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Great Expectations: Gender, Looks and Lookism at Work See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264818409 Great expectations: Gender, looks and lookism at work Article in International Journal of Work Organisation and Emotion · August 2012 DOI: 10.1504/IJWOE.2012.048593 CITATIONS READS 7 1,302 4 authors: Chris Warhurst Diane van den Broek The University of Warwick The University of Sydney 104 PUBLICATIONS 2,612 CITATIONS 52 PUBLICATIONS 563 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Richard Hall Dennis Nickson The University of Sydney University of Strathclyde 52 PUBLICATIONS 1,147 CITATIONS 73 PUBLICATIONS 1,741 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: QuInnE - innovation, job quality and employment outcomes View project Mobilisation of temporary migrant workers in Australia: union strategies and new collective responses View project All content following this page was uploaded by Chris Warhurst on 22 April 2015. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. 72 Int. J. Work Organisation and Emotion, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2012 Great expectations: gender, looks and lookism at work Chris Warhurst*, Diane van den Broek, Richard Hall and Dennis Nickson Universities of Sydney, Sydney, Sydney and Strathclyde E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] *Corresponding author Abstract: Drawing on archival data of employment discrimination from the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission in Australia, this article examines the issue of employee looks, women and lookism in interactive service work. From existing research on emotional and aesthetic labour, lookism might be expected to occur primarily in services and primarily involve female workers. The fi ndings suggest that these expectations are largely met. However, the data also reveal that men in services also claim lookism and that lookism extends beyond interactive services into other industries such as manufacturing. This article concludes by discussing the implications of these unexpected fi ndings for the study of lookism. Keywords: aesthetic labour; emotional labour; interactive service work; lookism; gender. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Warhurst, C., van den Broek, D., Hall, R. and Nickson, D. (2012) ‘Great expectations: gender, looks and lookism at work’, Int. J. Work Organisation and Emotion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.72–90. Biographical notes: Chris Warhurst is Professor of Work and Organisational Studies at the University of Sydney Business School, where he also co-convenes the Job Quality Research Network. Previously he was founder-director of the Scottish Centre for Employment Research in Glasgow. He was also co-editor of Work, Employment and Society from 2008–10. His books include Workplaces of the Future (Macmillan, 1998), The Skills That Matter (Palgrave, 2004) and Are bad jobs inevitable? (Palgrave, 2012). He has been an expert adviser to various government departments and agencies in the UK, Scotland, Hungary and Australia and is currently an international expert adviser to the OECD. Diane van den Broek is Senior Lecturer in Work and Organisational Studies at the University of Sydney Business School. Her research focuses on call centre operations, ICT and privacy, teamwork and offshoring to newly industrialising economies. More recent research focuses on aesthetic labour and migration and identity. She has published in numerous journals including Work, Employment and Society; Economic and Industrial Democracy; and Journal of Industrial Relations. She is a member of the Asia Pacifi c Futures Research Network, Editorial Advisory Board member for Human Resource Management Journal and Co-convenor of the Diversity in Work Research Group at Sydney University. Copyright © 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd. Great expectations: gender, looks and lookism at work 73 Richard Hall is Professor of Work and Organisational Studies and Associate Dean (Management Education) at the University of Sydney Business School. He is widely published in the fi elds of organisational change, human resource management, industrial relations, work, labour and organisation studies. He currently teaches leadership in the Business School’s Global Executive MBA. He was previously Associate Dean (Research) and Deputy Director (Operations) at ACIRRT, now the Workplace Research Centre at the University of Sydney. He has been visiting scholar at Harvard University, Imperial College London, and the University of Strathclyde in Scotland. Dennis Nickson is Professor and Head of the Department of Human Resource Management, University of Strathclyde. His primary research interests centre on work and employment issues in interactive service work, with a particular concentration on the retail and hospitality industries. More specifi cally, he has extensively researched labour market, skills and employability issues in entry-level work in the retail and hospitality industries. He has published widely in these and other areas and sole and co-authored books include Human Resource Management for the Hospitality and Tourism Industries (Butterworth Heinemann, 2007). This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper presented at the Gender, Work and Organisation Conference, Keele University, United Kingdom, 21-23 June 2010. 1 Introduction Awareness and analysis of the body was limited in research on interactive service jobs but is now becoming more prominent. A key reason is that the once dominant research paradigm of emotional labour is being complemented by that of aesthetic labour. Emotional labour centres on the commodifi cation of employee feelings. Although recognising the body work through which these feelings are manifest, this body work is quickly retired analytically by both Hochschild (1983) and subsequent researchers (for a discussion, see Witz et al., 2003). Aesthetic labour centres on the commodifi cation of employee corporeality and, as such, the concept intentionally and explicitly recuperates the body work involved in interactive services. It also helps explain why employers attempt to control and transmute the physical looks of employees and how lookism – or employment discrimination based on employee looks – can be an issue in interactive services. Although aesthetic labour complements emotional labour and is a useful extension in analysis of interactive service work, there is also a common argument in some accounts of both forms of labour that its provision rests on the feminine ‘naturalness’ of women (cf. Hochschild, 1983; Tyler and Taylor, 1998). As a consequence, lookism is expected to be more likely to occur for female workers in interactive service work. An opportunity to test these expectations occurs through analysis of the archival cases of enquiries and complaints about lookism in employment lodged with the Equal Opportunity Commission (Victoria) (EOC) – now known as the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (VEOHRC). This Australian state is one of the few jurisdictions in the world to include physical features as a form of discrimination in its equal opportunities legislation (Hall, 2009). This analysis matters not just because it furthers understanding of forms of employment discrimination but also because it signals limitations in current conceptualisations of gender and interactive service work. 74 C. Warhurst et al. The fi rst part of this article briefl y discusses the concepts of emotional and aesthetic labour and the complementary and common features of these two forms of labour in interactive services. This section also considers the issue of lookism. The following section then outlines the physical features ground of discrimination in the Victorian Equal Opportunity Act (1995) and the archival analysis of the enquiries and complaints made to the EOC based on physical features in relation to employment. The fi ndings from this archival research are then presented, disaggregating the analysis by industry, occupation and sex. The fi ndings both confi rm and challenge the expectations about lookism in relation to interactive service work and women. Based on the fi ndings, the fi nal section of the article focuses on the issue of gender and the research of interactive service work and how, as service work continues to dominate employment and looks become more important in the workplace and beyond, the issue of lookism is likely to become more prominent. 2 Gender, looks and lookism In recent years, the body has been an absent presence in sociological accounts of work – it was there but barely recognised – or when it was recognised, cast as a gender issue. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when work was dangerous and physically demanding, its impact on the labouring body was often immediate and visible – through physical injuries most obviously. With the relative decline of the primary and secondary sectors – coal mining and steel mill jobs, for example – and the rise in the number of service jobs, the centrality of the body to work became less visible (as did the now hidden, psychological injuries such as stress). Whilst the labouring body continued to toil, it became absented from analyses of work according to Slavishak (2008). When it was raised in analyses of service work, by Adkins (1995) for example, it was as part of wider debates about feminised service and used to explain the propensity for women to occupy interactive service jobs
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