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Operaciones Oceanográficas En Aguas Profundas: Los Retos Del Pasado, Del Presente Y Del Proyecto TALUD En El Pacífico Mexicano (1989-2009)

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Operaciones Oceanográficas En Aguas Profundas: Los Retos Del Pasado, Del Presente Y Del Proyecto TALUD En El Pacífico Mexicano (1989-2009) Operaciones oceanográficas en aguas profundas: los retos del pasado, del presente y del proyecto TALUD en el Pacífico mexicano (1989-2009) Michel E. Hendrickx1 EXPLORACIÓN DE LAS AGUAS PROFUNDAS EN EL MUNDO Las aguas profundas de los océanos mundiales han sido consideradas como uno de los pocos ambientes naturales de la Tierra que todavía requieren de un fuerte esfuerzo exploratorio. Este ambiente constituye una de las últimas fronteras del planeta Tierra, extraordinariamente vasto, misterioso y de muy difícil acceso. Los océanos cubren un 71 % de la superficie de la Tierra. De estos, 76 % corresponden a aguas con una profundidad de entre 3000 y 6000 m. El océano Pacífico es, en promedio, el más profundo de todos, con una profundidad media de 4282 m. A nivel mundial, es en la plataforma continental, con una profundidad media de 130 m pero que alcanza en algunas zonas casi los 200 m, que se realiza la mayoría de las actividades humanas en los mares y donde el efecto de la contaminación y del deterioro ambiental es más notorio. Sin embargo, corresponde solo a un 9 % de la superficie total de los océanos (Herring y Clarke 1971, Smith 1992, Facebook 2010, Farlex 2010). 1 Laboratorio de Invertebrados Bentónicos. Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Unidad Acadé- mica Mazatlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Joel Montes Camarena s/n, Mazatlán 82040, Sinaloa, México. Correo-e: [email protected]. 23 Las investigaciones más recientes han podido demostrar que las comunidades de macroinvertebrados de las aguas profundas se caracterizan por una alta diver- sidad (Grassle 1989, Smith et al. 1998, Zamorano et al. 2007). Este concepto vino a reemplazar la idea muy anclada hasta el siglo XIX de que los fondos marinos, más allá de la zona donde penetra la luz, no eran propicios para la vida, tanto por la ausencia de plantas (i.e., las algas y el fitoplancton) que conforman el primer eslabón de las cadenas alimenticias, como por las fuertes presiones ocasionadas por la columna de agua. Se necesitaron muchos esfuerzos e inversiones en perso- nal científico y en infraestructura para llegar a modificar este concepto, así como aproximadamente 120 años de atención específica y sostenida en la exploración progresiva de estos ambientes para poder acumular una cantidad razonable de in- formación acerca de las comunidades animales que lograron establecerse allí per- manentemente (Soule 1970, Gage y Tyler 1992). Los primeros descubrimientos relacionados con la fauna de aguas profundas se remontan al principio del siglo XIX. Sin embargo, estos primeros datos fueron anec- dóticos y son el resultado de muestreos incidentales o ligados a las exploraciones de los fondos para la instalación de cables submarinos trans-oceánicos (Soule 1970). Si bien se consiguieron muestras de representantes de los diferentes grupos animales que habitan las zonas batiales (entre 200 y 2000 m de profundidad) y abisales (entre 2000 y 6000 m), estos no fueron adecuadamente registrados y estudiados (Gage y Tyler 1992). La ausencia de luz, aunada a las enormes presiones que existen a grandes profundidades mantuvieron por mucho tiempo la noción de que la vida no era posible en estos ambientes, calificados de “zonas azoicas” (Gage y Tyler 1992). Sin embargo, basándose en los primeros descubrimientos incidentales que demostraban la presencia de vida en aguas profundas, como por ejemplo la colección montada por G.O. Sars a partir de muestras profundas obtenidas en aguas del Fjord de Lofoten, en Noruega, se organizaron dos expediciones a bordo de los buques H.M.S “Lightning” y H.M.S. “Porcupine” (1868-1870) en el Atlántico este. Según Thomson (1873), se efectua- ron con éxito 57 arrastres a más de 500 fm (915 m), 16 en más de 1000 fm (1830 m) y dos a profundidades mayores a 2000 fm (3660 m). La profundidad máxima alcanzada fue de más de 4200 m. Las muestras obtenidas revelaron la presencia de una fauna muy particular alrededor de las islas británicas y frente a la península ibérica, en un área de muestreo de aproximadamente 1500 mn de largo por 100-150 mn de ancho (Thomson 1873, Gage y Tyler 1992). Estos hallazgos motivaron, en parte, la planeación del viaje alrededor de la Tierra del buque de investigación H.M.S “Challenger” (Lám. 1 A) de 1872 24 BIODIVERSIDAD Y COMUNIDADE S DEL TALUD CONTINENTAL DEL PACÍFICO MEXICANO a 1876, que efectuó muestreos en profundidades de hasta 5500 m (Soule 1970). El H.M.S. “Challenger”, construido en Inglaterra y botado el 13 de fe- brero de 1858, era un barco de tipo “corvette” de 61 m de eslora. En aquella época, y a pesar de parecerse a los galeones españoles del siglo XVIII, los barcos grandes contaban con velas y motores de vapor que les daban seguridad y ver- satilidad; era el caso del “Challenger”. Curiosamente, este buque participó, en 1862, en las operaciones bélicas de los EE.UU. en contra de México e, incluso, participó en la ocupación de Veracruz. Asignado a la primera campaña de explo- ración marítima alrededor del mundo, la renombrada “Challenger Expedition”, el H.M.S. “Challenger” fue modificado de lo que era un barco de guerra a un buque de investigación, instalando laboratorios y plataformas de muestreo, así como almacenes para conservar los especímenes capturados. Ya se contaba con ter- mómetros de precisión así como botellas para muestrear agua y dragas para con- seguir sedimentos. Entre sus equipos más importantes, tenía a disposición unos 291000 m de cable y redes para muestrear en aguas profundas. Los resultados de esta campaña, consignados en 34 volúmenes, representan todavía hasta hoy la base de muchos estudios taxonómicos de la fauna de aguas profundas a nivel mundial. Lám. 1. A, “Challenger”; B. “Albatross”; C. “Velero IV”; D, batiscafo “FNRS 2”. A B C D OP ERACIONE S OCEANOGRÁFICA S EN AGUA S P ROFUNDA S 25 Posteriormente, una amplia serie de campañas de vasto alcance fueron or- ganizadas por países europeos o por los EE.UU. con el fin de ampliar los cono- cimientos acerca de esta fauna profunda. Fueron los cruceros de los barcos “Travailleur” y “Talisman” (Francia), “Hirondelle” y “Princesse Alice” (Mónaco), “Ingolf” (Dinamarca), “Michael Sars” (Noruega), “Valdivia” (Alemania), “Blake” y “Albatross” (EE.UU.), “Albatross” (Suecia; bautizado en honor al ”Albatross” bri- tánico) y “Galathea” (Dinamarca). El “Galathea” consiguió las muestras más pro- fundas de la fauna marina recolectadas a la fecha, con la exploración de la fosa de las Filipinas, a 10190 m de profundidad. Esta serie de expediciones, que llevaron los nombres de los barcos en los cuales se realizaron, se iniciaron a mediados del si- glo XIX y terminaron en 1952 (Soule 1970, Groueff 1973, Gage y Tyler 1992). De particular interés para México fueron las campañas del “Albatross” de los EE.UU. (Lám. 1 B). A cargo de la Comisión de Pesca del gobierno de los EE.UU. el “Albatross” fue construido en 1882, específicamente para realizar investigaciones acerca de los peces y de las condiciones hidrológicas en las áreas visitadas. A cam- bio del pago de los costos de operaciones del buque, Alexander Agassiz realizó tres expediciones en el Pacífico, de las cuales la primera (1891) fue la más significativa para la fauna profunda del Pacífico de México (véaseinfra ). Sin embargo, es de se- ñalar que durante la segunda expedición (1899-1900) en el Pacífico sur y centro, se alcanzó la mayor profundidad de arrastre para esta época: 4137 fm (7570 m) en una cuenca del Pacífico central (Soule 1970, Groueff 1973). Otro personaje histórico, Allan Hancock, nacido el 26 de julio 1875 en San Francisco, mostraría durante su vida un particular interés para la investigación científica en el mar. Después de obtener su certificado para operar embarcaciones mayores (lo que le valió el título de “Capitán”), A. Hancock financió expediciones a bordo de la serie de barcos que mando construir, los “Veleros”. Las campañas del “Velero III” fueron probablemente las más importantes para la región que se extien- de desde México a Ecuador, pues fueron muchas las campañas de recolecciones de muestras en esta zona y los resultados fueron consignados en una multitud de publicaciones en la serie “Allan Hancock Pacific Expeditions” que son referencias base hasta el día de hoy (e.g., Dawson 1944, Strong y Hertlein 1939, Garth 1958, H.L. Clark 1948). Sin embargo, el “Velero III” estudio esencialmente la flora y la fauna de aguas litorales. A partir de 1948, el “Velero IV” (Lám. 1 C), construido en 1948, efectuó cruceros bajo el mando del propio Capitán Allan Hancock en las costas de California, Baja California y en el golfo de California. Esta embarcación fue una de las pioneras en el uso de fotografía y de equipos específicamente dise- 26 BIODIVERSIDAD Y COMUNIDADE S DEL TALUD CONTINENTAL DEL PACÍFICO MEXICANO ñados para operar en aguas profundas, entre otros el “bentoscopo” de O. Barton. La información recabada por el “Velero IV” en aguas profundas ha sido utilizada en una amplia serie de publicaciones (e.g., Parker 1963, Wicksten 1989). La institución “Scripps Institution of Oceanography” de los EE.UU., con base en La Jolla, California, organizó también una serie de cruceros en aguas mexicanas entre 1958 y 1961. Durante estos cruceros, se recolectaron de manera inciden- tal muestras de la fauna de aguas profundas. Solamente dos de estas campañas, la “Baja Slope Expedition” y la “Holt Expedition”, que visitaron las costas de la península de Baja California, tenían como objetivos principales recolectar material biológico, parte del cual fue utilizado por Parker (1963) en su estudio de las co- munidades de invertebrados del golfo de California. A partir de los años 50, el polo de interés en la exploración de las aguas pro- fundas se desplazó en la entonces URSS, con la organización de una serie de cam- pañas de investigación de las fosas oceánicas y de diversas partes de los océanos del mundo.
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