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Agro-Economic Environment and Food Security in Sikkim

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AGRO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT AND FOOD SECURITY IN SIKKIM THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (ARTS) IN GEOGRAPHY UNDER CENTRE FOR HIMALAYAN STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL SUBMITTED BY TANKA PRASAD DHUNGEL UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF PROF. MAITREYEE CHOUDHURY CENTRE FOR HIMALAYAN STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL P.O. NORTH BENGAL UNIVERSITY RAJA RAMMOHANPUR, DIST.DARJEELING WEST BENGAL, PIN 734013 2018 Contents Declaration Certificate Anti-Plagiarism Report Acknowledgements- List of Tables x List of Figures xix List of Abbreviations xxii Chapter 1. Introduction to Agro-Economics and Food Security 1-40 Introduction 1 The Conceptual Framework of Agro-Economics and Food Security 1 Agricultural Economics- Applied Science or Pure Science 4 Agricultural Economics- Science or an Art 5 Food 5 Food security 8 Review of Literature 17 Research Gap 27 Statement of the Problem 27 Geographical sketch of the study Area 29 Objectives 31 Research Questions 32 Research Design 32 The Survey Design 32 Research Methodology 33 Data Collection 33 Tools of Data Analysis 34 Chapter Plan 34 v Chapter 2. Background and Profile of the Study Area 41-76 Introduction 41 Geomorphology 42 General Geology and Structure 42 Slope of the Area 46 Soil 46 Soil Types Available in Study Areas 52 Drainage 53 Drainage Density 55 Climate 55 Demography 58 Workforce Profile 59 Profile of Sample Households 71 Chapter 3. Agriculture and Agro-Economic Environment in Sikkim 77-121 Introduction 77 The Agrarian Structure 78 History of Agricultural Development in Sikkim 79 Cultivation Calendar of the Nepali Community 87 Cultivation Calendar of the Lepcha Community 89 Cultivation Calendar of the Bhutia Community 90 Agro-Economic activities of selected Gram Panchayat Units (GPUs) of South District 94 Availability of Livestock 102 Availability of Crops and ways of Farming in the Study Area 115 Chapter 4. Land Use and Land Reforms 122-156 Introduction 122 Classification of Land use/ Land Utilization Pattern in Sikkim 122 Land Use Pattern in the Study Area (Gram Panchayat Units) 135 Land Reform in Sikkim 139 Ceiling on Land Holding 142 vi Ceiling on Agricultural Land 143 Detection of Excess Land 144 Land Holding Pattern 146 Chapter 5. Cropping Pattern 157-191 Introduction 157 Cropping is also determined by Rainfall and Temperature 159 Cropping and Intercropping System 164 Cultivation of Seasonal Vegetables 164 Cultivation of Off-Seasonal Vegetables 165 Fruit Crops 166 Existing Cropping Patterns during Kharif Season 168 Existing Cropping Patterns during Rabi Season 170 Mandarin Intercrops 173 Large Cardamom Agro-Forestry 173 Zero Tillage Cultivation of Cabbage 173 Vegetable Fostering 174 Relay cropping of Ricebean, Urdbean, French bean, Pea, Tomato and Soybean with Maize 174 Legume Crops in Rotation 174 Kothebari (Homestead Gardening) 174 Cropping Pattern of Study Area (15 GPUs) 175 Tools and Equipments 187 Use of Fertilizers in Agriculture 189 Chapter 6. Agricultural Production and Productivity Trends 192-225 Introduction 192 Sikkim‟s Geography and Agriculture 194 Agrarian Community in Sikkim 194 Major Agricultural Crops 195 Crop Production 195 vii Crop Productivity 197 Production and Productivity of the Study Area (South district) 202 Crop Combination- Weaver‟s Method 206 Horticulture in Sikkim 211 Horticulture Transformation 213 Horticultural Crop Production 214 Horticultural Crop Productivity 216 Area Expansion Programme of 2015-16, Department of Horticulture and Cash Crops, South district 221 Transfer of Technology 224 Chapter 7. Mountain Agriculture and Food Security in Sikkim 226-283 Introduction 226 Food Security in Sikkim 226 Poverty Level 230 Individual Food Security and Nutrition 230 Nutritional Status 231 Role of Public Distribution System in Food Security 241 History of the Public Distribution System 242 Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) and Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY): (Seventh Report of the Commissioners to the Supreme Court) 244 Fair Price Shops 248 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) 249 Mid Day Meal Scheme 249 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) 249 National Food Security Act (NFSA) 249 Priority Categories 250 Non-Priority Categories 250 Price of Essential Commodities 251 National Food Security Bill 255 Reform of PDS 256 viii Livelihood Security 257 Food Habits 259 Consumption of Rice 260 Consumption of Maize 262 Consumption of Wheat 263 Consumption of Millet 264 Consumption of Buckwheat 264 Consumption of Pulses 264 Consumption of Oilseeds 265 Consumption of Vegetables 266 Consumption of Fruits 268 Meat Consumption 269 Consumption of Eggs 270 Consumption of Milk 271 Consumption of Butter 272 Meals 272 Food (Meal Time) 272 Population and Growth and Food Production 278 Chapter 8. Major Findings, Conclusion and Suggestions 284-298 Bibliography 299-309 Appendix i-xii ix List of Tables Table No. Title Page No. 1.1 Land Elevation of Sikkim 30 1.2 Five Ranges of Climate in Sikkim 30 1.3 Vegetation Zones in Sikkim 30 2.1 Soil Types and Characteristics 47 2.2 Soil pH (Area in Percent) 50 2.3 Organic Carbon (Area in Percent) 50 2.4 Available Phosphorous (Area in Percent) 51 2.5 Available Potassium (Area in Percent) 52 2.6 The three AESs (Agro-Ecological Situations) 57 2.7 Rainfall Calendar 57 2. 8 Distribution of Workers of South District – 2011 60 2.9 Distribution of Male and Female Workers of South District-2011 62 2.10 Distribution of Male Workers of South District -2011 63 2.11 Distribution of Female Workers of South District – 2011 63 2.12 Main Workers Group of Selected GPUs 64 2.13 Periodical Workers Involved in Agricultural Field (in Percentage) 66 2.14 Number of Households Engaged in Rearing of Cattle 66 2.15 Categories of Livestock Reared by Households 67 2.16 Purpose of Rearing of Livestock (in percentage) 67 2.17 Normal Distribution of Income and Expenditure of Villagers per Annum 68 2.18 Annual Income Before and After MGNREGS Programme per Annum 69 2.19 Annual Expenditure per annum (in percentage) of Beneficiaries before and after MGNREGS Programme 70 2.20 Age Group of Respondents (in Percentage) 71 2.21 Respondents‟ Sex Group (in Percentage) 71 2.22 Religion of Respondents 72 2.23 Caste Category (in Percentage) 72 x 2.24 Status of Education (in Percentage) 73 2.25 Marital Status (in Percentage) 73 2.26 Sex Group (in Percentage) 74 2.27 Age Group of Respondents‟ Family Member (in Percent) 74 2.28 Educational Status of Respondents Family Member (in Percent) 74 3.1 Statement Expenditure (1954-1960) (A. Agriculture) 81 3.2 Statement Expenditure (1954-1960) (B. Horticulture) 82 3.3 Budget Expenditure on Agriculture (1975-76 to 1999-00) 83 3.4 Plan Investment in Agricultural Activities (in Percentage) 84 3.5 Month wise Calendar for Agricultural Operations in the State 86 3.6 Agricultural Calendar for Nepali Community 87 3.7 Agricultural Calendar for Lepcha Community 89 3.8 Agricultural Calendar for Bhutia Community 90 3.9 Horticulture Schedule of Cropping 90 3.10 Ecological Zones and Ecological Adaptation in Sikkim 92 3.11 Agro-Climatic Zones 95 3.12 Total Number of Livestock Availability in Five GPUs (Namphing , Legship, Rong-Bul, Tarku & Turung-Mamring) 102 3.13 Total Number of Livestock Availability in Five GPUs (Sadam–Suntaley, Tinik-Chisopani, Namthang-Maneydara, Assangthang, Wok-Omchu) 103 3.14 Total Number of Livestock Availability in Five GPUs (Borong-Phamthang, Barfung-Zarung, Paiyong, Tinkitam -Rayong & Perbing-Dovan) 104 3.15 Percentagewise Distribution of Livestock in 15 GPUs 106 3.16 Income Generated From Livestock Per Annum in Five GPUs, Set I (Namphing , Legship, Rong-Bul, Tarku & Turung-Mamring) 107 3.17 Income Generated From Livestock Per Annum in Five GPUs, Set II (Sadam–Suntaley, Tinik-Chisopani, Namthang-Maneydara, Assangthang, Wok-Omchu) 107 3.18 Income Generated From Livestock Per Annum in Five GPUs, xi Set III (Borong-Phamthang, Barfung-Zarung, Paiyong, Tinkitam -Rayong & Perbing-Dovan) 108 3.19 Percentagewise Distribution of Income in 15 GPUs 108 3.20 Income Generated in 15 GPUs from Livestock per Annum 110 3.21 Income Generated from Livestock per Annum (Average) of 15 GPUs 111 3.22 Milk and Drought (Dry Milk) Cow of Five GPUs Set I 112 3.23 Milk and Drought (Dry Milk) Cow of Five GPUs, Set II 113 3.24 Milk and Drought (Dry Milk) Cow of Five GPUs, Set III 114 3.25 Percentagewise Availability of Crops in Study Areas 115 3.26 Traditional Way of Farming 116 3.27 Modern Way of Farming 117 3.28 Households Main Economic Activities and Sources 119 3.29 Agriculture Activities for Livelihood 119 4.1 Old and New Classification of Land 123 4.2 Notification pertaining to agricultural land compensation 125 4.3 Area under Different Land Use in Sikkim („000 Ha) 126 4.4 Land use Pattern under Operational and Non-Operational Holdings in Sikkim (1976-77 to 2000-01) 127 4.5 Land Use Pattern: East and West District of Sikkim 2005-06 (in Ha) 129 4.6 Land Use Pattern: North and South District of Sikkim 2005-06, (in Ha) 129 4.7 Land Use in Sikkim, 2016 130 4.8 Land Use Pattern of South District (2001-02 &2005-06) 132 4.9 Land Use Pattern of South District (2014-15) 133 4.10 Land Use Pattern in GPUs Set I (Namphing, Legship, Rong-Bul, Tarku and Turung-Mamring) 135 4.11 Land Use Pattern of GPUs Set II (Sadam-Suntaley, Tinik-Chisopani, Namthang-Maneydara, Assangthang and Wok-Omchu) 136 4.12 Land Use Pattern of GPUs Set III (Borong-Phamthang, Barfung-Zarung, Paiyong, Tinik-Rayong and Perbing-Dovan) 137 4.13 Pattern of Distribution of Cultivated Land (Three Estates) 144 4.14 Pattern of Distribution of
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  • Fish Biodiversity As an Indicator of Riverine Status of Sikkim

    Fish Biodiversity As an Indicator of Riverine Status of Sikkim

    Fish Biodiversity as an Indicator of Riverine Status of Sikkim Saroj Toppo, H. Rahman and N. Haque ABSTRACT he torrential streams of Sikkim have shallow clear cold water in the foothills. Depending upon altitude the water temperature varies from 3.9 to 19.8°C. The dominant fish species in Teesta and Rangit tributaries are TSchizothorax spp (Asala) Neolissocheilus spp (Katley), Garra spp (Buduna), Pseudecheneis spp (Kabrey), Barilius spp (Chirkay), Semiplotus spp (Chepti). Ornamental species available are Barilius bendelisis bendelisis, Barilius vagra, Danio aequipinnatus, Danio naganensis, Garra lamta, Noemacheilus scaturigina and Noemacheilus sikkimensis. Depending upon water current the percent availability of different species varies from one stream to other. However, a declining trend has been noted in fish gemplasm. The average catch fish is very low may be due to low productivity or destructive and over fishing. The water quality parameters i.e. air temperature (5.57-27.8°C), water temperature (3.9 -19.8°C), DO (5.0 - 9.9 mg/l), pH (6.2 - 8.4), alkalinity (20 - 25.2 mg/ l), TDS (24.4 - 52.7mg /l), hardness (14 - 24 mg /l) were found within the suitable range for cold water fishes. KEYWORDS: cold water, fish biodiversity, physico-chemical parameters, Sikkim Catch fishes from river Teesta tributary in the local market for sale (East Sikkim) 221 Fishing in river through rod and line in torrential stream INTRODUCTION ikkim is bestowed with plenty of water bodies in the form of lakes natural springs, along with myriads of tributaries situated at various altitudes ranging from 400 to 4600 masl.