Essential Invitation To

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC OceanographyNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. What is the sense of owning a good boat © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlettif you hang Learning,around in home LLC waters? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ~ George Miller, Oyster River

The© Jones & BartlettGrowth Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of Oceanography 1 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Preview A complete historical account of oceanographic exploration and research would be a massive undertaking. The © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC record stretches back over several millennia to the time when ancient mariners built boats and ventured boldly NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION onto the sea to explore the unknown. However, a brief sketch of maritime history is needed in a book that deals with the physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes of the ocean in a scientifically rigorous manner. First and foremost, this reminds us that for eons there have been people in the field of “oceanography”—people with ©an Jones insatiable & desireBartlett to make Learning, the unknown LLC familiar. Knowledge that© isJones commonplace & Bartlett today Learning, required pains LLC- takingNOT investigations FOR SALE by numerous OR DISTRIBUTION seafarers throughout centuries of exploration.NOT FOR Many SALE intended OR toDISTRIBUTION become rich by exploiting resources and controlling sea routes for commerce. All were driven by a yearning to understand the mysteries of the Earth and its seas. Today’s oceanographers (modern sea explorers) carry forward this quest to satisfy humankind’s curiosity. © Jones &They Bartlett owe a huge Learning, debt to the LLC courage and vision of earlier© Jones mariners, & whoBartlett by slow Learning, increments LLCreplaced ignorance NOT FORand SALE myth OR with DISTRIBUTION knowledge. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. chemistry, biology, and geology) or a related field © Jones & Bartlett1-1 Oceanography: Learning, LLC What Is It? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (engineering, meteorology, mathematics, statistics, or NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEBefore OR delving DISTRIBUTION into the science of oceanography, computer science) and choose to apply their research we should understand exactly what the word means. expertise to the study of the oceans. After obtaining The first part of the term is coined from the Greek undergraduate training in a traditional science, they word okeanos, or Oceanus, the name of the Titan son gain experience conducting oceanographic research in of the gods Uranus© Jonesand Gaea, & whoBartlett was father Learning, of the LLCgraduate school or at a marine© Jones institute. & Bartlett Recently, newLearning, LLC ocean nymphs (theNOT Oceanids). FOR SALEEventually OR oceanus DISTRIBUTION was career opportunities in oceanographyNOT FOR haveSALE developed OR DISTRIBUTION applied to the sea beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the in marine policy and management, marine law, resource North Atlantic Ocean. The second part of the term and environmental assessment, and other related fields. comes from the Greek word graphia, which refers to Marine studies commonly rely on collaboration among many types of scientists, mathematicians, engineers, the© Jonesact of recording & Bartlett and describing. Learning, In LLCfact, the word © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC oceanography is inadequate to describe the science of technicians, and policymakers. theNOT seas FOR because SALE scientists OR do DISTRIBUTION much more than merely It is customaryNOT FOR to subdivideSALE OR oceanography DISTRIBUTION into the record and describe the ocean’s physical, chemical, four fields of physical, geological, chemical, and bio- geological, and biological characteristics. Oceanogra- logical oceanography (FIGURE 1–1). These fields are in phers investigate, interpret, and model all aspects of turn linked to one another by the cross-disciplines of © Jones & Bartlettocean processes, Learning, using LLC the most modern and sophis©- Jonesgeochemistry, & Bartlett biochemistry, Learning, geophysics, LLC and biophysics. NOT FOR SALEticated OR techniques DISTRIBUTION of scientific and mathematical NOTen- FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION quiry. The term oceanology (the suffixology meaning 1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography “the science of”) is etymologically more accurate. The distinction between oceanography and oceanology is Our perception and understanding of the oceans similar to that made between geography (the physical © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLChave changed markedly© over Jones time. & AlthoughBartlett thisLearning, LLC description of the world and its biota) and geology book stresses the most current ideas championed by (the scientific studyNOT of FORthe Earth SALE and OR its processes).DISTRIBUTION marine scientists, these attitudesNOT FOR and impressions SALE OR did DISTRIBUTION The word oceanology has not, however, displaced not suddenly appear out of an intellectual vacuum. oceanography , because the latter term is solidly en- They grew out of—and evolved from—the ideas and trenched in the minds of the laypeople as well as the deductions of prior generations of ocean explorers and Western© Jones practitioners & Bartlett of theLearning, science. Thus, LLC this book scientists.© MarineJones scientists & Bartlett are well Learning, aware of theLLC fact willNOT follow FOR convention, SALE OR using DISTRIBUTION the more familiar term that all ofNOT their FOR work restsSALE on ORthe contributions DISTRIBUTION of the to denote the scientific study of the oceans. innumerable investigators that came before them. But, A common misconception is that oceanography is obviously, this does not mean that all the conclusions a pure science in its own right, practiced by women and of those early investigators have been validated. Rather, men who are specifically and narrowly instructed in as the science of oceanography has matured and as © Jones & Bartlettits investigative Learning, methods. LLC Most oceanographers are,© in Jonesresearch & Bartlett vessels, Learning,sampling devices, LLC and electronic in- NOT FOR SALEfact, trained OR DISTRIBUTION in one of the traditional sciences (physics,NOT FORstrumentation SALE OR have DISTRIBUTION become increasingly sophisticated

BIOPHYSICS OCEANOGRAPHY GEOCHEMISTRY © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION PHYSICS GEOLOGY GEOPHYSICS

© Jones & BartlettFIGURE 1–1 Learning, The field of LLC oceanography. This diagram organizes© Jones oceanography & Bartlett into four Learning,principal categories—biological, LLC geological, NOT FOR SALEphysical, OR and DISTRIBUTIONchemical oceanography—that are linked to oneNOT another FOR by cross-disciplines. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

4 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. and more widely applied to probe the ocean’s secrets, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesOcean & ExplorationBartlett Learning, LLC many beliefs of the past have been disproved. The les- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORson SALE from historyOR DISTRIBUTION is clear-cut. Our ideas of the oceans Humans have been going to sea for tens of thousands today, which seem so appealingly final and are written of years. Anthropologists suspect, for example, that about and taught with so much fervor and certainty, the ancestors of aboriginal people reached Australia by will be refined by the findings and thoughts of future seagoing vessels some 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, an generations of marine© scientists. Jones & Bartlett Learning, incredibleLLC feat requiring courage,© Jones skill, and & determina Bartlett- Learning, LLC A practical means ofNOT organizing FOR theSALE historical OR record DISTRIBUTION tion. They lived through a glaciationNOT FOR and deglaciation, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of oceanography is to arrange the events into three following the shoreline as sea level dropped and then broad stages. The first includes the early efforts of rose to its present position. These events are recorded individual mariners as they attempted to describe in their powerful myths and art. the geography of the Earth’s oceans and landmasses. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC In many© respects Jones the & Polynesian Bartlett migrationLearning, to theLLC During this time of ocean exploration, the very limits of many large and small islands of the Pacific Ocean NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the world were sought. The second includes the early (FIGURE 1–2), completed well before the common era systematic attempts to use a truly scientific approach (bce), ranks as one of the most spectacular explora- to investigate the oceans. The third covers the growth tion feats ever. Their canoes, which they sailed and of modern oceanography that has resulted from the paddled, were made by hollowing out logs or by lash- © Jones &widespread Bartlett application Learning, of LLCstate-of-the-art technology © Jonesing planking & Bartlett together Learning, with braided LLC ropes. These sea- NOT FORand SALE the international OR DISTRIBUTION collaboration of scientists. We NOTworthy FOR vessels SALE were OR built DISTRIBUTION with simple tools made of will conclude this historical review with an assessment rock, bone, and coral. In order to travel safely from of future prospects and try to predict the nature of one island to the next, these Pacific seafarers relied on oceanographic investigations in the middle part of the sound seamanship, extensive navigational skills, and twenty-first century. detailed local knowledge, all of which—in the absence © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

N O R © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC T © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC H A M NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION E NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Japan R I C NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN A

HAWA l’I © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Philippines MICRONESIA NOT FOR SALE ORCaro DISTRIBUTIONline Is. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Marshall Is.

POLYNESIA Papua New Guinea MARQUESAS IS. Indonesia Solomon Is. S MELANESIA© JonesSAMOA & BartlettO Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC C FIJI COOK IS. IE T Va nuatu Y TUAMOTU IS. NOT FOR SALE OR (TDISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION A H IT TONGA I) IS New Caledonia . Australia AUSTRAL IS. EASTER IS.

NEW ZEALAND © Jones & Bartlett Learning,SOUTH LLC PACIFIC OCEAN © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

(a) POLYNESIA (b) POLYNESIAN CANOE

© Jones &FIGURE Bartlett 1–2 Polynesia. Learning, (a) Polynesians LLC set tled these Pacific Islands,© navigating Jones across & Bartlett an ocean area Learning, the size of a continent.LLC (b) Polynesians NOT FORused SALE canoes OR made DISTRIBUTION of hollowed-out logs or planks. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The Growth of Oceanography 5 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. of a written language—was passed on to others orally By the third century bce, the flourishing Greek © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC in the recitation of epic poems. Polynesian seafarers civilization, plying the Mediterranean for trade as it NOT FOR SALEcould ORdepend DISTRIBUTION on accurate, detailed lore of local wind,NOT FORestablished SALE its OR influence DISTRIBUTION and control over the entire wave, current, and weather patterns as well as on the region, was highly dependent on its maritime prowess. position of key navigational stars in making a planned A notable sea adventurer of the time was Pytheas, the landfall after a deep-sea crossing of hundreds, even first Greek to circumnavigate England and gauge the thousands, of kilometers.© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLClength of its shoreline. Although© Jones his & travelsBartlett are Learning,not LLC Records of sailingNOT vesse FORls indicate SALE maritime OR DISTRIBUTION activity documented by first-handNOT accounts, FOR SALEsome historians OR DISTRIBUTION in Egypt as far back as 4000 bce. It is likely that the believe that Pytheas may have voyaged as far north extent of these voyages was restricted, with mariners as Norway and as far west as Iceland. If he did, this remaining well in sight of land, probably in the im- stands as an incredible navigational accomplishment. mediate vicinity of the Nile River and the shores of the Historians have established that Greek mariners esti- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC eastern Mediterranean Sea. By the sixth century bce, mated latitude (Appendix IV) by the length of the day, however,NOT FOR Phoenicians SALE OR had DISTRIBUTIONestablished sea routes for correctingNOT for theFOR time SALE of the ORyear. DISTRIBUTIONHowever, without trading throughout the entire Mediterranean region mechanical timepieces (accurate chronometers) it was and had even ventured westward into the Atlantic impossible for them to determine longitude. Pytheas’s Ocean, sailing as far north as the coast of Cornwall in discovery that the tides of the Atlantic Ocean vary © Jones & BartlettEngland. Learning, Historians suspect LLC that Phoenicians, around© Jones regularly & Bartlett with the Learning, phases of the LLC moon underscores his NOT FOR SALE600 bce OR, were DISTRIBUTION probably the first to circumnavigate NOTthe FORdeep SALE understanding OR DISTRIBUTION of ocean processes. continent of Africa. True ocean navigation was difficult A map compiled by Herodotus in 450 bce shows at the time. Navigators charted the courses of their ves- the extent of the Greeks’ understanding of world geog- sels according to the stars. Undoubtedly, sailors steered raphy (FIGURE 1–3). The Mediterranean Sea prominent- their craft in sight of the coastline whenever possible, ly occupies the center of the map and is surrounded relying on distinctive© Jones landmarks & Bartlett to find their Learning, way and LLCby three landmasses of enormous© Jones proportions—Libya & Bartlett Learning, LLC establish their position.NOT ThisFOR process SALE is calledOR DISTRIBUTION piloting. (northern Africa), Europe,NOT and FORAsia. The SALE polar OR limits DISTRIBUTION

FIGURE 1–3 The Greek world. Herodotus compiled a map of the known world around 450 bce, showing the Mediterranean Sea sur- © Jones & Bartlettrounded by Learning, the landmasses LLC known as Europa, Asia, and Libya.© Large Jones tracts &of oceanBartlett in turn Learning, surrounded this LLC land, extending to the very NOT FOR SALEedges ofOR the DISTRIBUTIONworld. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

6 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. and coastline configurations of the latter two conti- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC nents were unexplored at the time and are not marked NOT FORon SALE the map. OR All DISTRIBUTION of the familiar land is surrounded by NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION enormous expanses of ocean that the Greeks believed extended to the very ends of the world. Throughout the Middle Ages (between 500 and Iceland 1450 ce), there was little© oceanJones exploration & Bartlett by Europe Learning,- LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ans, with the notable exceptionNOT FOR of the SALE Viking OR seafarers. DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Between the ninth and the twelfth centuries, Scandina- vians extended their influence over Europe and across Eastern the Atlantic Ocean by acquiring new lands. The Norse Canada Ireland ventured boldly to Iceland, Greenland, and the Baffin © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Islands, for example, and established a North American settlementNOT knownFOR SALEas Vinland OR in DISTRIBUTION the area that we now NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION call Newfoundland. These Viking outposts eventually were abandoned because of the harsh climates. Also, the onset of the “Little Ice Age” (1430 to 1850 ce) Great © Jones &caused Bartlett the extensive Learning, buildup LLC of sea ice that cut off the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCBritain NOT FORnorthern SALE seaOR routes DISTRIBUTION from Scandinavia. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The Norsemen—the most adept and experienced navigators in the Western world at that time—sailed FIGURE 1–4 A Viking chart of the North Atlantic Ocean. This westward by maintaining a course on a predetermined Viking map, dated at about 1570, demonstrates how ex tensive the line of latitude. They accomplished this navigational knowledge of the North Atlantic Ocean was at that time. Familiar © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC feat by sailing to a coastal point along Norway and mea- land features include Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, suring the angular heightNOT of theFOR North SALE Star. ORThey DISTRIBUTION then and a portion of the northeastern shorelineNOT FOR of Canada. SALE The voyOR- DISTRIBUTION kept it at the same angle on the starboard beam of the ages of Erik the Red (982) are shown in red, those of Lief Eriksson vessel throughout the night. Their daytime navigation (~1,000) in green. relied on the careful calculation of the sun’s position for the time© Jones of year. A& map Bartlett dated atLearning, about 1570 LLC shows the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC remarkableNOT FORstate of SALE the Vikings’ OR geographicDISTRIBUTION knowledge into the PacificNOT Ocean.FOR SALEThe following OR DISTRIBUTION three months of the North Atlantic Ocean (FIGURE 1–4). were desperate for Magellan’s crew, who endured star- Economic, political, and religious motives en- vation and disease, and doubtless suffered much from couraged western Europeans to undertake long sea fear of the unknown. They eventually reached Guam explorations in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; on 6 March 1521. After proceeding to the Philippines © Jones &they Bartlett crossed theLearning, Atlantic and LLC ventured into the Pacific © Joneslater that & Bartlettmonth, Magellan Learning, was LLCkilled on 27 April NOT FOROcean. SALE Portuguese OR DISTRIBUTION sailors were particularly success- NOTon FOR the small SALE island OR of DISTRIBUTION Mactan while participating in ful explorers during this time. In 1487 and 1488 a dispute among local tribes. Sebastian del Cano Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope eventually completed the circumnavigation under at the southern tip of Africa. After sailing around the tremendous hardship, reaching Spain on 8 Septem- Cape of Good Hope in© 1498, Jones Vasco & Bartlettda Gama continLearning,- ber LLC 1522, in the last remaining© Jonesvessel of & the Bartlett expedi- Learning, LLC ued as far eastward asNOT India. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONtion, the Victoria. Of the originalNOT 230 FOR seamen, SALE only OR18 DISTRIBUTION Perhaps the crowning achievement of this age reached Seville and completed their three-year-long is the circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand circumnavigation of the globe. Magellan. Departing from Spain in late September 1519, Magellan proceeded southwestward with his Early Scientific Investigations flotilla© Jonesof five age-worn& Bartlett ships Learning, to the northeastern LLC coast © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC of BrazilNOT (FIGURE FOR SALE1–5). There OR he DISTRIBUTION began to search for A number ofNOT remarkably FOR sophisticatedSALE OR DISTRIBUTIONscientific prob- a seaway to the Pacific and, in the process, lost two ings of the ocean’s secrets were made in the eighteenth of his vessels, one by desertion. Almost one year af- and nineteenth centuries. The British were preeminent ter his departure from Spain, Magellan located the during this stage of ocean investigation. Through gov- © Jones &500- Bartlettkilometer-wide Learning, (~310 LLC miles) passage that now © Jonesernment & sponsorship, Bartlett Learning, and often under LLC the auspices of NOT FORbears SALE his nameOR DISTRIBUTION and sailed around South America and NOTmajor FOR scientific SALE societiesOR DISTRIBUTION such as the Royal Society of The Growth of Oceanography 7 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. 90°E 120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E60°E © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Arctic Circle © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 60°N NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Departure (September 1519) Magellan killed (April 27, 1521) Home Arrival 30°N © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett(September 1522)Learning,Tr opic of Cancer LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Guam Equator 0°

Tr opic of Capricorn © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 30°S NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE ORRio deDISTRIBUTION Janeiro (December 1519)

Straits of Magellan (October 1520) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett60 °Learning,S LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEAntarc ticOR Circle DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC FIGURENOT FOR1–5 The SALE circumglobal OR DISTRIBUTIONvoyage of Magellan. Ferdinand Magellan embarkedNOT on aFOR three-year-long SALE voyageOR DISTRIBUTION in 1519, intent on discovering a seaway to the East Indies. In 1520 he rounded the Straits of Magellan and continued to the Philippines, where he was killed during a skirmish with natives. Sebastian del Cano completed the journey as leader of the expedition.

© Jones & BartlettLondon, theyLearning, expanded LLC their geographic and scientific© Jones &During Bartlett his second Learning, major voyage LLC between 1772 and NOT FOR SALEknowledge OR DISTRIBUTION about the world’s seas, which was vital if theyNOT FOR1775, SALE commanding OR DISTRIBUTION the HMS Adventure and the HMS were to uphold their maritime and economic superiority. Resolution, Cook used the prevailing westerly winds to Captain James Cook best represents the British round the Cape of Good Hope and circumnavigate the seafaring adventurer of that day. Cook constructed ac- globe. He maintained a course as close to the latitude curate charts of coastlines© Jones and & made Bartlett important Learning, obser- LLC60°S as possible, continually© Jones avoiding & icebergs. Bartlett In Learning,the LLC vations about the NOTgeology FOR and SALEbiology ORof unexplored DISTRIBUTION final report of his findings,NOT Cook FOR wrote: SALE OR DISTRIBUTION regions, as well as of the customs of native popula- Thus, I flatter myself that the intention of the voyage tions. In 1768, on his first major voyage commanding has in every respect been fully answered, the Southern the HMS Endeavour, Cook sighted the coast of New Hemisphere sufficiently explored and a final end put Zealand and charted much of its shoreline. He dem- to the searching after a Southern Continent, which has © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC at times© Jones engrossed & the Bartlett attention of Learning, some of the mari LLC- onstrated convincingly that it was not part of Terra time powers for near two centuries past, and the geog- AustralisNOT FOR (a large SALE continent OR DISTRIBUTION then believed to extend raphersNOT of all FOR ages. ThatSALE there OR may DISTRIBUTIONbe a continent or into the polar latitudes, conjectured on the conviction large tract of land near the pole, I will not deny. On the contrary I am of the opinion there is (Hale, J. R. Age of there was an equal proportion of land and ocean on Exploration. New York: Time, Inc., 1966, 192). the Earth). He then proceeded westward to Australia © Jones & Bartlettand explored Learning, and mapped LLC its eastern coast, almost© Jones &Cook’s Bartlett final Learning,voyage (1778–79) LLC led him to the Pacific NOT FOR SALEfoundering OR DISTRIBUTION on the Great Barrier Reef. NOT FOROcean SALE once ORagain, DISTRIBUTION where he discovered numerous

8 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. islands, including the Hawaiian Islands. Becoming the voyage, covering almost 125,000 kilometers (~77,500 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC first mariner to sail the polar seas of both hemispheres, miles) (FIGURE 1–7c). A primary goal of the cruise was NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORCook SALE also ORventured DISTRIBUTION northward into the Bering Sea until to resolve the controversy about whether or not life stopped by pack ice at a north latitude of 70°44′. After existed in the abyss of the oceans. Edward Forbes returning to Hawaii, Cook was killed while attempting (1815–1854), an influential English naturalist, to recover a large boat stolen by a group of natives. maintained that the ocean depths below 550 meters Important work ©in Jonesmarine &science Bartlett during Learning, the (LLC~1,750 feet) were azoic (lifeless).© Jones A staff & of Bartlett six scien- Learning, LLC mid-nineteenth centuryNOT was FOR conducted SALE by OR Matthew DISTRIBUTION tists tirelessly followed the dictatesNOT of FOR the Royal SALE Society OR DISTRIBUTION Fontaine Maury, director of the U.S. Naval Depot of London, determining the chemical composition of of Charts and Instruments. While compiling Wind seawater and the distribution of life forms at all depths, and Current Charts, a task that began in 1842, Maury conducting observations of coastal and ocean currents, realized the need for international cooperation in © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and describing© Jonesthe nature & ofBartlett the sedimentary Learning, depos LLC- making ocean measurements: “[A]s these American its that blanket the sea floor. This global approach to materialsNOT are FOR not sufficientSALE OR to DISTRIBUTIONenable us to construct ocean studiesNOT represented FOR SALE a fundamental OR DISTRIBUTION step in the wind and current charts of all parts of the ocean, it evolution of marine science and heralded a new era has been judged advisable to enlist the cooperation in ocean exploration. of the other maritime powers in the same work.” In Researchers were jubilant with the scientific suc- © Jones &1855 Bartlett Maury Learning,published an LLC important and successful © Jonescess of the& BartlettChallenger Learning, expedition. TheLLC crew completed NOT FORbook, SALE The OR Physical DISTRIBUTION Geography of the Sea, to familiarize NOTmore FOR than SALE 360 deep-sea OR DISTRIBUTION soundings and raised an equal the general public with the most recent scientific find- number of dredged samples off the bottom (FIGURE 1–8). ings about the ocean. His book went through eight They obtained no fewer than 7,000 sea-life specimens, editions in the United States and nineteen editions in some from as great a depth as 9 kilometers (~5.6 miles). England and was translated into several languages. Each specimen was described, cataloged carefully, and © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC This first book dedicated entirely to the science of preserved for later laboratory analysis. The findings oceanography earnedNOT him the FOR title, SALE “father ofOR physical DISTRIBUTION of the Challenger crew left noNOT doubt FOR that SALEorganisms OR DISTRIBUTION oceanography.” lived at all depths in the ocean, finally demolishing One of the best known ocean expeditions of the the age-old belief championed by Forbes that the cold nineteenth century was the cruise of the HMS Beagle, temperature, darkness, and high water pressure of the with ©Captain Jones Robert & Bartlett Fitzroy Learning, as commander LLC and deep sea precluded© Jones life there. & Bartlett Almost 5,000 Learning, new species LLC CharlesNOT Darwin FOR SALEas the ship’s OR DISTRIBUTIONnaturalist. The Beagle of marine organismsNOT FOR were SALE identified OR DISTRIBUTIONand described. embarked on a five-year voyage, beginning in late For the first time, preliminary charts that delineated December of 1831; Darwin spent the bulk of that sea-bottom topography and the distribution of deep- time studying the geology and biology of the South sea sedimentary deposits for much of the ocean were American coastline (FIGURE 1–6). He was particularly sketched. More than twenty-three years were required © Jones &impressed Bartlett by Learning, the unique LLCanimal populations of the © Jonesto analyze & Bartlett all of the dataLearning, and specimens LLC collected by NOT FORGalápagos SALE OR Islands DISTRIBUTION off Ecuador and by the latitudinal NOTthe FOR Challenger SALE expedition. OR DISTRIBUTION These findings were pub- changes in the makeup of the biota of the coastal envi lished in fifty large volumes that marine researchers ronments of South America. After the successful com- still consult today. pletion of the voyage, Darwin spent the next twenty Near the end of the nineteenth century, the years examining and reflecting© Jones on & his Bartlett copious data.Learning, He Norwegian LLC explorer Fridtjof ©Nansen Jones embarked & Bartlett on a Learning, LLC eventually developed NOTa most FORelegant SALE theory ORof organic DISTRIBUTION remarkable journey in an effortNOT to study FOR the SALEcirculation OR DISTRIBUTION evolution, suggesting that the appearance and evolu- of the Arctic Ocean and to be the first man to reach tion of new species result by natural selection, which the North Pole. Nansen’s scheme was to construct a operates slowly over very long periods of deep geologic robust, hardy research vessel that could be frozen into time. His arguments, observations, and conclusions led the sea ice and drift safely in this icy grip for three to the© publication Jones & ofBartlett his seminal Learning, work, On LLC the Origin years or more.© JonesDespite considerable& Bartlett Learning,opposition from LLC of SpeciesNOT, in FOR 1859. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION scientists andNOT mariners FOR alike, SALE Nansen OR obtainedDISTRIBUTION fund- One of the more successful and significant scien- ing and built the Fram, a 38-meter (~125 feet), three- tific voyages of the nineteenth century wasdirected by masted schooner with the unheard-of hull thickness C. Wyville Thomson aboard the 2,360-ton corvette, of l.2 meters (~4 feet) (FIGURE 1–9a). In late September © Jones &the Bartlett HMS Challenger Learning, (FIGURE LLC 1–7a and b). Between 1872 © Jones1893, the& Bartlett Fram, with Learning, its crew of LLC thirteen men and NOT FORand SALE 1876, OR the ChallengerDISTRIBUTION completed a globe-encircling NOTprovisions FOR SALE for five OR years, DISTRIBUTION was successfully locked into The Growth of Oceanography 9 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

90°E 120°E 150°E 180° 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W 0° 30°E60°E

60°N Departure (December 1831) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesHome Arrival & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT(August FOR 1836) SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

30°N Tr opic of Cancer

Galapagos © Jones & Bartlett Learning,(September-October LLC 1835) © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Equator LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION0°

Tr opic of Capricorn

Arrived Brazil 30°S (February 1832) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Cape of Good Hope NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONSydney NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION(June 18, 1836) (January 1836)

60°S

Antarctic Circle © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

(c) ROUTE OF HMS BEAGLE FIGURE 1–6 The voyage of the HMS Beagle. (a) Drawing depicting the HMS Beagle, which was commanded by Captain Robert Fitzroy. (b)© CharlesJones Darwin, & Bartlett who occupied Learning, the post of LLCnaturalist aboard the Beagle, made© astute Jones observations & Bartlett and ample Learning, collections of theLLC biota andNOT rocks FOR that he SALE encountered OR everywhere DISTRIBUTION during the five-year voyage. ReflectionNOT on theseFOR data SALE later led OR him toDISTRIBUTION postulate the evolution of all organisms by natural selection. (c) Route of the HMS Beagle.

10 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

(a) HMS CHALLENGER (b) CHARLES WYVILLE THOMSON

Arctic Circle © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE60° NOR DISTRIBUTION Departure (December 1872) Returned (May 1876) (May 1873) (June 1875) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 30°N NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALETr opic of Cancer OR DISTRIBUTION Manila Hawaiian Islands (March (November (August 1875) 1873) 1874) Equator Tonga Islands 0° (June 1874) Tahiti Island (September 1875) (September © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett1873) Learning, LLC Tr opic of Capricorn NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT(October FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 30°S 1875) Cape Town (October 1873) Kerguelen Island (January 1874) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 60°S NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Antarctic Circle

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (c) ROUTENOT OFFOR THE CHALLENGERSALE OR EXPEDITION DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 1–7 The Challenger expedition. (a) This painting shows the HMS Challenger plying the seas between 1872 and 1876. (b) Charles Wyville Thomson commanded the circumnavigation of the globe expeditions. (c) The track of the Challenger expedition shows that measurements were made in all parts of the world’s oceans, except for the northern Indian Ocean and the Arctic Ocean. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The Growth of Oceanography 11 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & BartlettThe Process Learning, of LLC Science © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The Scientific Process As this chapter on the history of oceanography indicates, rigorous testing of each hypothesis by experimentation or by scientists make statements about the natural world; they the gathering of additional observations; the explicit intent assume that natural© processes Jones &are Bartlett orderly and Learning, therefore LLCof the test is to determine ©whether Jones the &hypothesis Bartlett is falseLearning, LLC knowable by a rationalNOT mind. FOR Statements SALE made OR by DISTRIBUTION scientists or true. If the test results disagreeNOT withFOR the SALE prediction, OR then DISTRIBUTION are not merely random opinions about the workings of the the hypothesis being evaluated is disproved, meaning that world. Rather they are logical explanations, termed hy- it cannot be a legitimate account of reality. Then it is either potheses, that are grounded solidly on a set of observations modified into a new hypothesis that is compatible with the and© Jonestested rigorously & Bartlett in order Learning, to evaluate theirLLC credibility. test findings© Jones or discarded & Bartlett altogether Learning, and replaced byLLC other, NOTScientific FOR investigations SALE OR are DISTRIBUTION begun typically by people who still-to-be-testedNOT FOR hypotheses. SALE Keep OR in DISTRIBUTION mind, however, that develop an interest in answering a question about the natural agreement between expected and experimental test results world. Examples of such questions in oceanography might be: is not proof that the hypothesis is true. Rather, it means only that the hypothesis continues to be a valid version of • What is the geologic origin of a particular estuary? reality for the time being. It may not survive the next test. • How does the chemistry of the seawater in this © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesIf a hypothesis& Bartlett repeatedly Learning, avoids falsification,LLC then scientists estuary vary over time? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORregard SALE it as a close OR apprDISTRIBUTIONoximation of the truth. A flow dia- • What is the water current pattern in this estuary and gram of this version of the scientific method is presented what controls it? as FIGURE B1–1. • What effect does lead dissolved in the water have on In this book, we describe the results of a long-standing a species of clam in this estuary? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCinterest among scientists in© answering Jones questions & Bartlett about Learning, the LLC The questions can be general or specific, theoretical or NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONworkings of the oceans. It isNOT a current FOR update SALE of the OR facts, DISTRIBUTION applied, abstract or concrete. hypotheses, and theories of ocean processes. Undoubt- Scientists interested in a question then conduct labora- edly, as oceanographers continue to conduct scientific tory, field, or modeling (mathematical) experiments in or- work in the world’s oceans, some of these ideas will be der to generate accurate facts (observations) that bear on disproved and replaced by other hypotheses. This is the an© answerJones to &the Bartlett question beingLearning, investigated. LLC A legitimate way it must© Jonesbe; this is & the Bartlett scientific Learning, process. LLC answerNOT (theFOR hypothesis) SALE to OR a scientific DISTRIBUTION question is one that can NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION be tested. A hypothesis is always considered to be a tentative Visit http://science.jbpub.com/oceanlink6e explanation. Scientists first and foremost are skeptics, trying for more information. to disprove hypotheses in order to eliminate falsehoods from the scientific understanding of the natural world. © Jones & BartlettDepending Learning, on the LLCresults of tests, hypotheses may© Jones &Question Bartlett Learning, LLC about NOT FOR SALEbe verified, OR DISTRIBUTION rejected, or modified. When a hypothesisNOT is FOR SALEreality OR DISTRIBUTION tested repeatedly in different ways and not disproved, scientists then assume that it is “correct” and the hypothesis Examination of available becomes a theory, as new facts continue to support it. data For example, Charles Darwin proposed his hypothesis of Hypothesis © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC is falsified© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC biological evolutionNOT by natural FOR selection SALE during OR theDISTRIBUTION middle Formulation NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION part of the nineteenth century. Today, after repeated tests of hypothesis Disagreement between expectation and countless facts that support the idea, his hypothesis of and observation

biological evolution by natural selection has been elevated Conduct Making a OR to the status of a theory. prediction a test © JonesIn summary, & Bartlett scientists are Learning, not, as many LLC believe, primar- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Agreement LLC between expectation ilyNOT concerned FOR about SALE discovering OR DISTRIBUTION and gathering facts. Rather, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONand observation

researchers ask crucial questions about the natural world Hypothesis and then try to answer them by proposing hypotheses— remains valid creative insights about what the truthful responses to those © Jones & Bartlettquestions Learning, might be. What LLC really separates the scientific© Jones FIGURE & Bartlett B1–1 The Learning,process of science. LLC A version of the scien- NOT FOR SALEmethod OR from DISTRIBUTION other ways of knowing is its reliance on theNOT FORtific SALEmethod is ORpresented DISTRIBUTION as a simple flow diagram.

12 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORFIGURE SALE 1–8 OR The DISTRIBUTION Challenger expedition. A small collection of the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 360 dredge samples taken during the Challenger’s circumnavigation of the world, 1872–76.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the sea ice north of Siberia.NOT There FOR it SALE remained OR trapped DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION in the ice for three years, slowly drifting at an average rate of 2 kilometers (~1.2 miles) per day, and got as close as 400 kilometers (~248 miles) to the North Pole (FIGURE 1–9b). When the ice-locked Fram drifted to a north© latitude Jones of 84& °Bartlett, Nansen and Learning, Frederick LLC Johansen © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC left theNOT vessel FOR in aSALE courageous OR DISTRIBUTION attempt to reach the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION North Pole by dogsled. After much hardship, they abandoned their quest after fourteen months, getting only as far as 86°14′. Fortunately, they were sighted and picked up by a British expedition on Franz Josef © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones(b) DRIFT & RO BartlettUTE OF THE Learning, FRAM LLC Land. The crew members aboard the Fram made many FIGURE 1–9 The Arctic voyage of the Fram. (a) The Norwe- NOT FORoceanographic SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and atmospheric observations during NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION gian vessel Fram, amid the ice of the Arctic Ocean. (b) The Fram, their sojourn, establishing the absence of a polar con- gripped solidly in sea ice, drifted for almost three years across tinent, the water depths along the drift path, and the the Arctic Ocean. water-mass structure of the Arctic Ocean. Today the Fram can be seen on display© Jones in Oslo, & Bartlett Norway. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Modern Oceanography They delineated, as never before, the rugged bottom topography of the deep sea and gathered vertical profiles Modern oceanographic research is rather arbitrarily of salinity, water temperature, and dissolved oxygen at taken© to Jones begin sometime & Bartlett in the Learning, twentieth century, LLC with numerous hydrographic© Jones & stations. Bartlett No dataLearning, of such qual LLC- the design of elaborate experiments involving a truly ity or density had ever before been gathered from the interdisciplinaryNOT FOR approach SALE andOR a DISTRIBUTIONreliance on highly com- ocean. From NOTthat day FOR onward, SALE many OR large DISTRIBUTION ocean surveys plex instruments and sampling devices. A case in point patterned themselves after the cruise of the Meteor. is the expedition in 1925–27 of the Meteor to the South The world wars had important effects on the de- Atlantic Ocean. For twenty-five months, the German velopment of marine research. The advent of modern © Jones &scientists Bartlett used Learning, highly developed LLC oceanographic equip- © Joneswarfare, & with Bartlett its reliance Learning, on sophisticated LLC vessels, weap- NOT FORment SALE to complete OR DISTRIBUTION an unprecedented survey of an ocean. NOTonry, FOR and SALE electronic OR instruments, DISTRIBUTION made the U.S. Navy The Growth of Oceanography 13 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONTHE OCEAN SCIENCESNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION PHYSICS Marine Archeology

Searching Davy ©Jones’s Jones locker & forBartlett ancient Learning,treasures is LLC USS Monitor © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC not an easy matter.NOT The FORdepths SALEof the sea OR are mysteriousDISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and dangerous, and yet hauntingly beautiful and captivat- In 1973, Duke University marine scientists located ing. Exploration of this dark underwater world requires the USS Monitor, a Union Civil War vessel that was all manner of sophisticated equipment and techniques, the first steam-powered ironclad warship constructed lots of specialized multidisciplinary expertise, collabora- without masts and sails (FIGURE B1–2). She was found ©tive Jones efforts & among Bartlett government, Learning, industrial, LLC and academic in the “Graveyard© Jones of & the Bartlett Atlantic,” Learning, some 25 kilome LLC- NOTexperts, FOR a deep SALE funding OR pocket, DISTRIBUTION and considerable luck. ters (15.6NOT miles) FOR off Cape SALE Hatteras, OR North DISTRIBUTION Carolina in Typically, a project begins on land with years of extended about 70 meters (~230 feet) of water where she sank study, searching historical documents and ancient maps during an 1862 gale while being towed to port. During for specific clues about the location of a shipwreck. the summer of 2001, U.S. Navy divers in collaboration © Jones & BartlettAfter consultingLearning, current, LLC tide, and bathymetric charts,© Joneswith & NASA Bartlett personnel Learning, recovered LLC the Monitor’s unique the appropriate vessel, geophysical gear, and technical NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORsteam SALE engine andOR donated DISTRIBUTION it to The Mariners Museum and support personnel are deployed in the project area in Newport News, Virginia, where it was electrochemi- when the weather conditions are best for maximizing the cally treated for preservation and public display. During chances of success. The indirect search of the sea bottom 2002, divers salvaged the Monitor’s armored revolving typically relies on sophisticated geophysical equipment, gun turret, now displayed at The Mariners Museum. The such as echo sounders,© Jones magnetometers, & Bartlett high-resolution Learning, LLCMariners Museum will be the© officialJones depository & Bartlett for allLearning, LLC side-scan sonar andNOT sub-bottom FOR SALE profilers, OR mannedDISTRIBUTION sub- artifacts and salvage of theNOT USS Monitor FOR. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION mersibles, and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). Once a wreck is located, the site and its artifacts are explored The Scapa Flow Marine Archeology systematically and mapped accurately, relying heavily on Project (Scapamap) navigational and global positioning system (GPS) technol- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Scapa© Flow, Jones located & Bartlettin the isolated Learning, Orkney Islands LLC ogy. If artifacts are retrieved, they must be treated im- off the northeast shores of Scotland, is a site where 52 NOTmediately FOR to SALE protect woodOR DISTRIBUTIONand metal from deteriorating NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION W WI German warships, part of the German High Seas rapidly once exposed to air. Fleet of the time, were scuttled and sank to the rough There is nothing more exhilarating than successfully sea bottom of Scapa Flow where they had been an- finding and then studying an ancient shipwreck on the chored during the early summer of 1919. The warships sea floor. To experience vicariously the frustrations and © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesincluded & Bartlett the cruisers Learning, Brummer, LLCKoln, and Dresden and NOT FOR SALEelations OR ofDISTRIBUTION underwater explorers, you are encouragedNOT to FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION search the web and investigate these ambitious projects. the battleships Wilhelm, Konig, Markgraf, and Kronprinz. Since their sinking, there have been salvaging efforts by The Jeremy Project numerous groups that, in some cases, have damaged and weakened some of the vessels. Also, the site has This ambitious venture, a collaborative effort by always been a mecca for sports divers, attracting thou- the National Park© JonesService, NASA,& Bartlett the U.S. Learning, Navy and LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC sands each year. In an effort to protect the vessels for Coast Guard, theNOT Alaska FOR State HistoricSALE Preservation OR DISTRIBUTION Of- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION posterity, the ScapaMap Acoustic Consortium (SAC) fice, and the Minerals Management Service, is the search was founded. Using a state-of-the-art multibeam echo in the cold, dark waters of the Chukchi Sea of Alaska sounder, SAC is surveying the wrecks and has obtained for the remains of a nineteenth century New Bedford, a remarkable set of images of many of these warships © MassachusettsJones & Bartlett whaling fleet Learning, that in 1871 LLC got trapped by © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (FIGURE B1–3), some lying on their sides, others over- NOTsea ice; FOR all 32 SALE vessels ORwere DISTRIBUTIONcrushed and sank. Several of NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION these whaling ships have been located, using a telepres- turned with keels pointing upward. ence remotely operated vehicle (TROV), a stereoscopic video device that generates a three-dimensional image Visit http://science.jbpub.com/oceanlink6e of objects on the sea bottom. for more information. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

14 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

FIGURE B1–2 USS Monitor. This image of the Monitor shows how the steam-powered ironclad was constructed. NOAA FIGURE B1–3 This multi-beam echosounder image displays salvagers raised the main gun turret from the seabed off in remarkable, three-dimensional detail the remains of the Cape© Jones Hatteras & where Bartlett the vessel Learning, sank while beingLLC towed SMS Markgraf, ©one Jones of the Imperial & Bartlett German NavyLearning, warships LLC duringNOT an FOR1862 gale. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION scuttled in ScapaNOT Flow (Orkney,FOR SALE Scotland) OR in 1919. DISTRIBUTION

© Jones &aware Bartlett of an urgent Learning, need to LLC understand the nature of © JonesThe & trend Bartlett recently Learning, has been to LLCorganize major col- NOT FORocean SALE processes. OR DISTRIBUTION Civilian scientists were recruited, and NOTlaborations FOR SALE among OR marine DISTRIBUTION scientists from many disci- the navy enacted a program to finance basic oceano- plines and nations. Three noteworthy programs of this graphic research, with an emphasis on physical rather type were the 1957–58 International Geophysical than biological problems. This financial support by a Year (IGY), the 1959–65 International Indian Ocean government agency stimulated© Jones large-scale & Bartlett research Learning, en- ExpeditionLLC under the auspices© ofJones the United & Bartlett Nations, Learning, LLC terprises, and restrictedNOT the activities FOR SALE of many OR oceanog DISTRIBUTION- and the International DecadeNOT of Ocean FOR Exploration SALE OR DISTRIBUTION raphers to problems that were of interest mainly to the (IDOE) of the 1970s, which was supported jointly by military. Postwar government-sponsored support led the United Nations and National Science Foundation not only to great and rapid advances in instrumentation, of the United States. Research became less descrip- but also eventually to the establishment of sea-grant tive and more quantitative, and instruments, sampling colleges,© Jones patterned & afterBartlett already Learning, existing land-grant LLC col- techniques, and© Jones data storage & Bartlett and analysis Learning, became LLCin- legesNOT that conducted FOR SALE important OR DISTRIBUTION agricultural research. creasingly moreNOT complex. FOR InSALE fact, many OR DISTRIBUTIONof the concepts A new development for promoting and facilitating we will examine in the remainder of this book are the oceanographic research was the establishment of marine direct result of such cooperative efforts by teams of institutions. In North America, such research centers en- scientists. © Jones &couraged Bartlett and Learning,supported both LLC small- and large-scale, lo- © JonesBeginning & Bartlett in the Learning, 1960s, the LLC National Science cal and foreign research by providing funds, laboratory, Foundation organized and generously funded the NOT FORand SALE library OR facilities, DISTRIBUTION equipment, research vessels, and NOT1968–75 FOR SALE Deep-Sea OR DrillingDISTRIBUTION Project (DSDP). The scientific expertise. Furthermore, marine institutions goals of this ambitious program included drilling into gave young people the opportunity to obtain graduate the sediments and rocks of the deep sea to confirm training and valuable experience in conducting science seafloor spreading and global plate tectonics, which at sea. In the United States,© Jones the first & Bartlettsuch center— Learning,The were LLC at the time recent theories© Jonesabout the & mobility Bartlett of Learning, LLC Scripps Institution of NOTBiological FOR Research SALE, whichOR DISTRIBUTION later the oceanic crust. Furthermore,NOT scientists FOR were SALE to assess OR DISTRIBUTION became The Scripps Institution of Oceanography— the oceans’ resources for the benefit of humankind. was founded at La Jolla by the University of California in The Glomar Challenger—a 10,500-ton–displacement 1903. Two oceanographic centers were later established vessel (FIGURE 1–10a) designed and built to serve as on the© EastJones Coast: & Bartlettthe Woods Learning, Hole Oceanographic LLC a drilling platform—employed© Jones & Bartlett the Learning,latest electronic LLC Institution in 1930 on the south shore of Cape Cod, equipment for dynamic positioning over a borehole. Massachusetts,NOT FOR and SALE the Lamont OR DISTRIBUTION Doherty Geological Samples of NOTsediment FOR and SALE rock obtained OR DISTRIBUTION by drilling Observatory in 1949 (now known as Lamont Earth below the seabed helped geologists reconstruct the Observatory) above the massive basalt cliffs of the Hud- history of the Earth and its oceans. The success of the son River in New York. Today a number of universities DSDP venture, from both an engineering and a scien- © Jones &have Bartlett major oceanographic Learning, programsLLC and large, sophis- © Jonestific perspective, & Bartlett exceeded Learning, the expectations LLC of even its NOT FORticated SALE seagoing OR DISTRIBUTION research vessels. NOTmost FOR optimistic SALE supporters. OR DISTRIBUTION In 1975 the program was The Growth of Oceanography 15 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. reconstituted as the International Program of Ocean © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Drilling (IPOD) with the support and active participa- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORtion ofSALE France, OR the DISTRIBUTIONUnited Kingdom, the Soviet Union, Japan, and the Federal Republic of Germany, as well as the United States. The Glomar Challenger was retired in 1983 and another drilling vessel, the Joides Resolution © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC(FIGURE 1–10b), continues© the Jones geologic & explorationBartlett Learning, of LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe oceans. To date, the NOTDSDP FOR and IPOD SALE programs OR DISTRIBUTION have drilled over 2,900 holes into the sea bottom and retrieved over 320 km of mud, sand, and rock core.

1-3 Current and Future ©(a) THEJones GLOMAR & CHALLENGER Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION OceanographicNOT FOR SALE Research OR DISTRIBUTION The methods of oceanographic investigation are changing drastically. Without doubt, this trend will continue (probably at an even more accelerated pace) as tech- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesnology & Bartlett is applied Learning, to the study LLC of the sea in many new NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORand ingeniousSALE OR ways. DISTRIBUTION The future directions that marine research will take are manifold. A greater reliance on international efforts involving many scientists and flotillas of re- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCsearch vessels is an inevitable© Jones result of & increases Bartlett in Learning,the LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONmagnitude and complexityNOT of scientific FOR SALE problems OR andDISTRIBUTION the accompanying price tag for such ambitious under- takings at sea. The successes of such large-scale en- deavors as the IDOE and DSDP assure that they will (b) THE JOIDES RESOLUTION continue. To cite examples, Joides is developing multi- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC disciplinary© Jones research & strategies Bartlett and Learning, identifying specificLLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION drilling sitesNOT to investigateFOR SALE climate OR variability DISTRIBUTION over short- and long-term time scales; the dynamics of the Earth’s crust and interior; the evolution and paleobiology of the marine biosphere; the nature of catastrophic processes © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonessuch & as Bartlett earthquakes, Learning, volcanic eruptions,LLC and meteorite impacts; and past variations in the sea-ice cover of the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORArctic SALE Ocean. OR In 2003,DISTRIBUTION Japan and the United States created the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). A new, state-of-the-art, 210-meter-long (~229 yards), deep-drilling vessel, the Chikyu (FIGURE 1–10c) was con- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCstructed in Japan and delivered© Jones in July & 2005. Bartlett Currently, Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe Center for Deep EarthNOT Research FOR (CDEX), SALE ORa con DISTRIBUTION- sortium of Canada, several European nations, China, (c) THE CHIKYU and South Korea, is using the vessel to drill a series of FIGURE 1–10 Ships designed for deep-sea drilling. (a) The Glomar deep holes in seismic zones of the Pacific seafloor. Also, Challenger, a unique drilling vessel 122 meters long, could manage © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the use of© submersiblesJones & Bartlett (FIGURE 1–11Learning,a), both manned LLC about 7.6 kilometers of drill pipe. (b) The Joides Resolution, about and unmanned, for probing the depths of the sea, will 300NOT meters FOR long, SALE can handle OR over DISTRIBUTION 9.1 kilometers of drill pipe and undoubtedlyNOT increase FOR SALE as the technology OR DISTRIBUTION and the design operate safely in heavier seas and winds than the Glomar Challenger of such crafts continue to improve. could. (c) The 210-meter-long Chikyu can drill in water depths A crucial technological breakthrough in oceano- up to 2.5 kilometers and carries enough drill pipe to continue graphic research has been the navigational accuracy © Jones & Bartlett7.5 kilometers Learning, below the seafloor. LLC © Jonesprovided & Bartlett by the Global Learning, Positioning LLC System (GPS), de- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORveloped SALE by the OR U.S. DISTRIBUTION Department of Defense during the

16 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

(a) ALVIN (b) TOPEX/POSEIDON SATELLITE FIGURE 1–11 New technology© Jones for probing & Bartlett the sea. (a) Learning, Submersibles, LLCsuch as Alvin, are useful for the close© examinationJones & and Bartlett sampling Learning, LLC of the fauna, sediment, andNOT rock ofFOR the deep SALE sea. (b) OR The DISTRIBUTIONTOPEX/Poseidon satellite launched by NASA inNOT 1992 has FOR provided SALE detailed, OR DISTRIBUTION accurate data on the level of the sea surface, crucial for predicting changes in current and climate patterns.

1970s. Relying on coded satellite signals, a state-of-the-art of microscopic plants and the topography of the sea GPS receiver© Jones can &determine Bartlett latitude Learning, and longitude LLC and surface. For ©example, Jones the & BartlettTOPEX/Poseidon Learning, satellite LLC verticalNOT position FOR of aSALE receiver OR to within DISTRIBUTION a few meters. This (FIGURE 1–11bNOT), launched FOR bySALE NASA OR in 1992, DISTRIBUTION can deter- is accomplished by accurate measurements of the travel mine the level of the sea surface to within an accuracy of time of radio signals from a series of orbiting satellites, 13 cm (~5.1 inches). Recently, the Deep Ocean Explora- each with a unique transmission code, to a GPS receiver tion Institute of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution © Jones &aboard Bartlett a ship Learning, or aircraft. Twenty-fourLLC GPS satellites, © Jonesand the &University Bartlett of WashingtonLearning, have LLC begun planning monitored continually from five ground-based stations, to install a grid of fiber-optic submarine cables that will NOT FORconstitute SALE ORthe worldwide DISTRIBUTION system; the measurement of the NOTcrisscross FOR SALE at nodes. OR These DISTRIBUTION cables will power deep-sea precise distance between a receiver and four of the GPS sensors and robotic vehicles, which will be in com- satellites suffices to establish almost instantly the receiver’s munication with oceanographers on land. This cable location. In effect, knowing where you are exactly in the network will provide detailed surveys and long-term middle of the ocean, where© Jones there are& Bartlett no landmarks, Learning, is measurements, LLC which will be invaluable© Jones for & developing Bartlett Learning, LLC now a standard procedureNOT for FOR oceanographers. SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONmore sophisticated computer modelsNOT ofFOR ocean SALE processes. OR DISTRIBUTION Perhaps the newest research development is a much These remote techniques enable scientists to sur- greater dependence on remote-sensing techniques. vey large tracts of ocean quickly, efficiently, and at Many marine scientists in the future will never go to reasonable cost. Large computers are also playing an sea; they© Jones will remain & Bartlett in laboratories Learning, (some LLClocated far increasingly© more Jones important & Bartlett role in Learning,ocean research, LLC inland away from the coastline), and satellites will con- not only as a tool for storing, sorting, and analyzing tinuallyNOT transmit FOR data SALE to them OR from DISTRIBUTION oceanographic buoys the large quantitiesNOT FORof information SALE beingOR DISTRIBUTION generated, but and unmanned platforms at sea at an unprecedented also for modeling the ocean’s processes and conducting rate. Some of these research techniques are already in experiments to trace changes over time, ranging from use. Sophisticated electronic instruments have been time scales of a few years (El Niño cycles) to millions © Jones &installed Bartlett in satellites Learning, that LLCcan accurately detect sea- © Jonesof years & (the Bartlett opening Learning,of ocean basins). LLC The possibilities NOT FORsurface SALE temperatures OR DISTRIBUTION and can estimate concentrations NOTremain FOR limitless SALE andOR exciting. DISTRIBUTION The Growth of Oceanography 17 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Study© Jones &Guide Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Key Concepts NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

1. Oceanographers are well-trained scientists who in- 4. Modern oceanography, which began in earnest vestigate the ocean, its organisms, and its process- with the cruise of the German ship the Meteor © Joneses. Oceanographic & Bartlett work Learning, is often multi LLCdisciplinary to© the Jones Atlantic & Ocean Bartlett in 1927, Learning, relies on sophisLLC - NOT inFOR character, SALE involving OR DISTRIBUTION the collaboration of many ticatedNOT instrumentsFOR SALE to OR make DISTRIBUTION accurate and ef- types of scientists (Figure 1–1), mathematicians, ficient measurements of the oceans’ properties. engineers, technicians, and policymakers. Also, marine institutions have been established 2. Early efforts to learn about the oceans involved specifically to promote research in the sea. The exploration by ship. The geography of the world, newest development is the organization of ma- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC both its landmasses and oceans, was mapped in jor collaborative programs involving marine NOT FOR SALE ORincreasingly DISTRIBUTION more accurate detail as techniquesNOT FOR SALEscientists OR fromDISTRIBUTION many nations. The Interna- in piloting, navigation, and surveying were devel- tional Decade of Ocean Exploration (1970s), oped and refined. The preeminent sea voyagers the Deep Sea Drilling Project (1968–75), and were the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and the International Program of Ocean Drilling Norsemen,© their Jones pioneering & Bartlett explorations Learning, culmi- LLC (1975–present) are© amongJones them. & Bartlett Learning, LLC nating withNOT Magellan’s FOR epic SALE circumnavigation OR DISTRIBUTION of 5. Future scientific NOTstudies FOR of the SALE ocean ORwill relyDISTRIBUTION the globe (Figure 1–5) between 1519 and 1521. more and more on large international programs 3. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and remote-sensing techniques, including long, large-scale expeditions were organized to measurements from satellites, ocean buoys, sample sea life, chart the sea bottom, measure unmanned platforms at sea, and exact location © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC currents, and determine the chemical makeup by the Global Positioning System (GPS). Com- NOT ofFOR seawater SALE in allOR parts DISTRIBUTION of the world. Notable putersNOT for FOR storing, SALE handling, OR DISTRIBUTION and processing the scientific achievements were made by Cook enormous quantities of data and for modeling (1768–79), Darwin (1831–36) (Figure 1–6c), ocean processes are playing an ever-increasing Thomson (1872–76) (Figure 1–7c), and Nansen role in ocean research. © Jones & Bartlett(1893–95) Learning, (Figure LLC 1–9b), among others. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Questions

1. What exactly is oceanography, and how does it 4. In what ways are future oceanographic research differ from© other Jones fields & ofBartlett science? Learning, LLC techniques likely to© differ Jones from &present Bartlett ones? Learning, LLC 2. Briefly describe the successes of the Egyptians NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 5. What is GPS, and NOTwhy is FOR it critically SALE useful OR for DISTRIBUTION and Phoenicians in ocean exploration. oceanographers? 3. What distinguishes modern oceanography from 6. What exactly is the scientific method? Can earlier scientific investigations of the oceans? scientists “prove” their hypotheses? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ToolsNOT FORfor Learning SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Tools for Learning is an on-line review area located at this find chapter outlines, review questions, hints for some of book’s web site OceanLink (http://science.jbpub.com/ the book’s math questions (identified by the math icon), © Jones & Bartlettoceanlink6e Learning,). The review LLC area provides a variety of activi©- Jonesweb & research Bartlett tips Learning, for selected LLCCritical-Thinking Essay NOT FOR SALEties designed OR DISTRIBUTION to help you study for your class. You willNOT FORquestions, SALE key OR term DISTRIBUTION reviews, and figure-labeling exercises.

18 CHAPTER 1 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOREnvironmental SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Issues NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Introduction to Issues in Ocean Sustainability

Introduction © Jones & Bartlett Learning, ofLLC resource use in which natural© resources Jones (be& Bartlett they living Learning, LLC “The findings are shocking.NOT FORThis is SALEa very serious OR DISTRIBUTION situ- or nonliving) are extracted, used,NOT then FOR thrown SALE “away,” OR DISTRIBUTION ation demanding unequivocal action at every level. to a cyclical model built around reduction, reuse, and We are looking at consequences for humankind that recycling. Sustainability also extends beyond environ- will impact in our lifetime, and worse, our children’s mentalism to include economic and social justice. and generations beyond that.” The© Jonesspeaker & was Bartlett Dr. Alex Learning, Rogers, LLCscientific Achieving© Sustainable Jones & Bartlett Oceans Learning, LLC directorNOT of theFOR International SALE OR Programme DISTRIBUTION on the State Achieving a sustainableNOT FOR ocean SALE requires OR DISTRIBUTION addressing a of the Ocean (IPSO), and he was referring to a 2011 number of seemingly unrelated issues. These include report1 issued by this international group of marine fisheries, forests, energy, biodiversity, climate change scientists on the impact of humans on the oceans. (ocean warming, sea level rise, and acidification), man- © Jones &The Bartlett panel concluded Learning, that LLC a mass marine extinction © Jonesufacturing & Bartlettand industry, Learning, agriculture, LLC justice and equity and, of course, human population growth (FIGURE 1). NOT FORunprecedented SALE OR DISTRIBUTION in human history was inevitable in the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION absence of “urgent actions to restore the structure and function of marine ecosystems.” Climate Change To what “impact of humans” was the panel referring? The speed with which human-induced climate change Could humans, a species that has been on the planet is occurring is overwhelming the ability of natural for a relatively short time,© Jones be directly & Bartlett responsible Learning, for a ecosystemsLLC to adapt. Rising ©sea Jones levels will & Bartlettflood and Learning, LLC massive extinction in theNOT global FOR ocean? SALE And OR what DISTRIBUTION spe- destroy coastal salt marshes,NOT and FORincreased SALE ocean OR DISTRIBUTION cifically are the “urgent actions” that need to be taken? temperatures threaten communities like coral reefs. These are questions we will be answering (and ask- Moreover, the ability of oceans to absorb CO2, the ing you to analyze) in twelve two-page Issues in Ocean chief climate-changing gas, has been exceeded; as a Sustainability boxes placed between selected chapters, result, the oceans are acidifying at a rate that alarms © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC with links to additional information and activities on marine scientists. Climate change is the 600-pound this book’sNOT FOR companion SALE website. OR DISTRIBUTION Each of these self- gorilla in the NOTcorner FOR for each SALE Issue, OR that DISTRIBUTIONis, no issue can contained issues is designed to be a thought-provoking, be considered without considering the added impact science-based, interactive introduction to a real-life, of climate change. not hypothetical marine issue, many of which you may have never considered. As the name implies, these Fisheries © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesContemporary & Bartlett industrial-style Learning, fishing LLC methods and, NOT FORissues SALE focus OR on DISTRIBUTION sustainability, so let’s start by defining NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION sustainability and applying the concept to the ocean. surprisingly some recreational fishing, impose significant environmental costs. Yields from global fisheries What Is Sustainability? are declining, leading to expansion of aquaculture of- Sustainability, or sustainable development, was defined ten at the expense of coastal ecosystems and wild fish. in 1987 by the World Commission© Jones &on Bartlett Environment Learning, and LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Protecting Forests and Other Development2 as “development that meets the needs of NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONTerrestrial Ecosystems NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the present without compromising the ability of future Forests retard sediment loss and filter runoff that can generations to meet their own needs.” Sustainability poison near-shore marine ecosystems such as coral involves a transformation from a wasteful linear model reefs. Forests also store carbon, mediating climate © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC change and ©thereby Jones reducing & Bartlett excess Learning, carbon dioxide LLC 1 Rogers,NOT A.D. FOR & Laffoley, SALE D.d’A. OR 2011. DISTRIBUTION International Earth dissolved in NOTseawater, FOR which SALE can leadOR toDISTRIBUTION acidification system expert workshop on ocean stresses and impacts. Summary of the oceans. report. IPSO Oxford, 18 pp. Available at http://www .stateoftheocean.org/pdfs/1906_IPSO-LONG.pdf Energy 2 World Commission on Environment and Development (Gro Sustainable societies cannot be built on nonrenewable © Jones &Harlem Bartlett Brundtland, Learning, Chair). 1987. LLC Our Common Future. © Jonesenergy resources.& Bartlett Burning Learning, fossil fuel LLC emits the pollutants NOT FOR Oxford:SALE Oxford OR DISTRIBUTIONUniversity Press. NOTthat FOR cause SALE climate changeOR DISTRIBUTION as well as others that have been The Growth of Oceanography 19 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

6 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©Population (billions) Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 5NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 4

0 8000 4000 3000 2000 1000B.C. A.D. 1000 2008 500,000 years © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONFIGURE 1 Human population growth.NOT World FOR population SALE growth, OR DISTRIBUTION which exhib- its a J-shape, or exponential, curve. Is it possible for human population growth to continue forever? Why or why not?

distributed throughout the oceans. Moreover, the trans- Marine Science biologist Robert Diaz calls dead zones, port of petroleum© by Jonestanker inevitably & Bartlett results Learning, in oil spills LLCwhich occur in the Gulf of© Mexico,Jones Chesapeake& Bartlett Bay,Learning, LLC that degrade and mayNOT destroy FOR sensitive SALE marine OR DISTRIBUTION habitats. Baltic Sea, and other areas,NOT “the FOR biggest SALE environmen OR DISTRIBUTION- tal issue in the…marine realm in the 21st century.” Biodiversity Our very survival as a species could ultimately rely on Justice and Equity Injustice, including lack of adequate housing and sani- maintaining© Jones &the Bartlett integrity Learning,of marine ecosystems LLC that © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC we are only beginning to understand. Biodiversity, the tation, a lack of access to education, an inadequate NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION mix of organisms within an ecosystem, is particularly supply of pure water, exposure to environmental critical for sustainability because of the specialized toxins, and environmental degradation related to (and often little-understood) roles each species plays industrial pollution, often drives rapacious and un- in maintaining the dynamic state of ecological balance. sustainable use of marine natural resources (e.g. coral © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesreef & fisheries Bartlett and Learning, mangrove LLCwetlands). Manufacturing and Industry NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORPopulation SALE OR Growth DISTRIBUTION Human societies generate waste in unprecedented The population of humans surpassed 7 billion in 2011, quantities, some of it artificial chemicals, such as DDT and we are on a trajectory to exceed 10 billion be- and dioxin, never before seen on Earth. In nature, waste fore beginning to stabilize sometime in mid-century. eventually becomes something else’s food, but industrial Although humans exert a substantial positive impact chemicals like persistent© Jones organic & pollutantsBartlett areLearning, danger- LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC with our enormous ingenuity, we also have a profound ous when they enterNOT marine FOR food SALE webs. ORTrans-oceanic DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION physical impact on the marine environment, and the transport of raw materials and manufactured products marine environment also impacts us. by ship uses fossil fuels (most notably high sulfur bunker fuel) and introduces invasive species. These are critical Question 1. You should consider all of the above problems© Jones for & a worldBartlett five-sixths Learning, of whose LLC population is issues as© you Jones read &this Bartlett textbook, Learning, and we anticipate LLC trying to develop along Western-style free-market lines. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION your viewsNOT on FORwhat itSALE will take OR to DISTRIBUTION achieve a sustainable ocean will evolve and mature over time. For now, Agriculture discuss which of the above issues you would address Agricultural runoff, from fertilizer and animal excre- first, and what steps you would take to move toward ment, contributes excessive amounts of nutrients to achieving a sustainable ocean. © Jones & Bartlettcoastal waters, Learning, leading LLC to the creation of dead zones,© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEocean OR zones DISTRIBUTION devoid of oxygen. Virginia InstituteNOT of FORNow, SALE go to our OR website DISTRIBUTION to continue this analysis.