The Voyage of the “Challenger”
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Chapter 7 100 Years of the Ocean General Circulation
CHAPTER 7 WUNSCH AND FERRARI 7.1 Chapter 7 100 Years of the Ocean General Circulation CARL WUNSCH Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts RAFFAELE FERRARI Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts ABSTRACT The central change in understanding of the ocean circulation during the past 100 years has been its emergence as an intensely time-dependent, effectively turbulent and wave-dominated, flow. Early technol- ogies for making the difficult observations were adequate only to depict large-scale, quasi-steady flows. With the electronic revolution of the past 501 years, the emergence of geophysical fluid dynamics, the strongly inhomogeneous time-dependent nature of oceanic circulation physics finally emerged. Mesoscale (balanced), submesoscale oceanic eddies at 100-km horizontal scales and shorter, and internal waves are now known to be central to much of the behavior of the system. Ocean circulation is now recognized to involve both eddies and larger-scale flows with dominant elements and their interactions varying among the classical gyres, the boundary current regions, the Southern Ocean, and the tropics. 1. Introduction physical regimes, understanding of the ocean until relatively recently greatly lagged that of the atmo- In the past 100 years, understanding of the general sphere. As in almost all of fluid dynamics, progress circulation of the ocean has shifted from treating it as an in understanding has required an intimate partnership essentially laminar, steady-state, slow, almost geological, between theoretical description and observational or flow, to that of a perpetually changing fluid, best charac- laboratory tests. The basic feature of the fluid dynamics terized as intensely turbulent with kinetic energy domi- of the ocean, as opposed to that of the atmosphere, has nated by time-varying flows. -
Miles Down! Oceanography Through History
MILES DOWN! OCEANOGRAPHY THROUGH HISTORY The history of oceanography is an international story of invention, individual adventure, and exploration that remains little-known. This exhibition presents an historical overview, using timelines, text, photographs, and profiles of oceanographic expeditions and individual scientists from around the world. Image: Colette Kerry From water’s edge, the oceans are as mysterious as the stars. In the 21st century, deep-sea exploration – like space exploration - is no longer a fantastic idea, but a fact of scientific life. How did we move below the surface to study the depths of the sea? This exhibition tells the story of curious humans posing questions about the oceans and developing the tools and technology to move miles down to explore the sea. The oceans that cover 71% of the world’s surface hide complex worlds within their depths. How ocean waters behave, what creatures inhabit the seas, what lies on the ocean floors, what makes up seawater: these are the questions that underlie the scientific study of the oceans - the science of oceanography. Oceanography is the scientific study of the oceans as complex, interrelated systems. It is a mixed science that combines many different approaches to understanding the watery portion of our planet. Physics explores the physical properties of the oceans, the currents and waves. It’s a study of matter and energy and the relation between them. Chemistry is concerned with the properties, composition, and structure of substances in the oceans and the changes they undergo when they combine or react. The geology of the seafloor explores the earth’s history, composition, structure and processes. -
Seabed Mapping: a Brief History from Meaningful Words
geosciences Review Seabed Mapping: A Brief History from Meaningful Words Pedro Smith Menandro and Alex Cardoso Bastos * Marine Geosciences Lab (Labogeo), Departmento Oceanografia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória-ES 29075-910, Brazil; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 19 May 2020; Accepted: 7 July 2020; Published: 16 July 2020 Abstract: Over the last few centuries, mapping the ocean seabed has been a major challenge for marine geoscientists. Knowledge of seabed bathymetry and morphology has significantly impacted our understanding of our planet dynamics. The history and scientific trends of seabed mapping can be assessed by data mining prior studies. Here, we have mined the scientific literature using the keyword “seabed mapping” to investigate and provide the evolution of mapping methods and emphasize the main trends and challenges over the last 90 years. An increase in related scientific production was observed in the beginning of the 1970s, together with an increased interest in new mapping technologies. The last two decades have revealed major shift in ocean mapping. Besides the range of applications for seabed mapping, terms like habitat mapping and concepts of seabed classification and backscatter began to appear. This follows the trend of investments in research, science, and technology but is mainly related to national and international demands regarding defining that country’s exclusive economic zone, the interest in marine mineral and renewable energy resources, the need for spatial planning, and the scientific challenge of understanding climate variability. The future of seabed mapping brings high expectations, considering that this is one of the main research and development themes for the United Nations Decade of the Oceans. -
Chapter 7 100 Years of the Ocean General Circulation
CHAPTER 7 WUNSCH AND FERRARI 7.1 Chapter 7 100 Years of the Ocean General Circulation CARL WUNSCH Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts RAFFAELE FERRARI Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts ABSTRACT The central change in understanding of the ocean circulation during the past 100 years has been its emergence as an intensely time-dependent, effectively turbulent and wave-dominated, flow. Early technol- ogies for making the difficult observations were adequate only to depict large-scale, quasi-steady flows. With the electronic revolution of the past 501 years, the emergence of geophysical fluid dynamics, the strongly inhomogeneous time-dependent nature of oceanic circulation physics finally emerged. Mesoscale (balanced), submesoscale oceanic eddies at 100-km horizontal scales and shorter, and internal waves are now known to be central to much of the behavior of the system. Ocean circulation is now recognized to involve both eddies and larger-scale flows with dominant elements and their interactions varying among the classical gyres, the boundary current regions, the Southern Ocean, and the tropics. 1. Introduction physical regimes, understanding of the ocean until relatively recently greatly lagged that of the atmo- In the past 100 years, understanding of the general sphere. As in almost all of fluid dynamics, progress circulation of the ocean has shifted from treating it as an in understanding has required an intimate partnership essentially laminar, steady-state, slow, almost geological, between theoretical description and observational or flow, to that of a perpetually changing fluid, best charac- laboratory tests. The basic feature of the fluid dynamics terized as intensely turbulent with kinetic energy domi- of the ocean, as opposed to that of the atmosphere, has nated by time-varying flows. -
Directory of Source Materials for the History of Oceanography; UNESCO
Unesco technical papers in marine science eo Directory of source materials for the history of oceanography Unesco !990 UNESCO TECHNICAL PAPERS IN MARINE SCIENCE Numbers 2. 3. 5, 6, 7,9, IO, II. 12, 13. 15. 16, 17. 18, 20.21.22,23. 24, 27. 28, 29, 30 and 32. arc out of stock. For full titles see inside back cover. Numbers 1, 4, 8 and 14 are incorporated in No. 27. No. Year SCOR No Year SCOR wo WG 19 Manne Science leaching at (he Univcrsit) (.evei 45 The International System of Units (SI) Kepon of lhe Unesco Workshop on Universa) in Oceanography Report of IAPSO Working Cunicula-/!iailabte in Spannh ami Arabic 1974 Group on Symbols. Units and Nomenclature in Physical Oceanography (SUN) 1985 25 Marine science programme for the Red Scj. Recommendations of the workshop held in 46 Opportunities and problems in Hremerhasen. FKG, 22*25 October 1974. satellite measurements of (he sea sponsored h) the Deutsche Forschungsgemein- Report of SCOR Working Group 70 schaft and Unesco 1976 — Available in Ar.. Ch., F.. R.. and S. 1986 WG 70 26 Marine science in the Gulf arca-Rcport of a 47 Research on coastal marine systems consullatisc meeting. Paris, IM4 November 1975 1976 — Report of the third meeting of the Uncsco/SCOR/IABO 3| Coastal bgoon survey (1976-1978) 198tï — consultative panel on coastal systems October 1984 1986 33 Coastal lagoon research, present and future Proceedings of a seminar. Duke University. 48 Coastal off-shore ecosystems relationships August 1978 (Unesco. IABO). 1981 — Final Report of SCOR/IABO/ Unesco Working Group 65 34 The carbon budget of the oceans Report of a Texel. -
Winter / Spring 2007
FOLLOWING SEASEA 2005-2006 Annual Report Issue Winter/Spring 2007 sea at thirty-five TABLETABLE OFOF CONTENTSCONTENTS Winter/Spring 2007 Cover Story SEA at Thirty-five SEA celebrates its 35th Anniversary year . .1 Features Ann Wickes Brewer A tribute to a SEA trustee emeritus . .4 Heading for a ‘roasted world’ John Bullard’s Boston Globe editorial . .9 In Every Issue Passages Events and news of general interest . .8 Scuttlebutt Alumni news from around the world . .10 Science Corner The evolution of oceanographic equipment . .26 Currents Mariah Klingsmith and Jarod Maggio (C-187) volunteer for the Peace Corps in the Philippines . .28 Special Report 2005-2006 Report to Donors From the desk of Board Chair, Linda Cox Maguire . .14 Annual Report . .15 Following SEA Winter/Spring 2007 Editor: Jan Wagner Cover Design: Lori Dolby Design: MBDesign Photography: Sandie Allen, Laurie Bullard, courtesy Colgate University, Mariah Klingsmith, Jarod Maggio, Amy Radar, courtesy Sparkman & Stephens, Jan Wagner, Become an alumni enrollment volunteer! For more information, Jim Watters, Laurie Weitzen contact Laurie Weitzen at (800) 552-3633, ext. 12 or [email protected] Following SEA is available online. If you’d like your prints, slides, or digital images considered for the next issue contact: Kerry Sullivan, ext. 20 or [email protected]. Sea Education Association, Inc., PO Box 6, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543 Phone 800-552-3633 Fax 508-457-4673 www.sea.edu Recycled Chlorine-Free Paper / Soy Ink captains October 1982 4 sea A lesson in determinationat thirty-five The story of SEA’s founding and the early years of struggle to gain a pathway to success is a lesson in determination on the part of Corwith Cramer, Jr. -
Alfonso Mucci Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences EPSC-542
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences EPSC-542 Chemical Oceanography Tuesday and Thursday: 11:35AM-12:55PM FDA-348 Alfonso Mucci [email protected] Frank Dawson Adams (FDA) - 201 Teaching Assistant Pascle Daoust ([email protected]) FDA-349 2/66 EPSC-542 Chemical Oceanography Course outline Week Subject 1 Introduction -organization (course description and schedule), books, evaluation scheme. 2 History of chemical oceanography The ocean as a stratified body of water Origin and evolution of the early ocean 2/3 Seawater composition -Definition of salinity/chlorinity and concept of constant relative proportions -Determination of salinity -Salinity distribution in the ocean -Validity of the law of constant relative proportions 3 Properties of water -Isotopic composition -Anomalous physical properties of water -The structure of liquid water -Influence of solutes on the structure of water 4 The behaviour of electrolytes and non-electrolytes in solution -Electrostriction -Speciation and ion-pairing 4/5 Minor elements -Concept of residence time -Distribution of minor elements in the ocean 3/66 Course outline (continued) 6 Micronutrient elements -Phosphate and the phosphorus cycle -Nitrogen and the nitrogen cycle -The ocean's internal cycle -The horizontal segregation of elements in the deep-sea 7/8 Dissolved gases -Solubility of gases in seawater -The rate of gas exchange between the atmosphere and ocean -Disequilibrium between the atmosphere and ocean -Dissolved oxygen distribution in the ocean 9/10 CO2 and the carbonate system -The chemistry of the CO2-H2O system -pH measurements in seawater -Buffer capacity of seawater -The solubility and distribution of carbonate minerals in marine sediments 11/12 Deep-sea sediments -Origin of deep-sea sediments (e.g weathering, transport, authigenic and biogenic production) -Components of deep-sea sediments (e.g. -
Chapter 2 a History of Marine Science
OIMS/9 Instructor’s Manual CHAPTER 2 A HISTORY OF MARINE SCIENCE SIX MAIN CONCEPTS The ocean did not prevent the spread of humanity. By the time European explorers set out to “discover” the world, native peoples met them at nearly every landfall. Any coastal culture skilled at raft building or small-boat navigation had economic and nutritional advantages over less skilled competitors. The first global exploratory expeditions were undertaken by Chinese admiral Zheng He beginning in 1405. The three expeditions of Captain James Cook, British Royal Navy, were perhaps the first to apply the principles of scientific investigation to the ocean. The voyage of H.M.S. Challenger (1872 – 1876) was the first extensive expedition dedicated exclusively to research. Modern oceanography is guided by consortia of institutions and governments. MAIN HEADINGS 2.1 UNDERSTANDING THE OCEAN BEGAN WITH VOYAGING FOR TRADE AND EXPLORATION Early Peoples Traveled the Ocean for Economic Reasons Systematic Study of the Ocean Began at the Library of Alexandria Eratosthenes Accurately Calculated the Size and Shape of Earth Seafaring Expanded Human Horizons Viking Raiders Discovered North America The Chinese Undertook Organized Voyages of Discovery 2.2 THE AGE OF EUROPEAN DISCOVERY Prince Henry Launched the European Age of Discovery 2.3 VOYAGING COMBINED WITH SCIENCE TO ADVANCE OCEAN STUDIES Captain James Cook: First Marine Scientist Accurate Determination of Longitude Was the Key to Oceanic Exploration and Mapping 2.4 THE FIRST Scientific Expeditions WERE UNDERTAKEN -
1 Archives of Natural History, 47, 147-165. Accepted Version. Robert
Archives of Natural History, 47, 147-165. Accepted version. Robert McCormick’s geological collections from Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, 1839–1843 PHILIP STONE British Geological Survey, The Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, Scotland, UK (e-mail: [email protected]) ABSTRACT: Robert McCormick (1800–1890) took part in three mid-nineteenth- century British Polar expeditions, two to the Arctic and one to the Antarctic. The latter, from 1839 to 1843 and led by James Clark Ross, is the best known. McCormick served as senior surgeon on HMS Erebus and was responsible for the collection of zoological and geological specimens. Despite the novelty and potential scientific importance of these early geological collections from Antarctica and remote islands in the Southern Ocean, they received surprisingly little attention at the time. Ross deposited an official collection with the British Museum in 1844, soon after the expedition’s return, and this was supplemented by McCormick’s personal collection, bequeathed in 1890. McCormick had contributed brief and idiosyncratic geological notes to the expedition report published by Ross in 1847, but it was not until 1899 that an informed description of the Antarctic rocks was published, and only in 1921 were McCormick’s palaeobotanical specimens from Kerguelen examined. His material from other Southern Ocean islands received even less attention; had it been utilized at the time it would have supplemented the better-known collections made by the likes of Charles Darwin. In later life, McCormick became increasingly embittered over the lack of recognition afforded to him for his work in the Polar regions. -
Challenger Deep Pdf, Epub, Ebook
CHALLENGER DEEP PDF, EPUB, EBOOK Neal Shusterman,Brendan Shusterman | 320 pages | 21 May 2015 | HarperCollins Publishers Inc | 9780062413093 | English | New York, United States Challenger Deep PDF Book January It was the first solo dive and the first to spend a significant amount of time three hours exploring the bottom. Raid on Alexandria Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior. The report by the HMS Challenger expedition reported two species of radiolarian when they discovered in the Challenger Deep. I kept thinking - am I going to spiral down one day? Enlarge cover. Other than that, the rest of the story kind of clicked and made sense. They are. The parrot is no better; he is malevolent, too, but funny. Each decade has its own civil rights fight, and I truly hope we tackle this next. In many mental-health books mental hospitals are demonized and described as prisons and mental torture houses run by cruel doctors and orderlies. The system was so new that JHOD had to develop their own software for drawing bathymetric charts based on the SeaBeam digital data. Marine Geophysical Research. Lin joined VictorVescovo to become, not only the first person born in Taiwan to go to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, but also the first from the Asian continent to do so. In , researchers on RV Kilo Moana doing sonar mapping determined that it was 35,ft deep with a 72ft error. Underwater vents cause liquid sulfur and carbon dioxide to bubble up from the crescent-shaped vent. I will admit that this book was a little confusing at the beginning but when the parallels made themselves more evident, I really started enjoying the book. -
Eric L. Mills H.M.S. CHALLENGER, HALIFAX, and the REVEREND
529 THE DALHOUSIE REVIEW Eric L. Mills H.M.S. CHALLENGER, HALIFAX, AND THE REVEREND DR. HONEYMAN I The arrival of the British corvette Challenger in Halifax on May 9, 18 7~l. was not particularly unusual in itself. But the men on board and the purpose of the voyage were unusual, because the ship as she docked brought oceanography for the first time to Nova Scotia, and in fact was establishing that branch of science as a global, coherent discipline. The arrival of Challenger at Halifax was nearly an accident. At its previous stop, Bermuda, the ship's captain, G.S. Nares, had been warned that his next port of call, New York, was offering high wages and that he could expect many desertions. 1 Course was changed; the United States coast passed b y the port side, and Challenger steamed slowly into the early spring of Halifax Harbour. We reached Halifax on the morning of the 9th. The weather was very fine and perfectly still, w :i th a light mist, and as we steamed up the bay there was a most extraordinary and bewildering display of mirage. The sea and the land and the sky were hopelessly confused; all the objects along the shore drawn up out of all proportion, the white cottages standing out like pillars and light-house!:, and all the low rocky islands loo king as if they were crowned with battlements and towers. Low, hazy islands which had no place on the chart bounded the horizon, and faded away while one was looking at them. -
2002 in Review
Bedford Institute of Oceanography 2002 in Review 40th Anniversary Edition BIO-2002 IN REVIEW 1 Change of address notices, requests for copies, and other correspondence regarding this publication should be sent to: The Editor, BIO 2002 in Review Bedford Institute of Oceanography P.O. Box 1006 Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Canada, B2Y 4A2 E-mail address:[email protected] The cover image is the CSS Hudson in the Canadian Arctic in the late 1980s. © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2003 Cat. No. Fs75-104/2002E ISBN: 0-662-34402-2 ISSN: 1499-9951 Aussi disponible en français. Editor: Dianne Geddes, BIO. Editorial team: Shelley Armsworthy, Pat Dennis, and Bob St-Laurent. Photographs: BIO Technographics, the authors, and individuals/agencies credited. Design: Channel Communications, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Published by: Fisheries and Oceans Canada and Natural Resources Canada Bedford Institute of Oceanography 1 Challenger Drive P. O. Box 1006 Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada B2Y 4A2 BIO web site address: www.bio.gc.ca INTRODUCTION Anniversaries, in this case our 40th, are an opportunity for both celebration and reflection. We very much enjoyed our year of celebrations. Open House 2002, the special lecture by David Suzuki, the Symposium on the Future of Marine Science, and the Symphony Nova Scotia concert all contributed to the sense of community that is a strong characteristic of the Institute. The lectures by Dale Buckley (during the opening ceremonies for open house) and by Bosko Loncaravic (the first lecture of our symposium) provided rich memories of research high- lights over four decades. Both talks emphasized the key role of scientific advice to the government of Canada (such as input to the Gulf of Maine boundary dispute decided upon at the World Court in The Hague and the Arrow oil spill in Chedabucto Bay).