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An Examination of Women's Roles in the Yugoslav Wars

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An Examination of Women's Roles in the Yugoslav Wars Perpetrators, Bystanders, and Victims: An Examination of Women’s Roles in the Yugoslav Wars A Thesis Presented to The Honors Tutorial College Ohio University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Graduation from the Honors Tutorial College with the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in History By Julia Schneider April 2021 Approval Page This thesis has been approved by The Honors Tutorial College and the Department of History _______________________________ Dr. Steven Miner Professor, History Thesis Adviser _______________________________ Dr. Miriam Shadis Director of Studies, History _______________________________ Dr. Donal Skinner Dean, Honors Tutorial College Abstract In this thesis, I will explore the three main roles that women played in the Yugoslav Wars of 1991-2001: perpetrator, bystander, and victim. Through examining these roles, I hope to draw an equal amount of attention to each of these roles and add new insight to current scholarly discourse on this subject. Furthermore, examining women in Yugoslavia will also reveal how gender influences modern conflicts, especially regarding sexual violence and the justice system. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that women, whether perpetrators, bystanders, or victims, experienced the war differently from men because of gender norms, because women were symbols of the nation, and because the identity of womanhood and their physical differences made them especially vulnerable to sexual violence. Furthermore, the Yugoslav Wars served as a turning point for understanding and prosecution of wartime rape, with the international community finally recognizing it as an intentional, organized strategy and as a crime against humanity. After examining primary documents from the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, reading first-person accounts, listening to interviews from witnesses and participants, and consulting a wide variety of secondary and tertiary sources, I hope this project will prove useful not only to researchers hoping to better understand the Yugoslav Wars, but also those seeking to understand the gender dynamics of conflict and the crucial role of identity politics in modern warfare. Table of Contents Acknowledgements Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Historic Overview 1.2 Yugoslavian Identity Chapter 2: Perpetrator 2.1 “An Example for Similar Cases”: Gender and Criminality 2.2 Gender and Nationalism Chapter 3: Bystander 3.1 The Role of Bystander and the Duty to Testify 3.2 Barriers to Testifying Chapter 4: Victim 4.1 The Body as a Battleground 4.2 Rape as a Weapon: Breaking the Taboo on Wartime Sexual Violence 4.3 Sins of the Father Chapter 5: Conclusion Bibliography Acknowledgements This project grew out of my years-long interest in Yugoslavia, my passion for gender studies, and my core belief in the power of individual stories. I hope this research will contribute to the larger scholarly conversation and raise awareness for the themes I present. I want to thank Mrs. Lisa Richards, whose courses taught me how to write nicely, precisely, and concisely. Her courses and her feedback challenged me, and I would not be the writer I am today without her influence. Thank you to the Ohio University Honors Tutorial College for the opportunity to conduct this research. Though it is imperfect and incomplete in many ways, I have learned much from the process. Thank you to the Ohio University Women’s Center and the Margaret Boyd Scholars Program, both of which have shaped my perspective regarding gender and its influence on cultures, societies, and people. Thank you to the staff at the Ohio University Mahn Center, whose guidance and expertise showed me the value of archival research. Although the pandemic prevented me from pursuing my original vision of an archival project, I hope my passion for archival work and primary sources carried through into this paper. Thank you to the outstanding history professors at Ohio University, and I am particularly grateful to the professors who engaged in one-on-one tutorials with me. Thank you to Janet Carleton, whose mentorship and advice regarding the archival field were critical to my studies during the past couple of years. Thank you to Dr. Miriam Shadis, whose advice and guidance have been instrumental throughout my research and my entire college experience. The biggest thank you goes to my thesis advisor, Dr. Steven Miner, without whom this thesis would not be what it is today. Thank you for all the sacrifices you have made to continue working with me throughout these challenging past few years. Thank you for everything, for suggesting additional sources, for our wonderful conversations and for reading and editing the many, many drafts I sent you. I cannot thank you enough for going above and beyond the normal expectations of a thesis advisor. You inspire me to continue to be a better student, a better writer, a better scholar, and a better person. This project would not have been possible without you. Finally, I want to thank all the men and women whose testimonies are vital to this thesis. I am so sorry for what you have endured. Through this project, I hope to give power to your experiences and your voices. Thank you for speaking up. You are not alone. Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 1.1: Historic Overview Despite being one of the youngest countries in Europe, Yugoslavia was also one of the shortest-lived, existing from 1918—following World War I—to its demise in 1992. Infamously unstable and insecure, Yugoslavia consisted of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia (including the regions of Kosovo and Vojvodina), Slovenia, Macedonia, and Montenegro, all with their own diverse ethnic groups and individual political interests. Southeast Europe was a region full of cultural exchanges, overlaps, and confrontations; centuries of imperial rule and powers clashing created a diverse land filled with multiple cultures, ethnicities, traditions, religions, and languages. The former countries of Yugoslavia had existed under the control of external regimes for most of recent history, with the exception of Serbia, making their struggles for independence in the 1990s extraordinarily revolutionary. The Yugoslav Wars were one of the less common instances in which the Southern Slavs fought each other rather than rebelling against a ruling, multiethnic empire. The Yugoslav crisis, which began in 1991, was the series of political uprisings and secessions that resulted in the total dissolution of Yugoslavia. As republics within Yugoslavia attempted to secede, starting with Slovenia in 1990, Serbia unsuccessfully attempted to squelch growing independence movements to keep Yugoslavia united.1 As more and more republics within Yugoslavia declared sovereignty, the Serb-dominated Yugoslavian Army began to intervene militarily, independent militias heightened the violence, and the conflict turned bloody. In the worst European atrocity since World War II, the Yugoslav Wars killed over 100,000 1 Rada Ivekovic and Julie Mostov, From Gender to Nation (New Delhi: Zubaan, 2004) 1 people and displaced 2.2 million more.2 Ethnic cleansing, genocide, and rape occurred on a massive scale unseen in Europe since the Second World War, creating economic, social, and political repercussions that still fester today. Cultural monuments were destroyed, cities were shelled, and people were held in horrific detention camps where torture and mass rapes occurred regularly. Women, in particular, experienced sexual violence on a continuum ranging anywhere from the battlefield to the bedroom, and in all the spaces in-between. In response to the armed conflict in Yugoslavia, the international community formed the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia to prosecute the individuals most responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity, and other war crimes that were committed. After the wars, the single state of Yugoslavia eventually split into the republics on today’s world map. The international community now recognizes Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo as independent nations.3 The brutal fighting and extensive tragedies have also led to disagreement among the scholarly community as to how to approach and explain the crisis. 2 “Human Losses in Wars in Former Yugoslavia: Victims Should Be Remembered by Names Not by Numbers,” Humanitarian Law Center (Humanitarian Law Center, December 16, 2016), http://www.hlc- rdc.org/?p=33130&lang=de 3 Although Kosovo declared independence in 2008, the international response has been mixed. Russia and Serbia, among others, do not recognize Kosovo’s independence. 2 Map 1: Ethnic Groups of Yugoslavia, 19974 If any point in modern Yugoslavian history could be called the turning point for disintegration, it would be the death of Josip Broz Tito in 1980. At the center of the entire Yugoslav system, Tito exercised an enormous amount of political, economic, and diplomatic power in Eastern Europe. With the secret police as a frequent and valuable tool, Tito maintained 4 Source: Loring Danforth, “Economic Collapse and Nationalist Resurgence,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 2020), https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans/Economic-collapse-and- nationalist-resurgence 3 ultimate control and order through eliminating all potential political opposition or suppressing any dissenting voices. Today, some still remain nostalgic about Tito’s Yugoslavia, associating his presidency with relative peace and prosperity.5 Though he ruled with an iron will and could
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