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A Case Study of the Displaced Tribal Agricultural Communities of North East India

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A Case Study of the Displaced Tribal Agricultural Communities of North East India Defining Processes of Gender Restructuring: A Case Study of the Displaced Tribal Agricultural Communities of North East India Bitopi Dutta BA, MSW Thesis submitted for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy School of Law and Government Dublin City University Supervisor Prof. Eileen Connolly September 2020 Declaration I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of study leading to the award of Doctor of Philosophy is entirely my own work, and that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge breach any law of copyright, and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work. Signed: Bitopi Dutta ID No.: 15212037 Date: 22.09.2020 i Dedicated to my late mother Anima Dutta, who taught me courage and resilience; my late sister Karabee Dutta, who taught me to dream and fly; and my father Kusheswar Dutta, who always believes in me more than myself. ii Acknowledgements I was carrying the idea of this research for few years although I did not know that I would end up doing a PhD on it eventually! This research would not have been possible without the constant support and guidance of my supervisor Prof. Eileen Connolly. Thank you so much Prof. Connolly for pushing me to keep exploring the significance of my research question, to critically engage with my theoretical framework, and most importantly to never give up on the highest of expectations of how this research project could be shaped. Your guidance and high expectations encourage me to give my best and keep pushing my limits as an academic, and this is something that will always inspire me for the rest of my life. My deepest gratitude to Prof. Maura Conway for her valuable feedback on the research throughout this journey, Prof. John Doyle for his constant support, and Prof. Ian MacMenamin for his constant encouragement. DCU’s Ireland India Institute has been the most welcoming space and I am grateful to all my colleagues for all the wonderful memories that they have gifted me. I am extremely grateful to Dr. Dolly Kikon (Melbourne University) for pushing me to write, and for her generous comments on my research questions. My sincere thanks to Jennifer Shahneen Hussain, for looking through my reference/bibliography file and helping me organising it! My friends have been my treasure! Thank you Sweta for having my back, reading through my chapters and sharing your comments. All those multiple meals that you cooked for me when I was frantically writing to submit my thesis kept me so warm and loved that I am in a loss of words to express my gratitude! Thank you so much Hari for always showing up in my door whenever I needed help. Vidushi, for all those times and fun we had and continue to have, I was not surprised that I found that amazing friend in you as soon as you landed in Dublin! Thank you Arpita, for those warm biriyani times and for introducing Dublin to me. Clark, you have been the best flatmate in all my years in Dublin and VA203B could not have been more enjoyable without you! Jonathan and Inga, thank you for those multiple tea breaks and great conversations in the common room; Joe, for those supportive words that always make me feel you are looking out for me, I can’t thank you enough! Rachna, Liridona, Veronica, Miraj - thank you for your warm presence that made Dublin home for me! My deepest gratitude to my sister Bornita Dutta and brother in law Abhijit Saikia for always being my rock support, for taking me all around the UK and Ireland numerous times in those travels, and for those countless celebrations we had whenever I landed up in your house in Brighton. Last but not the least, Prakash Deka, thank you for your utmost love, care and support that makes my life meaningful and beautiful, and especially for accompanying me around those fieldwork days when I felt I needed someone to travel through those distant roads. iii Table of Contents Declaration ............................................................................................................................ i List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................ v Abstract ............................................................................................................................... vi Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: A Gender Analysis of Development Induced Displacement ............................ 8 Chapter 2: Methodological Framework ............................................................................49 Chapter 3: The context of Meghalaya. ..............................................................................67 Chapter 4: Gender, Mining and Matriliny in the Jaintia Hills ..........................................101 Chapter 5: Gendering labour, leisure and mobility .........................................................124 Chapter 6: Intimacies and violence in the mines.............................................................161 Chapter 7: Gendering love, marriage and reproductive health: The question of continuity and change .....................................................................................................187 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................211 References and Bibliography ...........................................................................................225 Appendix A .......................................................................................................................... A iv List of Abbreviations Abbreviation Explanation AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome APHLC All Party Hill Leaders' Conference CPR Common Property Resources DID Development Induced Displacement DLHS District Level Family Health Survey DJ Disc Jockey HALC Hynniewtrep Achik Liberation Council HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus INR Indian Rupee KHADC Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council KSU Khasi Students Union NCPR National Commission for Protection of Child Rights NEI North East India NFHS National Family Health Survey NGT National Green Tribunal PAP Project Affected Person SHG Self Help Group SRT Syngkhong Rympei Thymmai ST Scheduled Tribes STI Sexually Transmitted Infection USA United States of America v Abstract Bitopi Dutta Defining Processes of Gender Restructuring: A Case Study of the Displaced Tribal Agricultural Communities of North East India The primary question of this research is ‘How does Development Induced Displacement (DID) restructure gendered relationship in tribal matrilineal societies?’ The context of the research is Meghalaya in North East India, which has a dominant tribal population with a matrilineal culture and is frequently cited as a relatively gender equal society. Existing literature has argued that due to displacement induced by the introduction of coal mining in the region, the tribal indigenous women in Meghalaya have lost their traditional status. This study, however, moves beyond the observed impact of the displacement induced by coal mining on indigenous tribal women in Meghalaya and analyses ‘what’ are the processes that work in restructuring gendered relations and ‘how’ do they operate to produce this transformation. DID in this sense will be understood not only as physical displacement, but also as social and cultural displacement. While the impact of DID on tribal and other subaltern groups has been researched, the role of displacement in reordering gender relations has not yet been sufficiently studied. This research conducts a gender analysis of DID in the tribal indigenous society of Meghalaya where DID induced by mining has been ongoing for the last 30-40 years. vi Introduction This research project grew out of my work as a researcher of Development Induced Displacement (DID) in North East India and in particular, the state of Meghalaya. Meghalaya has been severely affected by unrestricted and illegal coal mining, as well as other forms of mineral extraction. While I was sympathetic to the local groups that opposed mining, I was also aware of how socially complex the situation was, as local indigenous people were both complicit in the mining project, and victims of that project. While mining was undermining the traditional fabric of the tribal society of Meghalaya as a whole, women were suffering multiple disadvantages as a result of this mining dominance. I wanted to understand the nuances of how this process operated. As a feminist I was aware that, although mining was undermining the traditional status and rights of the women in Meghalaya, it did not mean that the women had a high status in the society before the advent of mining. Rather, the advent of mining had radically restructured the gender relationships in the region in a very short period of the mining economy boom, leading to increased disadvantage of women. As an academic, I wanted to understand this process of rapid gender restructuring that has happened over a 30-40 years period that Meghalaya as a case study provided me the opportunity with. It is this reordering of gender relations that is the primary focus of this study. In the case of Meghalaya, not all those experiencing the impact of displacement have been physically displaced or relocated, yet, the social
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