory numbers about the Tang state’s fiscal income, for instance, for the year 780, one source cites 10,898,000, another gives 30,000,000 strings of money; and historians’ opinions also differ considerably. However, it is safe to say that the income varied from 10 to 30 million strings of money.7 Even if we take the lower estimate, relatively speaking, the Tang government’s expenditure on

4 Qi Xia (2001), pp. 146-161. 5 For a detailed study of the Tang astronomical establishments, see Wang Baojuan (1989). 6 Here we can only give very rough estimates. Another study would need to be undertaken to obtain more details and more accurate data. 7 For the year 780, Quan Hansheng (1948) cites the lower estimate while Ning Ke (2001, p.66) cites the higher.

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 47 astronomy only comprised 0.016 to 0.038 per cent of its overall fiscal income. This shows that the Northern Song government’s financial support for astronomy was much higher than that of the Tang government.8 During the Northern Song, astronomy received favourable support from the imperial government when compared to other technical sectors such as the Hanlin Academy’s Medical Academy, the Directorate for the Palace Building, the Directorate for Imperial Manufactories, and the Directorate of Waterways. Of course, governmental support took various forms, but we can still compare them by contrasting the rank and salary of the heads of these departments. For instance, in 1057, the astronomical director’s rank was 3b, with an annual salary of 1320 strings of money, while the medical director’s rank was the seventh, with an annual salary of 306 strings of money.9 It would be simplistic to suggest that the more money invested in the salaries of Astronomical Bureau staff, the more astronomical research was carried out. On the contrary, during the Northern Song era, there were numerous complains that too many members of the Astronomical Bureau held sinecure posts, being happy to receive salaries without doing any actual astronomical work. Indeed, at one point, Shen Kuo complained that the staff in one of the two establishments did not undertake any work of their own, but simply copied the other group’s reports.10 Nevertheless, the money spent on the astronomical staff salaries clearly indicates the government’s support for astronomy. Putting the question of efficiency aside, we can see that the Northern Song government gave astronomy ample and sustained financial support, which was unprecedented at that time. During the Northern Song era, the Imperial Astronomical Bureau carried out nine astronomical reforms, each producing a new computational system, with improvements and innovations in both astronomical prediction and calendrical computation. It undertook at least eight projects

8 A comparison with contemporary China illustrates how high this figure was. In 2009, China’s fiscal income was 6,266.5 billion RMB. The state investment in science and technology was 258 billion RMB, with support for astronomy comprising about 1 billion RMB, or just 0.016 percent of the state’s annual fiscal income. See http://www.sts.org.cn/zlhb/2010/hb3.1.htm (accessed on September 18, 2011). 9 Gong Yanming (1997), p. 713. 10 We are grateful to an anonymous reviewer for pointing this out. For Shen Kuo’s complaint about works at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, see Mengxi bitan, pp. 384-385.

48 EASTM 38 (2013) for constructing astronomical instruments, with Su Song’s 蘇頌 (1019-1101) Water-Powered Astronomical Clock Tower being a high point of the development of mechanical engineering. It combined an armillary sphere for measurement, a celestial globe for demonstration, and devices for telling the time. With these instruments, astronomers at the Imperial Astro- nomical Bureau recorded frequently measured star positions, improving the accuracy of such measurements to an unprecedented level. The star catalogues and star maps of the Northern Song demonstrate the accuracy of measurements. There were also important innovations in the main time- keeping device, the clepsydra. Yan Su’s 燕肅 (961-1040) ‘Lotus Clepsydra’ (lianhua lou 蓮花漏) incorporated a new design that led to greater accuracy. Shen Kuo further discussed the water clock and improved it considerably. Without the Northern Song state’s sustained support, such astronomical achievements are unlikely to have been possible.11

Table 7. Northern Song Annual Expenditure on Astronomy as a Percentage of its Annual Fiscal Income Year Expenditure on Fiscal Income Percentage Astronomy (strings) (strings) 1057 21,365.0 36,822,541 0.058% 1066 36,605.0 44.000.000 0.083% 1071 39,533.0 50,600.000 0.078% 1082 36,248.6 48,480,000 0.075% 1086-1092 43,792.2 48,480.000 0.090%

11 Sun Xiaochun (2007), pp. 21f.

SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 49

Conclusion

Our investigation reveals that the Northern Song government spent a considerable amount of its fiscal income on astronomy, much more than the previous Tang dynasty had done. This helps to explain why astronomy achieved great developments and innovation during the Northern Song period. The Northern Song state was characterized by its well-organized bureaucratic system, and astronomical activities were exclusively organized and paid for by the state. The Imperial Astronomical Bureau had, at times, more than 100 staff. The state’s patronage of astronomy was mainly made as salary payments to the many people employed at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau and the Hanlin Academy’s Astronomical Bureau. In addition to this expenditure, the government also frequently invested large amounts of money in astronomical instrument making. The water-powered astronomical clock tower constructed in 1086-1092, for instance, cost more than 45,000 strings of money, accounting for about one-thousandth of the imperial state’s total annual fiscal income. Such an undertaking would have been impossible without the state’s robust financial support. Astro- nomy was considered an important science for the Northern Song state, it was a state enterprise and was managed as a bureaucratic system. This article has shown how state support for astronomy during this period made it possible to maintain research teams and to carry out major astronomical projects.

Acknowledgements: The paper is based on the research project funded by the Max Planck Society/Chinese Academy of Sciences Partner Group. As members of the Partner Group we benefited greatly from discussions with other members of the group and members of its advisory board, particularly Prof. Dagmar Schäfer, Dr. Martina Siebert, Prof. Liao Yuqun and Prof. Francesca Bray. We are grateful to anonymous reviewers for comments and suggestions, which helped to improve this article significantly.

50 EASTM 38 (2013)

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SUN & HAN: FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR ASTRONOMY 51

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