M O R G A N Z I N T E C C O L L E G E D I PLOMA IN EDUCATION (P R IM AR Y) D I STA N CE EDUCATION MODULE
N A T I O N A L &
S T R A T E G I C S T U D I E S
UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
MORGAN ZINTEC COLLEGE
MODULE 01
NATIONAL STRATEGIC STUDIES
DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION (PRIMARY)
S. MASUNGO
S. HLATYWAYO
G. MUPUNGA
Open and Distance Learning Module
EDUCATION, PROGRESS AND SELF RELIANCE
i
All rights of reproduction are reserved. All material published in this module is protected, covering all exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the material. No material published here may be reproduced or stored on microfilm or electronic, optical or magnetic form without the written permission from and authorization.
© Morgan Zintec College Department of Distance Education 2018
AUTHORS:
S. MASUNGO
S. HLATYWAYO
G. MUPUNGA
Published By:
Morgan Zintec College
Department of Distance Education
Post Office Box 1700
Acardia
Harare
E-mail:[email protected]
Co-ordinator: Mr S.V.K Dumba
Content Editor: Mr B. Ziso
ii DEDICATION
National and Strategic Studies is an exciting and inspiring subject as it deals with our historical past, the present situation ,thus contemporary issues and focuses our attention on the future. It inculcates in the learners the values and attitudes and patriotism to enable them to positively contribute to the development of their country. The subject also focuses on socio-economic, political and cultural relations with other organisations of the world. The module is therefore dedicated to primary school learners who will be taught and guided by teachers with the requisite skills and knowledge, the aim being to produce relevant and patriotic citizens of Zimbabwe.
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writing of open and distance learning materials at Morgan ZINTEC College was initiated by the Principal of the college, Mrs Kaseke. This was done with a view to providing critical tutorial support to student teachers undertaking Diploma in Education. This was also complimented by Mr S. V, K. Dumba who through organizing workshops on the production of distance materials ensured that a quality product was produced.
iv CONTENTS
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION 1
OBJECTIVES 1
DEFINITIONS 1
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION 2
BACKGROUND TO NASS 2
ACTIVITY 1.1 3
JUSTIFICATION OF NASS 6
ACTIVITY 1.2 7
SUMMARY 7
REFERENCES 8
UNIT 2
INTRODUCTION 9
UNIT OBJECTIVE 9
DEFINITION 9
ACTIVITY 2.1 14
GENDER IMBALANCE 14
POLICIES ON GENDERS 15
SUSTAINABLE GOAL 16
ACTIVITY 2.2 17
MEASURES BY ZIMBABWE 17
NEW GENDER POLICY 20
v ACTIVITY 2.4 22
CHALLENGES 23
STRATEGIES 24
ACTIVITY 2.5 26
RELEVANCE OF STUDY 27
SUMMARY 28
REFERENCES 29
UNIT 3
INTRODUCTION 30
OBJECT 31
DEFINITION 32
THE CONCEPT 32
ACTIVITY 3.1 34
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 34
ACTIVITY 3.2 36
PRINCIPLES GUIDING 38
DIFFERENCES AMONG 39
FACTORS IMPORTANT 44
ACTIVITY 3.3 45
BENEFITS 47
CHALLENGES 49
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE 51
SUMMARY 52
vi REFERENCES 53
UNIT 4
INTRODUCTION 57
AIMS 57
OBJECTIVES 57
THE RISE AND FALL 58
LIFE AND LEGACY OF MUGABE 59
ACTIVITY 4.1 62
BEHIND MUGABE’S FALL 63
A FATEFUL FIRING 65
THE FIRST LADY AND THE FALL 68
WHAT LED TO MUGABE’S FALL 72
ACTIVITY 4.2 73
THE OPERATION 74
DEFINITION OF THE ACTION 74
OUTCOMES OF OPERATION 76
MNANGANWA PRESIDENCY 80
OPERATION RESTORE LEGACY 81
PRESIDENT MNANGAGWA HISTORY 83
PRESIDENTIAL AMBITIONS 87
POWER STRUGGLE 88
ACTIVITY 4.3 91
SUMMARY 91
vii REFERENCES 92
UNIT 5
INTRODUCTION 93
AIMS 93
OBJECTIVES 93
THE CONCEPT 94
IMPORTANCE OF ENTEPRE 100
QUALITIES OF SUCCESSFUL 101
FUNCTIONS OF AN ENT 104
QUALITIES OF AN ENTRE 105
ISSUES AND PROBLEMS 106
THE ZIMBABWEAN SITUATION 108
TRAITS 110
INDIGENOUS ENTREP 116
ACTIVITY 4.4 119
HISTORY OF ENTREPRE 119
ENTREPRE AND PATRIOTISM 123
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENTRE AND PATRIOTISM 124
GOVERNMENT MEASURE 125
BUSINESS PLAN 125
REFERENCES 131
UNIT 6
viii INTRODUCTION 133
AIMS 133
OBJECTIVES 133
KEY CONCEPTS 133
CHARACTERISTICS 134
SIGNIFICANCE 134
EXAMPLE 135
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 136
ACTIVITY 6.1 137
INDIGENOUS CULTURAL 139
AFRICAN KNOWLEDGE 140
CULTURAL RENAISSANCE 141
CURRICULUM HYBRIDISATION 143
INDIGENOUS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCT 143
CONCLUSION 145
RECOMMENDATIONS 146
SUMMARY 148
REFERENCES 150
UNIT 7
INTRODUCTION 152
AIMS 152
OBJECTIVE 152
KEY CONCEPTS 154
ix GREENHOUSE GAS 155
GLOBAL WARNING VS CLIMATE 156
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE 157
WHO IS CAUSING GREENHOUSE 161
EVIDENCE FOR GLOBALISATION 162
EVIDENCE FROM TEMPERATURE 162
EVIDENCE FROM ZIMBABWE 164
RAINFALL CHANGES 167
TOURISM 172
ZIMBABWE AND MITIGATION 174
SUMMARY 180
GLOSSARY 181
REFERENCES 184
x UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES(NASS)
HLATYWAYO S.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There is need for an education system to NASS was introduced in 2002 as part of the curriculum for all Teachers’ and Technical colleges. This unit introduces us to the study of NASS. It gives a background to the introduction on NASS in Teacher Education Curriculum. Further, the unit justifies the inclusion of NASS as a form of citizenship education.
1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, students should be able; 1.1.1 To define and explain NASS.
1.1.2 To trace the background to the introduction of NASS.
1.1.3 To justify the inclusion of NASS in Teacher Education Curriculum.
1.2 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
1.2.1 NASS- National and Strategic Studies.
It is a civic education designed to make students understand and appreciate the historical development of a country and contemporary issues. NASS is citizenship education designed to produce good citizenry.
1.2.2 Citizenship education
It is a form of education. According to Moyo, Chinyani and Mavhunga (2011), citizenship education means an education that is concerned with the political, civic and socio-economic matters of a nation and its citizens. Consequently, the development of attributes of good citizenship is the ultimate reason for
1 citizenship education. It is the form of education concerned with transmitting values and attitudes that are relevant for the society in which one live in.
1.3 BACKGROUND TO NASS
The need for an educational brand that embodies the national philosophy and promotes a people’s values, norms and beliefs has attracted efforts, commitment and resources of nations the world over (Moyo, Chinyani and Mavhunga, 2011). Every nation seeks to have an education system that is relevant to is society and that uphold the principles of the nation. According to Mbizvo (2009), an educational programme that is devoid of these fundamental underpinnings is considered irrelevant and a waste of important resources. Through education, a learner or student has to acquire all the values, beliefs norms patterns of behaviour, skills and wisdom that mould him or her into responsible citizen. Education should not be just about acquiring paper qualifications, but also about good character of an individual. It is a waste of resources to have skilled personnel with immoral behaviour. Such individuals may end up being imprisoned or being sick and thereby wasting the country’s resources. Thus, education should help develop individuals who fit well in the society. As a result, the need for various nations to have citizenship education is justified. There seems to be some general conviction among governments that citizenship education is a necessary component of the curricula in their education systems at various levels. (Moyo et al., 2011).
The search for curricula interventions that can address the issue of education for citizenship in Zimbabwe has been an ongoing process since 1980. This started with the introduction of a subject called Political Economy in the secondary school curriculum in the early 1980s. This was criticised by many stakeholders including the churches who viewed it as a political strategy to protect the ruling party (ZANU) by then. In primary school it was the teaching of Social Studies. These efforts were directed at accomplishing the goal of producing socially relevant individuals with desirable values and attitudes and who would be effective role models for future generations (Moyo et al, 2011and Zvobgo, 1986). Other attempt for 2 citizenship education came in the form of National Youth Service which was popularly known as the Border Gezi. These were criticised and shunned by many as they were said to be political and took the military stance. The majority criticised them for being biased towards toward s the ruling party (ZANU PF). After the failure of Political Economy in secondary schools, citizenship education re-emerged in 2002 as National and Strategic Studies offered as a compulsory subject at tertiary institutions. To date a form of citizenship education in universities has been introduced in the name of Peace Studies.
The concept of citizenship education is not peculiar to Zimbabwe. Other countries have their form of citizenship education. They may differ in names depending on the country but the aims of citizenship education are basically the same. While citizenship education is offered under different names in different countries, some common threads regarding its aims can be traced. Kymlicka (2002) says at the heart of Citizenship Education is the empowerment of the citizenry to participate and become actors rather than passive subjects in the affairs of the state. The basis of this argument is that the successful discharge of state duties requires the citizen to understand the political processes of the state and to acquire the skills of expression. Such knowledge and skills combine to give the citizen the competence that is essential for full and effective participation in society (Oster and Starkey, 2002). One can participate effectively if they are knowledgeable and skilled. It is thus, through the study of NASS that one gets relevant information and skills to participate in all sectors of the nation, whether political, economic or social. For example, one can participate in an election if he or she is knowledgeable. In addition, one can start own business if he or she is knowledgeable and skilled. Therefore, the relevance of citizenship education, such as NASS, in the curriculum is justifiable. The Crick Report cited in McLaughlin (2003) posits that citizenship education is about enabling citizens to make their own decisions and to take responsibility for their own lives and communities. It creates a good citizenry that participates in various institutions of the state. Thus, a well functioning democracy
3 requires a citizenry that is educated, informed, active, able and willing to take responsibility for the wellbeing of society (Kymlicka, 2002).
Activity 1.1
1. Explain the concept, “Citizen Education”. Justify its place in the education system of your country.
2. “Every education system should uphold the values of the nation”. Discuss this assertion in line with the introduction of NASS.
In Zimbabwe, the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training (Nziramasanga 1999) came out strongly in support of citizenship education in the Zimbabwean education system supported by findings from its inquiry. The Commission categorically stated:
The Commission views Citizenship Education to be the centre o f the education curriculum for the Twenty First Century Zimbabwe. It is central to all forms of learning as the subject deals with instructing learners in citizenship transmission and democracy. — Citizenship Education teaches our children to respect their country, culture, values and norms which enable them to grow into good citizens who conform to certain accepted practices; train them to hold beliefs, be loyal to the country, knowledgeable o f the legal system and participate in certain activities that conform to local norms. (Nziramasanga 1999:353).
The Report noted there was indiscipline and moral decay among students in higher institutions of learning in the country and even among teachers (Nziramasanga Report 1999, 349 -354). It advocated for the reform of “the educational system so that the rich diversity of our spiritual, cultural and moral values are incorporated into the curriculum” with a view to produce a student imbued with the attributes of unhu/ubuntu. The unhu/ubuntu concept is premised on the traditional African Philosophy of interdependence. The concept of unhu/ubuntu/integrity is highly 4 recognised in Zimbabwean culture. Thus, as noted above, qualifications alone are not enough without acceptable unhu/ ubuntu.
The Commission proposed that citizenship education should be introduced in Zimbabwe as a compulsory subject in the entire education system, from primary to tertiary levels. Furthermore, the Commission suggested content elements that the subject should cover. These include morality, the country’s heritage, the Constitution of Zimbabwe, branches of government, the country’s legal system, national identity, international understanding, among other issues (Nziramasanga 1999).
The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education and Technology Development Mission statement and values point out to the origins of NASS. The statement says; “Provide an effective system for the production of patriotic and competent high level manpower through the provision and accreditation of higher and tertiary education programmes and institutions, for sustainability and global competitiveness. The core values are patriotism, creativity, integrity/unhu/Ubuntu, entrepreneurship and industry. These values are best inculcated through the study of NASS.
However, NASS, as a form of citizenship education, attracted criticism from various stakeholders. This was because by its very nature of being citizenship, it included elements of politics. In addition, the timing of the introduction of NASS in 2002 “— at a time when the political landscape in the country was fraught with conflict and extremely volatile —” was suspicious to others, (Nyakudya 2007:115). Further Nyakudya (2007) viewed NASS as unnecessary and an attempt to indoctrinate student teachers along the same lines as the infamous youth service introduced by the late Border Gezi. However, Maravanyika (2011), argue that there is no education that is apolitical and that all education is designed to achieve certain political and economic objectives. Similarly, the permanent secretary of Higher and Tertiary Education Dr Washington Mbizvo, in response to an observation in Parliament that NASS was meant to advance political agendas, stated that: these studies clearly define where we came from 5 and where we are going. There is nothing sinister about that. Every country does that. The aim is to produce skilled personnel with a sense of patriotism … (The Herald, 12 Nov, 2009). Despite the criticism, the subject is of national importance in the sense that it seeks to foster patriotism to citizens.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF NASS IN TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM
1.4.1 Rationale for National and Strategic Studies (NASS)
The inclusion of NASS has a number of reasons which are discussed below;
➢ To instill patriotism among students through education and training. Students should take pride in their country despite the social, political and economic conditions prevailing in the country. Patriotic students are dedicated to and love
their country unconditional. According to Nyakudya (2007), the aim of introducing NASS was to help foster a sense of patriotism among the country's subjects, which is good for national development.
➢ To restore the lost identity of Zimbabweans.
➢ To appreciate the historical background of Zimbabwe such the pre-colonial history, colonization, liberation war etc. this would enable the students to understand the present and future position of the country.
➢ To develop entrepreneurship skills in students by starting own income generating projects that helps them to earn a living and to create employment e.g. farming,
➢ To appreciate the dedications of and role played by fore- elders in order to bring about independence in Zimbabwe.
➢ To appreciate their country’s heritage, culture, values and natural resources. Such places as Great Zimbabwe, Victoria Falls are significant and other monuments and national symbols.
➢ To develop future leaders for certain positions in the society.
➢ To participate in national development and nation building socially, economically, politically. How? By being employed in the country, voting, income generating projects, being a good citizen e.tc.
6 ➢ To help students understand regional and international relations i.e. AU, SADC, UN, COMESA.
➢ To understand the political, social, economic and technological systems in Zimbabwe since 1980.
➢ To produce students with good citizenship. This is done by fostering values of unhu/Ubuntu.
➢ To assist students to have an understanding of contemporary issues and to keep abreast with developments in the nation.
➢ To appreciate and understand issues of human rights. As a result, NASS students should be able to exercise their rights in respect of other people’s rights.
➢ To understand contemporary issues such as HIV and AIDS, Gender, MDGs, etc.
➢ To provide civic education to students on issues of the electoral system, democracy, good governance, constitution etc. This cultivates and promotes the spirit of tolerance among students. This promotes a peaceful environment.
Activity 1.2.
1. Justify the rationale for NASS in Teacher Education Curriculum.
2. Examine any five characteristics of a good citizen.
1.5 SUMMARY
The unit has given a background of the introduction of NASS. It has shown the relevance of NASS as citizenship education in a country. Despite the criticism against NASS, the subject remains highly relevance in the teacher education curriculum as it fosters a sense of patriotism in students. The next unit focuses on gender issues as a contemporary issue that NASS students should have an understanding.
7 REFERENCES
Maravanyika, O. and Ndawi, O. (2011). Curriculum and its Building Blocks. Concepts and Processes. Mambo Press, Gweru.
Mavhunga, P.J. (2002). “Vocationalisation of the Secondary School Curriculum as an Instrument for Human Resources Development: Zimbabwean Experiences, Challenges and the Way Forward.” Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research Vol. 14No. 3 (Pages 304-309)
Mbizvo,W.(2009). “Nothing Partisan about Strategic Studies”,Herald,12 November, 2009.
Moyo N, Chinyani H. and Mavhunga P.J.(2011). Towards a Citizenship Education for Zimbabwe.” Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 23 No. 3
Nyakudya, M. (2007). “The Rationale for National and Strategic Studies in Teacher Training Colleges: Fostering a Sense of Patriotism in Trainee Teachers.” Zimbabwe Journal o f Educational Research Vol. 19 No. 2 (Pages 115 — 126)
Nziramasanga, C.T. (1999). Report o f the Presidential Commission o f Inquiry into Education and Training. Harare, Government Printers.
Kymlicka, W. (2002). Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Introduction. Oxford University Press
8 UNIT 2
GENDER ISSUES
HLATYWAYO .S
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses on Gender as one of the contemporary issues. The unit defines key concepts such as sex, gender, gender roles, gender equity, and gender equality. The unit further differentiates gender and sex and gender equality and gender equity. A background on the imbalances that existed between man and women is also highlighted in the unit. It is against this background that the unit examine the measures taken by the government of Zimbabwe to address the gender imbalances that existed. Challenges faced by the government are also discussed with a view to suggest possible solutions to enhance gender equality.
2.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, students should be able to;
2.1.1 Define such terms as gender, gender equity and gender equality.
2.1.2 Differentiate gender and sex
2.1.3 Analyse gender imbalances that characterize our society
2.1.4 Assess various measures taken by the government of Zimbabwe to achieve gender equality and equity.
2.1.5 Describe the principles guiding gender policy and practices.
2.1.6 Outline the objectives of the National Gender Policy in Zimbabwe.
2.1.7 Examine challenges encountered by your country in trying to achieve gender equity and equality.
2.1.8 Suggest possible solutions to achieve gender equality and equity
2.2 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS
Gender is among the contemporary issues globally.
9 2.2.1 Sex -refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women (WHO). (MWIA), 2002). Sex and its associated biological functions are programmed genetically. These cannot be changed. Sex is universal and is determined at birth.
2.2.2 Sexuality - refers to the capacity for sexual feelings and their expression. This capacity is not necessarily dichotomous between men and women. (eg. heterosexuality, homosexuality and bisexuality)
2.2.3 Gender- refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women (WHO, 2001). Each culture is deeply invested in its construction of gender roles and those who benefit from the existing system may strongly resist efforts to change, or even describe it. Being socially constructed means they depend on a social set up or society and changes with time.
A fuller understanding of gender includes recognition of gender as a social construct, as a system of social stratification and an institution that structures every aspect of our lives because of is embeddedness in the family, the workplace, the health care system and the state as well as in sexuality, language, and culture, (Lorber, 1994). It is a primary way of signifying relationships of power.
According to UNESCO (2003), gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, our societies and our cultures. The concept of gender also includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men (femininity and masculinity). Gender roles and expectations are learned. They can change over time and they vary within and between cultures. Systems of social differentiation such as political status, class, ethnicity, physical and mental disability, age and more, modify gender roles. The concept of gender is vital because, applied to social analysis, it reveals how women’s subordination or men’s domination is socially constructed, (UNESCO,2003). As such, the subordination can be changed or ended. It is not biologically predetermined nor 10 is it fixed forever. An individual’s gender is constructed by the sex category to which the person is assigned, gender identity, marital and procreative status, sexual orientation, personality and gender beliefs systems.
2.2.4 Gender roles are the particular economic, social roles and responsibilities considered appropriate for women and men in a given society. Gender roles and characteristics do not exist in isolation, but are defined in relation to one another and through the relationship between women and men, girls and boys (MWIA, 2002).
2.2.5 Gender equity- Gender equity is the process of being fair to women and men. To ensure fairness, strategies and measures must often be available to compensate for women's historical and social disadvantages that prevent women and men from otherwise operating on a level playing field. Equity leads to equality. Gender equity also means that the needs, which are specific to each gender, receive appropriate resources and attention (e.g. Reproductive health needs for men and women). It is about giving resources to address needs accordingly.
WHO (2001) defines gender equity as “fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and men”. The term gender equity seems often juxtaposed to social justice. Measures are taken to compensate for the disadvantage position of women in the society, for example, Affirmative action (allowing women with lower points in university courses).
2.2.6 Gender equality is the absence of discrimination on the basis of a person’s sex in authority, opportunities, allocation of resources and between benefits and access to services. Gender Equality means that women and men have equal conditions for realizing their full human rights and for contributing to, and benefiting from, economic, social, cultural and political development, UNESCO, 2003). It is therefore, the equal valuing by society of both the similarities and differences between men and women, and the varying roles that they play It is based on women and men being full partners in their home, their community and their society. 11 CEDAW goes on to enumerate the “same rights” and the “same opportunities” which must be available to all men and women in various fields of human activity, including but not limited to education, marital legislation, and labour. Thus, the concept of gender equality may be taken to primarily refer to the full equality of men and women to enjoy the complete range of political, economic, civil, social and cultural rights, with no one being denied access to these rights, or deprived of them, because of their sex.
Gender Equality, ILO, Geneva, (2000,) Gender equality, equality between men and women, entails the concept that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different behaviour, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favoured equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female.
2.2.7 Gender inequalities- These are disparities that exist and tend to place and treat men and women differently. It refers to an unequal distribution of power and rights that favours men and disadvantages women. Gender inequalities lead to gender imbalance. Where gender inequality exists, it is generally women who are excluded or disadvantaged in relation to decision-making and access to economic and social resources
2.2.8 Gender-based discrimination can in general be understood as any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of socially constructed gender roles and norms which prevents a person from enjoying human rights. International law defines gender-based discrimination against women as “any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field” (Article 1 CEDAW). Such discrimination can be 12 either direct (when a law, policy or practice explicitly discriminates against women) or indirect (when laws, policies or practices despite being seemingly gender-neutral have a detrimental effect on women) (CEDAW GR 25). States are obliged to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women, no matter whether it is perpetrated by state authorities or private organizations, enterprises or individuals (Article 1 CEDAW, CEDAW GR 19, CEDAW GR 28).
2.2.9 Gender roles are the particular economic, social roles and responsibilities considered appropriate for women and men in a given society. Gender roles and characteristics do not exist in isolation, but are defined in relation to one another and through the relationship between women and men, girls and boys.
2.2.10 Gender awareness is the understanding that there are socially determined differences between men and women based on learned behaviour, which affect ability to access and control resources.
2.2.11 Gender sensitivity is the ability to perceive existing gender differences, issues and equalities, and incorporate these into strategies and actions.
2.2.12 Empowerment is about people -both women and men- taking control over their lives: setting their own agendas, gaining skills, building self-confidence, solving problems and developing self-reliance. No one can empower another: only the individual can empower herself or himself to make choices or to speak out. However, institutions including international cooperation agencies can support processes that can nurture self empowerment of individuals or groups. Therefore a critical aspect of promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women, with a focus on identifying and redressing power imbalances and giving women more autonomy to manage their own lives, (WHO, 2001).
13 Activity 2.1.
1. EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING TERMS;
a. Gender
b. Gender equity
c. Gender Equality
d. Gender sensitization
e. Sex.
2. Explain the difference between gender equity and gender equality
For us to understand the issues of gender, we have to understand the gender imbalances that existed before. Let us look at the gender imbalances.
2.3 GENDER IMBABALNCES THAT EXISTED IN THE SOCIETY
In order to understand issues of gender equality and equity, we should understand the imbalances that existed in the society. Such practices placed women at a disadvantaged position. The following practices perpetuated the imbalances that existed between men and women in our society;
• Racial dominance of the white settlers in the colonial period (1890 - 1980) led to inequalities mainly related to access land and the labour market as well as the provision of basic social services (health, education, housing and sanitation).
• Women in Zimbabwe have had limited control over their sexual and reproductive rights owing to cultural, religious, economic and patriarchal constraints.
• Women were expected to be subordinate to men. When they marry, they lose their identity and assume that of their husbands.
• They are culturally constrained to take leadership positions in politics, in the community or in churches. Culturally when a father dies, his property is bequeathed to the eldest son and not to his daughters or wife.
14 • Both religion (Christianity, lslam, ATR) and culture emphasize the dominance of men over women and socialize women into their subordinate roles.
• The colonial education system in the then Rhodesia did not have a specific policy for the education of women and girls. Black women under colonialism were subjected to both sexism and racism
• Furthermore, the colonial education system had a policy of bottle necking in the education of African children which further marginalized female children who were already under represented in the education system.
• The patriarchal Zimbabwean society placed women on subordinate roles, in the family. Under customary law, property was owned by husbands and women were reduced to dependents that had to submit to the will and wishes of their husbands or male relations in order to survive. According, Gordon (1994) the protection of the patriarchal order has been the operating principle of both colonial and post-colonial periods, and education is used to maintain the gender imbalance. Parents valued educating the boy child than the girl child. The idea was that girls would get married and benefit her husband while the boy child would work to provide for the family. Even the fewer women who managed to go to school got less pay than men.
• Inadequate provision, traditional sexist attitudes, customary law and poverty combined to place enormous constraints on black girls' access to education (Gordon1994: 132). This state of affairs placed the African girl child at a great disadvantage as far as education was concerned.
• In pre-independent Zimbabwe, girls of all races who were in school were subjected to some sexist practices and conditions. Subject choices, extra curricula activities and sports were different for boys and girls. Girls were directed into feminine areas such as Needlework and Cookery.
2.4 POLICIES ON GENDER
A number of conventions and agreements were made at international level to guide gender issues. As such laws and statute in various countries had to align to 15 these agreements and conventions. Most countries signed the conventions and agreements and as such are bound by the agreements to react accordingly. Examples of such conventions are;
➢ Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW);
➢ Convention on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR);
➢ Equal Remuneration Convention (ERC);
➢ Dakar Platform for Action;
➢ Beijing Declaration of 1995;
➢ SADC declaration on Gender and Development with its addendum on Prevention and Eradication of Violence against Women and Children;
➢ The Millennium Declaration of 2000 and
➢ Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030) which replaced the Millenium
Development Goals (2000-2015)
2.4.1 Sustainable Development Goals
Among the agreements are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with reference to SDG number 5 aims, “To achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”. The target for goal number 5 are elaborated by UNDP as follows;
➢ End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.
➢ Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.
➢ Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation.
➢ Recognise and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of
16 shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate.
➢ Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision making in political. Economic and public life.
➢ Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences.
➢ Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws.
➢ Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women.
➢ Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.
Activity 2.2
1. “Sustainable Development Goal number 5 aims to achieve gender equality and empower women”. To what extent has this been achieved in Zimbabwe.
2.5 MEASURES BY ZIMBABWE GOVERNMENT TO ACHIVE GENDER EQUALITY AND EQUITY
There are a number of measures taken by the GoZ to achieve gender equality and equity. 17 A. To show its commitment towards the achievement of gender equality and equity, The Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) has ratified a number of regional and international conventions whose objectives are to promote and realize the rights of women and to achieve gender equality and equity. Conventions ratified are highlighted on Section 2.3 above.
B. The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No.20) Act 2013 provided for equal treatment, without discrimination of every citizen. Chapter 2 of the National Constitution on National Objectives spells out gender balance as one of the objectives to guide the state, all institutions and agencies of Government. Chapter 4, Part 3; section 80 of the Constitution clearly state the rights of women. In addition, Chapter 12, Part 4 ensured the establishment of the Gender Commission to monitor issues of gender equality as provided by the constitution of Zimbabwe.
C. In an effort to effectively transform the provisions of the national, regional and international legal and human rights instruments to the practical level, the Zimbabwean government has drawn up and adopted the National Gender Policy to provide guidelines and the institutional framework to engender all our sectoral policies, programmes, projects and activities at all levels of our society and economy. The GoZ has followed this up by drafting and launching the National Gender Policy in 2004 which was replaced by the New Gender policy in 2013- 2017. The New Gender policy guidelines in 2.6 below built on the successes of the 2004 Policy and aimed to address the shortcomings of the 2004.
D. More legislative laws were enacted to promote gender equality and protect women’s rights. Examples of such are legislatures are;
➢ The Domestic Violence Act
➢ Making amendments to family and inheritance laws.
➢ Labour laws have also been amended to reflect gender equality priorities.
➢ Prevention and Eradication of Violence Against Women and Children.
➢ The Legal Age of Majority Act,
➢ The Matrimonial Causes Act, 18 ➢ The Sexual Discrimination Removal Act,
➢ The Sexual Offences Act
E. In 1995 the government created the Ministry of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development (MWAGCD) to oversee coordination of all gender programmes and to facilitate gender mainstreaming in all sector ministries.
F. Women's representation in key decision making positions in both the public and private sector. Political parties have adopted a quota system which has seen an increase in women representation in politics.
G. Government introduced free and compulsory primary and secondary education for all children regardless of race and above all, to abolish sex discrimination in the education system. Education was a basic human right.
H. To counteract the bottleneck entry into secondary school, which existed in the pre- independent era, the Zimbabwean government introduced automatic promotion from one grade to the next in primary school. This also culminated into automatic entry into secondary schools.
I. The vast expansion of tertiary education.
J. 1982 Equal Pay Regulation which meant that both men and women with the same qualifications and doing the same job could earn the same salary.
K. The Legal Age of Majority Act which meant that men and women were for the first time legally equal.
L. Affirmative Action Policy in 1993-female students were to be accepted into tertiary institutions with lower pass rates than their male counterparts.
M. The ministry has also encouraged girls to develop a more positive attitude towards Maths and Science than before and venture into male-dominated fields such as engineering, law, medicine.
N. The ministry is also in-servicing teachers to make them more gender sensitive in their teaching. Also gender course in all programmes in tertiary education.
O. Guidance and counselling programme in learning institutions to enhance
behavioural and attitudinal approaches to sexuality. 19 P. .Improving the economic status of women to empower women .e.g. the land reform also target women as beneficiaries.
Q. Scholarships for Capable Women-Scholarship programmes that particularly target at promoting talented women was introduced.
Activity 2.3
1. From the measures noted above, differentiate equity measures from equality measures.
2. Discuss strides taken by the government of Zimbabwe to improve gender equality.
It is imperative to look at the National Gender Policy as a guiding tool towards gender equality in Zimbabwe.
2.5.1 The New Gender Policy 2013-2017
The 2004 National Gender Policy’s goal, inter alia, was “to eliminate all negative economic, social and political policies, cultural and religious practices that impede equality and equity of sexes” (National Gender Policy, 2004:3). The policy sought to address four critical areas which were prioritized by Zimbabweans as follows: 1) Women in politics and decision making
2) Education and training of women
3) Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women
4) Women and the economy
5) Women and health.
The policy realized some successes at national level as noted below;
• The elaborate new Constitutional provisions with a thrust on gender equality;
• The Medium Term Plan (2012-2015) the national economic development
strategy which introduces a development paradigm emphasising on gender
20 responsive budgets and gender mainstreaming into economic activities and commits to advancing equal participation in productive sectors; • The indigenisation drive which motivated the development and implementation of the Indigenization and Empowerment Policy; • The 2011 Broad Based Women’s Economic Empowerment Framework (BBWEEF), a mechanism for women’s economic empowerment applicable across all sectors and levels of society and
• The Land Reform programme implemented over the past 10 years, whose gains will, to a great extent, be meaningfully consolidated under new gender policy.
Despite the successes, there were shortcomings which are to be addressed by the new Gender Policy. The second National Gender Policy therefore seeks to achieve a gender just society where men and women enjoy equality and equity and participate as equal partners in the development process of the country. The policy goal is “To eradicate gender discrimination and inequalities in all spheres of life and development.” The Gender policy is meant to direct and guide gender programmes and practices. To fulfill to the goal the following objectives have been formulated around the eight priority themes or areas.
2.5.1.1 Gender, Constitutional and Legal Rights: To ensure that the constitutional and legislative provisions on gender justice are implemented and gender equality targets set in the national and international and regional protocols, to which Zimbabwe is part, are achieved.
2.5.1.2 Gender and Economic Empowerment: To promote equality and equity in access to economic opportunities for men and women, and to the benefits from the economic development of the country.
2.5.1.3 Gender, Politics and Decision Making: To create a supportive environment for gender parity in politics and decision making positions.
2.5.1.4 Gender and Health: To promote gender sensitivity in health service delivery.
2.5.1.5 Gender, Education and Training: To promote (i) equal access to education for boys and girls and their retention at all levels of education; and 21 (ii) access to training opportunities for men and women, to make possible their
equal participation in the workplace, marketplace and in governance structures.
2.5.1.6 Gender Based Violence: To reduce all forms of Gender Based Violence in Zimbabwe.
2.5.1.7 Gender, Environment and Climate Change: To increase gender responsiveness of the environment and natural resources management strategies and in climate change adaptation and mitigation initiatives.
2.5.1.8 Gender, Media and ICT: To promote equal access to, control and ownership of, media and ICTs by men and women to enhance development across all sectors.
Activity 2.4
1. Identify any two themes of the National Gender Policy and examine the strategies to achieve the themes.
These thematic areas form the basis for the development of policy objectives and strategies for the period 2013-2017. Now let us look at the guiding principles of the National Gender Policy.
2.5.2 Guiding Principles of the National Gender Policy
The policy is underpinned by the following set of principles which shall guide its implementation:
2.5.2.1 Gender Justice in all sectors of development: Gender justice takes a rights based approach, where, as elaborated in the Constitution, both men and women shall enjoy equal rights defined in the bill of rights. Noting further that, in pursuit of addressing disparity through advancing one sex, the processes should not ultimately marginalise or prejudice the other or result in reverse discrimination.
2.5.2.2 Affirmative action: this policy acknowledges that measures (legislative or others) designed to advance sex disadvantaged by previous unfair 22 discrimination may be taken. As such, affirmative action shall be pursued for more rapid and efficient progress towards redressing gender .
2.5.2.3 Integration of Gender Perspectives in all Aspects of Development: All
multi-sectoral actors (state and non-state) shall take appropriate actions to address gender inequalities within their areas of mandate in line with this policy. This includes among other things, development of sector specific gender policies aligned to the National Gender Policy, integrating the gender perspectives in planning, policy making, programme designs, monitoring and evaluation and pursuing collaborative partnerships where necessary.
2.5.2.4 Broad Based and Inclusivity: This principle calls for the appreciation of all forms of social, economic and political differences, (age, religion, disability, cultural, educational, language, economic, geographical and any form of differences). It seeks to engage stakeholders across all sectors and to benefit men, women, boys and girls from all levels and of all backgrounds and to make special consideration of certain marginalised groups when necessary. 2.5.2.5 Peace and Harmony at Family and Community Level: Peace and
harmony at family and immediate community is a fundamental ingredient of positive outcomes from this policy. Peace and harmony at family level contributes to fair appropriation, ownership and control of productive assets among men, women, boys and girls at both community and family levels.
It also contributes to meaningful participation in decision making and activities for development.
2.6 CHALLENGES IN ACHIEVEING GENDER EQUALITY AND EQUITY
2.6.1 Equality between women and men or gender equality, promoting the equal participation of women and men in making decisions; supporting women and girls so that they can fully exercise their rights; and reducing the gap between women’s and men’s access to and control of resources and the benefits of
23 development, is still out of reach for most women worldwide, Gender Equality, ILO, Geneva, (2000,)
➢ In many areas cultures of patriarchal domination mean that active and effective participation of women and men in projects is difficult to achieve.
➢ The lack of formal education can be a real obstacle for women, and to a lesser extent men, to participate and especially take up effective leadership and management roles in their organisations.
➢ Most women have heavy domestic responsibilities and workloads, and many have little or no control over productive assets.
➢ The economic decline and politically unstable environment has not only reversed some of the gains of women empowerment and gender equality but has created new dimensions and challenges of gender inequality in the country.
➢ Gender-based violence is still a major challenge.
➢ Religious and cultural beliefs are posing a threat to gender equality.
2.6.2 STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE GENDER EQUALITY
There are a lot that Governments should do in order to achieve gender equality. All stakeholders should contribute to achieve gender equality. It should not be a government business alone. Both private and public sectors and organisations should work towards this goal. A number of strategies can be adopted as noted below;
➢ Promote education for women's self-empowerment at all levels and in all fields;
➢ Encourage the equal access to knowledge in all fields, notably within science and technology;
24 ➢ All stakeholders (government, church, NGOS, Civil society, political leaders, business people, media, traditional leaders etc) should contribute to gender equality.
➢ Support to women's human rights by implementing the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and other normative instruments, and through "legal literacy" for girls and women;
➢ Promote the attainment of gender parity, women's full citizenship and equal participation in policy-making, and the elimination of stereotyped roles and expectations;
➢ Foster partnership and dialogue, and develop a new gender contract, underlining the long term gains from the social transformation towards gender- sensitive societies (e.g., in fighting poverty and exclusion);
➢ Mainstream a gender perspective in the conceptualisation, implementation and evaluation of policies relating to development, peace and security; The ECOSOC (1997/2.p.3) definition of gender mainstreaming Gender mainstreaming is "the process of assessing the implications for women and men for any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making Women's and men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality."
➢ Encourage women's creativity and freedom of expression by supporting their cultural activities, research, training, capacity-building, networking, exchange of information and women's NGOs;
25 ➢ Support a pluralistic and editorially independent media by favouring the broad and active participation of women in decision-making and by encouraging more diversified and non-discriminatory images of women;
➢ Assist in building a culture of peace in the minds of women and men by recognising women's capacity for leadership and non-violent conflict resolution;
➢ Terminology: Avoid the use of language which reinforces gender stereotypes.;
➢ Legislation: Promote full citizenship rights to all regardless of gender. Offer support to people of under-represented gender identities who adopt or wish to adopt policy-making positions.;
➢ Peace and Conflict: Women have proven to be effective at peace building.
Nurture women’s involvement in conflict resolution accordingly;
➢ Grassroots: Learn from and offer support to gender based local organisations as they will better understand their own needs;
➢ Laws and policies must aim at equal opportunities of women with men, with the ultimate view to achieving equal enjoyment of rights, income levels and participation and influence in decision-making, as well as freedom from violence for both, women and men;
➢ This requires effective strategies aimed at overcoming gender-based stereotypes and other root causes of discrimination, with a view to a redistribution of resources and power between men and women (CEDAW GR 25).
26 Activity 2.5
1. As a teacher in your community, what strategies can you adopt to ensure gender equality in your community.
2. Examine the role of the following stakeholders in achieving gender
equality; a. government,
b. church,
c. NGOS,
d. Civil society,
e. political leaders,
f. business people,
g. media,
h. traditional leaders
3. Discuss any four challenges that the Government of Zimbabwe is facing in trying to achieve gender equality.
2.7 RELEVANCE OF STUDYING GENDER ISSUES IN NASS
One might be wondering the rationale for studying Gender issues in NASS. There are various reasons why student teachers should study gender issues. Some of the reasons are highlighted below.
➢ Gender studies examine the causes of these injustices and looks for real-world solutions and means of prevention.
➢ It promotes awareness of the value of all people, regardless of sex. People will learn to respect each other as equals in the society.
➢ Gender is a human rights issue and hence should be studied and practiced.
➢ Gender studies examine all spheres of life, including the home and family, the workplace, religious institutions, education, government and the media. This
helps to reduce discrimination in the society based on gender. 27 ➢ Gender studies research also investigates the nature of gender, and thereby helps society and individuals establish healthy gender-related expectations and models of identity.
➢ It helps the society to live in harmony and thereby promoting development
➢ It ensures that there is sustainable development in the society.
➢ It helps to develop gender sensitivity among teachers and to reduce gender stereotyping.
Activity 2.6
1. Justify the relevance of studying Gender issues to students who are studying NASS.
2.8 SUMMARY
This unit has focused on gender issues. The unit explained the concept of gender and other related concepts. Further, the unit has outlined the aims of gender equity as outlined in the sustainable development goals. The National Gender Policies have been discussed as the major instrument guiding gender practices in Zimbabwe. Furthermore, the chapter looked at the gender imbalances that existed in Zimbabwe. The unit then outlined the strides made by the government in trying to achieve gender equality were outlined. Despite the various strides, there are challenges in achieving gender equality as noted in this unit. Having these challenges makes one to find strategies that can be employed in order to achieve gender equality. Lastly, the unit has explained the rationale for studying gender issues in NASS. The next unit focus on another contemporary issue which is inclusive education.
28 REFERENCES
Convention on Economic, and Social and Cultural Rights (ECOSOC) (1997). Mainstreaming the Gender perspective into all policies and programmes in the United Nations Systems. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/ECOSOCAC1997.2.PDF
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women(CEDAW) (1979). http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/cedaw.pdf
Gordon, R. (1994). Education policy and gender in Zimbabwe. Gender and Education, 6, 131–139. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline
ILO, Geneva, (2000,) Gender, poverty and employment: Facilitator's kit: Modular package”, ISBN 92-2-110838-4
Lorber, J.(1994). Paradoxes of Gender, Yale University Press, New Haven and London,
Lorber, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender . New Haven: Yale University Press.
Medical Women’s International Association (2002). Training Manual for Gender
Mainstreaming in Health. MWIA http://mwia.net/wpcontent/uploads/2013/07/TrainingManualonGenderMainstreamingin
Health.pdf
The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No.20) Act 2013
The National Gender Policy (2013-2017); The Republic of Zimbabwe; http://www.catalogue.safaids.
UNDP (2018). Susatinable Development Goals. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-5- gender-equality.html
29 UNESCO (2003). Gender Mainstreaming Implementation Framework ; Baseline definitions of key concepts and terms http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/GENDER/PDF/1
WHO (2001).World Health Report.
30 UNIT 3
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
HLATYWAYO. S
3.0 NTRODUCTION
NASS student should have an understanding of inclusive education as a contemporary issue. They should have relevant values for inclusivity in the classroom and in the society. This unit explores the concept of inclusive education. The unit defines inclusive education and other terms. Further, the background to inclusive education was discussed showing its development. The unit also explore various differences that are prevalent in classes. In addition, the unit examined the factors necessary for inclusive education. It further outlines benefit and challenges to inclusive education. The unit further discusses the various strategies that can be adopted in order to enhance inclusive education.
3.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
3.1.1 By the end of the unit, students should be able to
3.1.2 Explain the concept, “inclusive education”.
3.1.3 Trace the development of inclusive education.
3.1.4 Identify ways in which learners in a class are different.
3.1.5 Establish various factors necessary for inclusive education.
3.1.6 Analyse the benefits of inclusive education.
3.1.7 Explain the challenges encountered in implementing inclusive education.
3.1.8 Describe various ways to enhance the effectiveness of inclusive education in schools.
3.2 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
3.2.1 Impairment: lacking part of all of a limb, or having a defective limb, organ or, mechanism of the body;
31 3.2.2 Disability: the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organisation which takes no or little account.
3.2.3 Inclusion: UNESCO (2005:13) defines inclusion “as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities and reducing exclusion within and from education”. Inclusion is broad to include meeting needs of learners in birth formal and non-formal settings. Booth and Ainscow, (2002.p.3) defines inclusion as a process of “increasing the participation of students in, and reducing their exclusion from, cultures, curricula and communities of local schools”. It also includes meeting the needs of various people at community level.
3.2.4 Inclusive education. Inclusive education is an approach that looks into how to transform education systems in order to respond to the diversity of learners by including all learners in mainstream classes. In line with this, the definition by Sebba and Sachdev (1997, p. 2) is adopted. The authors define inclusive education as a process involving changes in the way schools are organised, in the curriculum and teaching strategies to accommodate the range of needs and abilities among pupils...... reduces the need to exclude pupils”. It involves
changes in content, methods, and structures so as to accommodate all learners. This allows all learners to participate effectively and achieve their potentials without being limited.
3.3 THE CONCEPT OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Inclusive education system is really a subset of an inclusive society. This refers to a society in which diversity among people is acknowledged, accepted and valued, and in which individuals and minority groups are not marginalized. According to UNESCO (2011, p. 1), ‘The ultimate goal of inclusive quality education is to end all forms of discrimination and foster social cohesion.’ Inclusive education has been described as ‘a multifaceted practice that deals with value and belief systems, invites and celebrates diversity and difference arising from family background, 32 social class, gender, language, socioeconomic background, cultural origin or ability, with human rights and social justice at its core’ (Agbenyega and Deku, 2011, p. 1). Inclusion is thus a core part of the notion of ‘Education For All”. The Dakar Framework for Action: Education for All, (UNESCO, 2000) requires us to consider inclusion of learners with special needs in educational programmes as their right, and as the essential means for their self-actualization and social integration.
According to Giffen (2011, p. 1), ‘Inclusive education is the practice of teaching disabled students alongside their non-disabled peers in regular classroom settings, instead of segregating them in special classrooms’. A much broader definition sees inclusive education as something to which all schools should aspire in order to accommodate the diversity that always exists within the student population (Gafoor, 2010). It is the view of UNESCO (2003, p. 7) that, ‘Rather than being a marginal theme on how some learners can be integrated into mainstream education, inclusive education is an approach that looks into how to transform education systems in order to respond to the diversity of learners.’ Therefore, educational institutions have to transform and adjust to accommodate learners with special needs.
At a practical level, Farley (2011) suggests that inclusion in the classroom is the creation of a setting in which all students and teachers feel comfortable and confident and where inclusive methods accommodate and appreciate differences and special needs. The philosophy of inclusive education aims to help all children learn in regular classrooms, where children with and without disabilities, and those with gifts and talents, learn together and from each other. Inclusive practices focus on developing the full potential of every individual child. Inclusion means much more than the mere physical presence of pupils with educational special needs in mainstream schools. Therefore, there is need to change the physical and social environment in order to accommodate children with special needs in the school and classroom.
33 Activity 3.1
1. Define the following terms;
a. Impairment
b. Disability
c. People with Disability
d. Inclusion
e. Inclusive education
3.3.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Children with disabilities have been marginalized for some time. Historically speaking, children with special needs were excluded from the educational system itself before the 1960s and 1970s (Balescut and Eklindh, 2006). They were excluded from various sectors of the society including education. This was because of various factors which were mainly societal. They were regarded as useless people who could not achieve anything and therefore was a waste of resources to send them to school. Cultural and societal beliefs recognised disability as a curse and therefore, people would hide their children with disabilities. A gradual shift led to initial efforts in the 1960s and 1970s which have consisted of specialized programs, institutions and specialist educators which functioned outside of the mainstream education system (Ainscow, 2007). The call to recognise the rights of people with disabilities led to the period of segregation where students with disabilities were sent to special schools depending on their disability. This is where they received their services and education.
More initiatives were made which led to the period of integration or mainstreaming children with special needs. Eventually in the late 1960s and 1970s, dissatisfaction with special education developed a new approach namely as special needs education which consisted of integration, Barton (2003). This was a system of education limited for children with disabilities physically within ordinary schools, and in specialized classrooms or sharing several hours of the 34 same class with their non-disabled peers. Integration was also stimulated by a growing recognition of human rights and the need to provide equality of opportunity for all. Evans and Lunt (2005) observed that while integration was largely a disability or special educational needs issue, inclusion tends to be promoted from a wider principled, or even ideological, perspective. According to Barton (2003), the difference between ‘integration’ and ‘inclusion’ is that integration was concerned with assimilating those with special needs into the school existing system without changing that system in any significant way, while inclusion is concerned with fundamentally transforming the way the educative process is organized and conducted in schools.
The Salamanca Statement in 1994 has become the impetus to the notion of inclusion suggesting radical changes to the form of integration, which was to accept a diverse range of special needs or excluded groups not only limited to disabilities (UNESCO, 1994). Furthermore, it explored innovative ways of reforming the school environment to accommodate all needs of children and youth. Improved understanding towards persons with disabilities also led to dissatisfaction among many researchers demanding for fundamental modification of educational settings for the disabled (Booth, 2005). In addition, The Dakar framework for action (UNESCO, 2000, p. 71) includes as a goal: ‘Total inclusion of children with special needs in the mainstream schools.’
By tracing back the history of inclusive education, it reveals that this notion of inclusion has evolved from a series of stages in development originating from special education, which has been justified from both a human rights approach and from the view point of effectiveness (Ainscow, 2007; UNESCO, 2003b.). Hence the development of inclusive education can be summarised in the illustration below;
Exclusion Separation Integration Inclusion
35 Activity 3.2
1. Trace the development of inclusive education.
3.3.2 Policies guiding inclusive education
3.3.2.1 This belief in inclusive education is underpinned by fundamental notions
expressed in many important documents and convention Inclusive education has been indirectly advocated since the United Nations Declaration (UN) in 1948 and has been cited at all phases in a number of key UN
Declarations and Conventions (UNESCO 2005). These which include among others;
3.3.2.2 The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights which ensures the right to free and compulsory elementary education for all children. This aspect of the declaration ensures that all children should have access to a compulsory primary education.
3.3.2.3 The 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which ensures the right to receive education without discrimination on any grounds. Under this convention, all children are deemed to be treated as equals without any favouritism.
3.3.2.4 The 1990 World Declaration on Education for All (Jomtien Declaration), Thailand, which set the goal of Education for All (EFA). These goals are known to involve easy and flexible curriculum, accessibility to all without taking cognisance of any disability, without any discrimination on the basis of sex, race, colour, belief, poverty and creed.
3.3.2.5 In 1993, the rule of the United Nations to achieve equal opportunities for people with disabilities, which does not confirm the equal rights of all children, youth and adults with disabilities to education, but education, should be provided in the "integrated framework" and "school in general."
36 3.3.2.6 Salamanca Statement in 1994 and work on the education of persons with special needs, which requires schools to have accommodate all students regardless of their intellectual, physical, social, emotional, linguistic or other.
3.3.2.7 Global Education for the year 2000, the Dakar Framework for Action of the Forum on Education for All and the Millennium Development Goals, which states that all children have access to primary education is free and compulsory for 2015.
3.3.2.8 The 2001 EFA Flagship on the Right to Education for Persons with Disabilities: Towards Inclusion. All People with Disabilities seeking education must be allowed equal access to the same formal education with no recourse to their physical conditions and appearances.
3.3.2.9 The 2005 UN Disability Convention which promotes the rights of persons
with disabilities and mainstreaming disability in development. People with
Disabilities under inclusive education are expected to contribute equally to
development without any reference to their disability or special needs.
3.3.2.10 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(UNCRPD, 2006);
3.3.2.11 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007);
3.3.2.12 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2015-2030 as a development from Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
3.3.2.13 In particular the Salamanca Statement asked all governments to give the highest priority to making education systems inclusive and to adopt the principle of inclusive education as a matter of law or policy. As a result, inclusion is now enshrined in local level policies adopted in most countries and regions around the world. ”. As such laws and statute of various states had to align to these agreements and conventions.
3.3.3 Policies guiding inclusive education in Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, policies guiding inclusive education in Zimbabwe include;
37 3.3.3.1 The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No.20) Act 2013 provided for equal treatment, without discrimination of every citizen. Chapter 1 section 22 of the Constitution refers specifically to persons with disabilities where the state and all institutions are obliged to treat such persons with respect and dignity and help them to achieve their full potential.
3.3.3.2 The principle of Education for All had been adopted since the country attained independence in 1980 and continued to guide the education system.
3.3.3.3 Further, the Education Act of 1987 as amended in 1996 and 2006 respectively states that every child has the right to access education at the nearest school and should not be discriminated against by the imposition of onerous terms and conditions on the grounds of race, tribe, place of origin, national origin, political opinions, color, creed or gender. This supports the concept of inclusion in the mainstream school.
3.3.3.4 Nziramasanga Commission (1999) recommended for an inclusive education system at all levels.
3.3.3.5 The Director’s Circular number 3 of 2006 titled, “Guidelines on Providing Equal Access to Education for Learners with Disabilities” is the current guiding policy on inclusive education.
As a result, the philosophy of inclusive education, in Zimbabwe, has been extended to all levels of education from ECD up to Tertiary and Higher Education. However, it should be noted that Zimbabwe has no inclusive education policy. This poses a challenge on the implementation and monitoring mechanisms.
3.4 PRINCIPLES GUIDING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
The philosophy of inclusion in education is predicated on a belief that all children, regardless of gender, ethnicity, religion, language, ability or disability, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation have an inalienable right to participate in all aspects of school life.
The basic principle of inclusive education is accommodation for all students without regard for the intellectual and physical, social, emotional and 38 language, or other by all institutions. In a World Conference UNESCO (1994) explained the need to accommodate every learner, regardless of physical, intellectual, social, linguistic or other conditions. Those involving children with special needs, gifted children, street and working children of nomads or remotely, children from linguistic, ethnic, or cultural minorities and other parts of the region groups vulnerable or marginalised.
The educational institutions that have implemented this inclusive system should take note and connect to the various requirements of the learners simultaneously so as to maintain the quality and method of education. This feat can be achieved through standard and suitable curricula, functional institutional arrangements, effective strategies of teaching, efficient utilisation of resources and working in partnership with local and regional communities (UNESCO 1994).
Another principle is equity, equity is relevant in the process of inclusive education because it ensures the equality of students as well as bridging the gap between different groups in society.
Another principle is social justice. Inclusive education is guided by the need to achieve social justice through social inclusion.
Inclusive education is a human rights issue and therefore should be central in all education systems.
3.4.1 Differences among children
In schools, student populations are becoming much more diverse. The single word ‘diversity’ encompasses the different characteristics that make one individual or group different from another. Diversity in the classroom exists because students come from varied backgrounds and cultures, have different life experiences, and possess different innate and acquired characteristics. Henson and Eller (1999) suggest that these differences among students have the potential both to enrich and to limit a student’s capacity to learn within the school environment. Some individual characteristics have a strong influence on 39 students’ learning and adjustment in school. These differences include: intelligence, gender, cultural background, ethnicity, language skills, amount of support from home, extent of prior knowledge and experience, competency in reading and writing, access to resources outside of school hours, special talents, ability or disability. Students also differ in self-esteem, confidence, social skills, physical skills, and classroom behaviour and work habits. It is because students differ in these ways, and make progress in their learning at an individual pace, that teachers must often tailor the curriculum, offer a variety of instructional approaches, and create alternative paths to learning (Ormrod, 2010).
3.4.2 Intelligence
Differences in intelligence represent a key reason why teaching often has to be adaptive. For example, in some areas of the curriculum such as reading, writing, mathematics, science, technology, not all children of the same age can cope easily with exactly the same learning tasks, concepts and skills. The content of the curriculum therefore may need to be adjusted to some 3.4.3 Gender
Inclusive teaching has an important role to play in minimizing supposed differences among male and female students. Inclusive approaches can do much to reduce traditional gender stereotypes and gender-specific role expectations that have become largely socio-culturally determined rather than reflecting any biological basis. This tendency to treat boys and girls differently manifests in the different activities and materials provided for the two sexes. Differential treatment of this type can become magnified during the school years, with some teachers still treating boys and girls differently at all age levels (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010). For this reason, teachers should be very careful and ensure that they are unintentionally responding to male and female students differently, for example, by giving more time and attention to assertive boys, or praising girls for effort more often than boys. Teachers also need to ensure that gender stereotypes are not perpetuated as role models in any curriculum content or teaching materials they use. Where such examples do occur, they should be seen 40 as an opportunity to encourage the students to challenge underlying assumptions about gender
3.4.4 Socio-Economic Status
Any teacher knows that students in the class come from different family backgrounds. One of the main ways in which families differ is in terms of income and educational standards of the parents. In particular, poverty, unemployment, single-parent family situations, stress and conflict in the home, can all result in some children struggling to cope in school. Poverty is a major factor, resulting in parental stress, depression, malnutrition, neglect, and an absence of resources in the home. Meeting the needs of children from disadvantaged backgrounds requires schools to provide many compensatory activities that expose these children to a wider range of positive experiences. This applies to both curricular and extra-curricular contexts. During lessons, the children’s potential lack of prior knowledge in many areas covered within the curriculum should signal that teachers must not make assumptions. Often new concepts need to be explained in much more detail, paying particular attention to teaching new vocabulary. In addition, there is need to make greater of visual and concrete resources, and hands-on learning.
3.4.5 Culture
In many countries, the composition of classes in school has become much more multicultural. Students from very different ethnic backgrounds often sit side by side, each bringing to school a very different set of experiences, values, beliefs, expectations, interaction styles, and codes of behaviour. For many of these students, school is a very different cultural setting, with its own customs, rules and rituals to which they must rapidly adjust. The extent to which such adjustment takes place often determines the learning and social progress made by learners. Cultural differences result in differences in students’ behaviour and in their responses or reactions to classroom activities. They can also affect communication in the classroom, with some students being unwilling, or unable, to answer or ask questions or take active part in discussions, (Ormrod, 2010). 41 Culturally different students must adjust to school; so too, teachers must adapt to having a multicultural class. They have a responsibility to inform themselves about, and become sensitive to, the various cultures from which their students come.
3.4.6 Language
Students differ greatly in their language competence, and this has a major impact on their learning from the time they begin school. Not only does much of the teaching and learning in schools rely upon adequate spoken and written language, but the ability to communicate through speech and socialise with others is also influenced by language skills. It is a key part of teachers’ expertise to be able to adjust their own language complexity to the listening comprehension and vocabulary level of their students. A teacher’s ability to do this is absolutely crucial to the progress of students whose language skills are not well developed. Every area of the curriculum and every topic taught should be seen as an opportunity to enrich children’s language and expand their vocabulary. 3.4.7 Learning Style
According to Sprenger (2003), differences in students’ learning styles should determine how best to differentiate and deliver classroom teaching. It is argued that individuals have their own unique ways of processing, linking, storing and recalling information, and that teaching methods should be adapted to these differences (Sprenger, 2003). The only feasible way that teachers can realistically accommodate differences in learning style is to ensure that information is always represented in multiple ways. In addition, there is need to use varied activities that engage all senses
3.4.8 Aptitude
Students obviously differ in the extent to which they display special gifts, aptitudes or talents. Unless a school is very small, most teachers can expect to have at least one or two students of relatively high academic ability in their inclusive classes. A false assumption is that these students will not require any 42 special consideration by the teacher because they are capable of independent learning
Most of these students learn at a faster pace than their age peers and can easily lose motivation if the curriculum does not interest and challenge them. The usual methods for meeting the needs of these students is through providing some form of extension work and enriching the common curriculum with additional topics and resources. Also one can accelerate the student through the basic curriculum by removing material that is already known (curriculum compacting) and replacing it with more advanced studies.
3.4.9 Disabilities
Lastly, in almost any classroom today there may be one or two students with disabilities that could impede their capacity to learn and to socialise. Students with disabilities now included in the mainstream include those with a intellectual disability, autism, Sensory impairment of hearing or vision, learning disability such as dyslexia, physical disabilities, Gifted and talented students and a few individuals with health problems. In some cases, a single student may have more than one disability. There are also likely to be one or two students who have emotional or behavioural disorders (EBD)). According to Kauffman and Landrum (2012), such types of disabilities tend to present teachers with ongoing problems of classroom management. These students are the most difficult to include successfully in mixed-ability classes. Teachers have to e knowledgeable on the causes of such disabilities, symptoms and ways to manage such learners.
3.5 FACTORS IMPORTANT FOR SUCCESSFUL INCLUSION
Over the years since inclusion became the policy in most school systems around the world, evidence has accumulated to indicate the factors that seem to determine whether or not it will be successful in a particular school (Hornby and Witte, 2010). The clear indications are that the following list represents necessary factors (each insufficient in itself) that influence inclusive education in a positive direction. 43 o Acknowledgment of the need to give precedence to inclusive education in government policies. o Supportive school policy, with clearly understood roles and responsibilities among staff. o Genuine commitment and leadership by school principal and senior staff. o A ‘whole school approach’ to creating and maintaining an inclusive
culture, with a positive attitude and willingness among all teachers. o Teachers with appropriate skills and strategies for adapting the curriculum and teaching methods when necessary. o To rebuild the professional role of educational instructors, teachers and academic staff, with consideration of ethical social values and responsibility. o in inclusive education policies in the schools, not just as implementers of curriculum o Teachers able to collaborate as members of a team, and able to work cooperatively with support personnel. o Coordinated ongoing communication between special education teachers, mainstream teachers and teaching assistants. o Adequate time for teachers to meet, plan and evaluate. o Relevant and flexible curriculum to cater for the needs of all children. o Appropriate use of cooperative learning and peer tutoring methods alongside effective research-based instruction. o Adequate provision of support personnel (special education teachers; teaching assistants; volunteer helpers). o Access to any necessary outside services (e.g., speech therapy;
behaviour modification team; psychological assessment). o Parental involvement and support. o The provision of an individual education plan (IEP) for each student
44 with a significant learning or behaviour problem.
o Students feeling that they ‘belong’ and are valued in the group.
o Providing clear working strategies and ideas to create opportunities for meaningful learning, to see school as an important catalyst for bringing
change to education, an incorporated unit, an institutional base for
education and academic which is strongly spread through the school curriculum, starting with childhood education to youth education. . o Encourage standard quality and unbiased access to all forms of education by constructing, diversification and flexibility of verities
of values and channels to the education system with standard structures and content, on the basis of expressive global ideas of fundamental education for young people.
Activity 3.3
1. Analyse the factors that are necessary for effective inclusive education.
2. To what extent has the Government of Zimbabwe achieve inclusive education?
It should be noted that no single approach to inclusion will suit all schools. Schools can adopt flexible ways to become more inclusive, particularly in the way they deploy available support personnel and resources, and the ways in which groups are organized for teaching.
The above factors ensure effective inclusive education. they ensure that there is total inclusion of all children, researchers with extensive experience in special education such as Evans and Lunt, (2005); Kauffman and Hallahan, (2005) have different views towards inclusive education. They acknowledge that some individuals have disabilities or disorders that make it necessary to provide supports and interventions that are simply not feasible in ordinary schools. To place these individuals in an ordinary 45 school actually makes their learning environment much more restrictive. This population includes students with severe and complex disabilities, and those with severe emotional, behavioural or psychiatric disorders. They argue that full inclusion may not be the best option for some students and as such other provisions such as resource rooms, special classes and special schools are still required. According to MacBeath, Galton, Steward, MacBeath, and Page (2006), placing a student in a classroom where his or her needs are not being adequately met almost amounts to a form of abuse. However, despite these arguments, inclusive education tends to be yield benefits necessary for all children.
UNESCO (2009) designed a framework that should be adopted in educational institutions in order to achieve effective inclusive education. The framework shows various factors that are necessary for inclusive education. The diagram below shows the framework;
46
The education system has the full responsibility to ensure the right to education
It is equipped and ready to handle diversity through
Flexible teaching and learning methods adapted to
different needs and learning styles
Reorienting teacher education
Flexible curriculum;
Responsive to divers needs and not
overloaded with academic content
welcoming of diversity
Involvement of parents and the community
Early identification
47 and remediation of children at risk
of failure
Flexible teaching methods with innovative approaches to teaching aids, and equipment as well as the use of ICTs
Responsive, child-friendly environments
Professional environment working deliberately and actively to promote inclusion for all
UNESCO (2009.p.15)
Figure 3.1; Conceptual Framework
3.6 BENEFITS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
It is hoped that inclusion of students with special needs in mainstream classrooms will have some of the following benefits for children with disabilities and others from disadvantaged groups:
o Enhanced appreciation and acceptance of individual differences; o Recognition, understanding, respect, and acceptance of diversity;
o Increased opportunity for social interaction and the forming of friendships; o Greater development of communication skills;
48 o Increased independence in all areas of functioning;
o Peers providing good models of appropriate behaviour and social skills; o Access to the same mainstream curriculum;
o Exposure to higher standards of academic achievement; o Higher expectations for behaviour and schoolwork;
o Better preparation for adult life in an inclusive society;
o Develop individual strengths and gifts, with high and appropriate expectations for each child;
o Work on individual goals while participating in the life of the classroom with other students their own age; and
o Develop friendships with a wide variety of other children, each with their own individual needs and abilities.
In terms of benefits to the school, it is hoped that moving towards an inclusive culture will result in:
o Greater school staff collaboration and teamwork;
o Special education staff working more closely with classroom teachers; o Improved methods of teaching;
o Increased parent communication and participation;
o More effective use made of material and human resources; o Greater access to outside services;
o Needs of all students are met successfully;
o Foster a school culture of respect and belonging. Inclusive education provides opportunities to learn about and accept individual differences, lessening the impact of harassment and bullying; and
o Positively affect both their school and community to appreciate diversity and inclusion on a broader level
These benefits can be realized in successful inclusive settings, but are
difficult to achieve. They remain ideals that many schools are yet to 49 accomplish. This brings us to the factors that affect effective implementation of inclusive education.
3.7 FACTORS OR CHALLENGES AFFECTING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
The most common challenge of inclusive education is the management of different individuals with different learning needs. Moving from a traditional model of schooling in which students are often grouped or streamed into classes based on ability to an all-inclusive model presents enormous challenges to teachers and school principals, (Brackenreed, 2011; Forlin, 2001).
A major problem is one of attitude. Teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion naturally tend to vary according to the nature of a student’s disability or disorder, and the presence or absence of behaviour problems (Cagran and Schmidt, 2011). In particular, most teachers are doubtful about the viability of including students with severe and complex disabilities, autism, and emotional or behavioural disorders. These doubts and worries are quite understandable, and are due in part to teachers’ lack of prior knowledge about disabilities and disorders, lack of direct experience in working with atypical learners, and the erroneous belief that ‘special’ teaching methods must exist that they know nothing about.
The issue of teacher training almost always arises in any evaluation of inclusive schooling. In most countries that have taken steps to introduce inclusive education policies there is still a reported lack of adequate preparation and training of teachers to work effectively with a wide range of student ability and to meet students’ special needs (Agbenyega and Deku, 2011; Shady, 2011; Valliant, 2011). However, attempts are being made now to ensure that trainee teachers at least understand the reasons for inclusion, and the principles involved in teaching mixed-ability classes. Effective pre-service teacher preparation should therefore emphasize on preparing teachers for inclusive education. 50 Another factor affecting inclusive education is the rigid curriculum. In inclusive classrooms, teachers are required to follow a closely prescribed curriculum and are held strictly accountable for the academic progress their students make. As a result, there is a risk that students with significant special needs may not receive the intensive instruction they need to develop essential daily living and self-help skills.
Another potentially contentious issue relates to the provision of additional support for students with learning problems in inclusive classrooms. In addition to these problems there are other obstacles as noted by Mitchell (2000) include:
➢ Large class sizes;
➢ Inadequate funding and resources;
➢ Lack of differentiated teaching materials;
➢ Poor or unreliable access to outside support services;
➢ Limited collaboration and teamwork among teachers;
➢ Negative peer group attitudes among students;
➢ Inadequate training of teachers;
➢ Poorly designed and equipped school buildings
➢ Lack of positive communication and cooperation with parents; and
➢ Architectural barriers for students with physical mobility problems.
Even in countries where education systems are well developed, many of the above obstacles still exist.
3.8 WHAT SHOULD BE DONE
It is clear that serving teachers also need much support and guidance in moving toward inclusive practices (Glazzard, 2011) and such guidance must be provided largely within the teachers’ own schools. Other strategies are listed below;
51 ➢ This needs to be supplemented by relevant ongoing in-service training of teachers.
➢ All teachers should be trained in special needs education.
➢ There is need for stakeholders to develop positive attitudes.
➢ There is need for adequate provision of resources in schools.
➢ Schools should improve their infrastructure so as to accommodate all students.
➢ Specialist services such as audiologists, psychologist should be available in schools.
➢ Assistive devices such as hearing aids should be available and affordable to many students.
➢ Establishing clear policies to guide inclusive education.
➢ Commitment by stakeholders
3.9 SUMMARY
The unit has looked at inclusive education as one of the contemporary issue. As, a human rights issue, inclusive education has to be emphasised in educational institutions. The unit has traced the development of inclusive education. It has examined factors necessary for inclusive education. Further, the benefits of inclusive education were highlighted. The unit has also examined the differences that exist among learners which a teacher should understand and address. In addition, the unit examined the factors that affect inclusive education in schools and suggested ways to enhance inclusive education.
52 REFERENCES
Agbenyega, J. and Deku, P. (2011). Building New Identities in Teacher Preparation for Inclusive Education in Ghana. Current Issues in Education, 14 (1). Retrieved from http://cie.asu.edu/[2] .
Ainscow, M. (2007). "From special education to effective schools for all: a review of progress so far." The Sage handbook of special education: 146-159.
Balescut, J., and Eklindh, K. (2006). Literacy and persons with developmental disabilities: why and how? (Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006 Literacy for Life). Paris: UNESCO.
Barton, L. (2003). Inclusive education and teacher education: A basis of hope or a discourse of delusion. London: Institute of Education, University of London.
Booth, T and Ainscow, M (2002). Index for Inclusion : Developing Learning and Participation in Schools, CSIE
Booth, T. (2005). Keeping the Future Alive: putting inclusive values into action. FORUM, 47(2&3), 150-158.
Brackenreed, D. (2011). Inclusive education: Identifying teachers’ strategies for coping with perceived stressors in inclusive classrooms. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 122, 1-36.
Cagran, B and Schmidt, M. (2011). Attitudes of Slovene Teachers towards the Inclusion of Pupils with Different Types of Special Needs in Primary School; Educational Studies, v37 n2 p171-195 May 2011
Eggen, P and Kauchak, D. (2010). Educational Psychology: Windows on
Classrooms (8thEd.) New Jersey: Pearson.
53 Evans, J. and Lunt, I. (2002). Inclusive education: are there limits? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17(1), 1-14.
Forlin, C. (2001). Inclusion: identifying potential stressors for regular class teachers.
Educational Research, 43(3), 235-245.
Forlin, C. (2001). The role of the support teacher in Australia.The European Journal of Special Needs Education, 16, 121–131.
Gafoor, A. K. (2010). Towards Inclusive Schooling. International Conference on higher Education (ICMGU2010) on Education for Peace, Social Inclusion and Sustainable Development Towards A Paradigm Shift. 8-10 December 2010 Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. ED517057 : Towards Inclusive Schooling
Glazzard, J. (2011) Perceptions of the barriers to effective inclusion in one primary school: voices of teachers and teaching assistants. Support for Learning, 26 (2). pp. 56- 63. ISSN 1467-9604
Henson K.T and Eller B.F. (1999). Educational Psychology for Effective Teaching. Wadsworth, Publishing Co. Belmont
Kauffman, M and Landrum, J. (2012). Characteristics of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders of Children and Youth (10th Edition). New Jersey: Pearson
Kauffman, James M and Hallahan, Daniel P. (2005). Special Education: What It Is and Why We Need It. Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn and Bacon. Pp. vii + 83
Macbeath, J., Galton, M., Steward, S., Macbeath, A. and Page, C. (2006). The costs of inclusion: A study of inclusion policy and practice in English primary, secondary and special schools, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ormrod, J.E. (2010). Educational psychology: Developing learners (7th ed.). Columbus, OH:Merrill-Prentice Hall.
Sebba, J., and Sachdev, D. (1997). What works in inclusive education?. Barkingside:
Barnados. 54 Shady, S. A.(2011). Implementing and Supporting Inclusion in an Elementary School:
An Action Research Study; https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED524409
Sprenger, M. (2003). Differentiation through learning styles and memory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
UNESCO (1994), The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, World Conference on SNE, Access and Quality, Salamanca, Spain UN.
UNESCO. (2000). The Dakar Framework for Action. Education for all: Meeting our collective commitments. Dakar: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2003). Overcoming exclusion through inclusive approaches in education: A challenge and a vision. Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO. (2003b). Overcoming exclusion through inclusive approaches in education. A challenge and a vision. Conceptual paper. Paris: Early Childhood and Inclusive Education Basic Education Division
UNESCO (2005). Guidelines for inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All,.
Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2009). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education, Paris: UNESCO.
Valliant D. (2011). Preparing teachers for inclusive education in Latin America. Prospects. ;41:385-98
55 FURTHER READING
Winter, E., and O’Raw, P. (2010). Literature review of the principles and practices relating to inclusive education for children with special educational needs. Trim (County Meath): National Council for Special Education : http://www.ncse.ie/uploads/1/NCSE_Inclusion.pdf
Westwood, P. (2013). Inclusive and adaptive Teaching: Meeting the challenge of diversity in the classroom. London: Routledge.
UNESCO GUIDELINE
56 UNIT FOUR
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN ZIMBABWE 2015 TO 2017; OPERATION RESTORE LEGACY
MASUNGO S.
4.0 UNIT ORGANISATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the political developments in Zimbabwe that led to the fall of the former president R.G. Mugabe and the emergence of a new political dispensation. The rise and fall of the former president, reasons behind the fall, operation restore legacy, the new president and the achievements so far will be discussed in this unit. As you read through the unit ,you need to take note that some opinions are political and hence you need to be analytic .You will also note the rapid political changes seem to have been carefully planned .You are required to answer questions that you will come across as you read the unit. It is hoped you will find the unit exciting and enjoyable to read.
4.2 AIMS OF THE UNIT
4.2.1 The unit aims at exposing the students to the political changes that have taken place in their country, trace the history and practice of governance of the former president focusing on his achievements and weaknesses so that they can make comparisons with the new political dispensation.
4.2.2 To enable students to become analytic and critical thinkers as they encounter controversial political issues
4.2.3 To provide a platform for students to make informed decisions when it comes to electoral processes.
57 4.3 OBJECTIVES 4.3.1 At the end of the unit, you should be able to 4.3.2 Explain how the former president rose to political power 4.3.3 Identify his achievements and discuss his shortcomings 4.3.4 Explain circumstances that led to his downfall 4.3.5 Describe operation restore legacy
4.4 KEY CONCEPTS 4.4.1 G-40 A ZANU-PF Faction led by Grace Mugabe 4.4.2 Lacoste ZANU –PF faction assumed to have been led by ED Munangagwa 4.4.3 Coup A military takeover of government 4.4.4 Operation Restore Legacy This is a military operation which triggered the demise of Robert Mugabe who had been the sole leader of Zimbabwe for thirty – seven years. 4.4.5 Faction A group within a larger group especially one with slightly different ideas from the main group. 4.4.6 war veteran This refers to a person who was actively involved in the war of liberation ,someone who actually fought in the liberation war.
4.5 THE RISE AND FALL OF ZIMBABWE'S LONG TIME LEADER: ROBERT MUGABE
This section of your module will introduce you to the rise and fall of a long time leader of Zimbabwe, as highlighted by Simmons [2017].
The rule of Robert Mugabe, a once-respected liberation leader turned feared dictator and international pariah, came to an unflattering end when the Zimbabwean president was forced to relinquish his 37-year hold on power in the face of possible impeachment.
58 The future of the 93-year-old Mugabe, the world's oldest head of state, now hangs in the balance. But his past paints a portrait of the disheartening decline of a man once viewed as one of Africa's most promising statesmen.
4.5.1 Here's a look at the life and legacy of Robert Mugabe:
He was born Robert Gabriel Mugabe in 1924 to a poor family in a town called Kutama in what was then known as Southern Rhodesia, a British colony. Educated at Kutama College and at the University of Fort Hare in South Africa's Eastern Cape, Mugabe studied history and English literature. He worked as a schoolteacher after graduating in the early 1950s.
Mugabe is said to have seven academic degrees covering a range of disciplines, including education and law, six of which were earned through correspondence courses and two earned while in prison for sedition against the colonial government, according to various news reports.
His early career as an educator took him to what was then Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, where he worked at a teacher training college between 1955 and 1958, and then Ghana, where he undertook similar work. It was in Ghana where Mugabe met his first wife, Sally Hayfron, who died in 1992.
It was also in Ghana, the first African nation to gain independence from European colonialism, where Mugabe reportedly became inspired by African nationalism and Marxism.
In 1960, Mugabe returned to his home country, where his opposition to white minority rule exploded as he joined calls for independence and black-majority rule.
He embraced the Zimbabwe African National Union, later to become the Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front, or ZANU-PF. His antigovernment rhetoric landed him in jail from late 1963 to 1974, after being convicted of sedition.
59 Once released, Mugabe fled to neighbouring Mozambique from where he led a guerrilla war to end British rule. Defeat of the colonialists eventually came in a negotiated settlement. And in 1980, Mugabe defeated rival liberation leaders to become prime minister of the new Zimbabwe.
In a move to quash perceived dissent and consolidate power, Mugabe ordered a crackdown in the Matabeleland stronghold of his political rival, Joshua Nkomo, in which thousands of people were massacred.
As prime minister between 1980 and 1987, Mugabe called for national unity and preached racial reconciliation but his focus became the betterment of the country's poor and downtrodden black majority. He introduced free education and healthcare, built new roads and opened the doors to black citizens in areas of business that were formerly reserved for whites.
Such policies won him praise as a father figure and a respected statesman, and he became a darling on the international stage. But that would not last.
In 1987, Zimbabwe's parliament rewrote the country's independence constitution allowing Mugabe to become president shortly thereafter. The all-powerful position gave him the authority to dissolve parliament, institute martial law and run for as many terms as desired — essentially giving Mugabe the potential to become president for life, propped up by his ruling ZANU-PF party.
In the early 1990s, the Zimbabwean government passed an amendment allowing the expropriation of about half of all white-owned land with the aim of resettling black families. The policy gained traction in the early 2000s, when Mugabe sanctioned the takeover of white-owned farms by veterans of the liberation struggle. The controversial plan met with backlash from the international community that threatened to withhold foreign aid to Zimbabwe and by white
60 farmers who warned that appropriating their commercial farms would spell economic disaster.
Mugabe refused to abandon the plan and Zimbabwe's economy soon began to sink.
The Zimbabwean dollar crashed, with inflation at one stage soaring to 500 billion percent. Unemployment skyrocketed, gasoline shortages became the norm and there were food riots. With his political survival at stake, Mugabe turned to two main weapons: land and race.
Mugabe blamed white Zimbabweans and his political rivals, whom he accused of being colonial puppets, for the grinding poverty and financial free-fall. Critics said his government was largely to blame. Investigations by news outlets and civil rights groups found that some of the expropriated land was awarded to Mugabe's ministers and cronies and not used to relieve the overcrowding of black citizens, who were crammed onto a tiny percentage of land.
The violence that erupted in the early 2000s when black liberation war veterans occupied and seized white-owned farms left scores dead, among them farmers, farm laborers and members of the political opposition.
In October 2000, efforts of opposition members of Zimbabwe's parliament to impeach Mugabe failed. That same year, the country's constitution was amended to force Britain to pay reparations for the land it had seized from blacks during colonial rule.
In 2002, the British Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from the intergovernmental organization made up mostly of former territories of the British Empire, and Zimbabwe withdrew the next year. The European Union imposed sanctions, such as a travel ban and the freezing of assets, on dozens of members of Zimbabwe's leadership as punishment for not being allowed to
61 observe the country's 2002 presidential vote. The United States imposed similar restrictions.
Mugabe lost the first round of presidential elections in March 2008 to Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the opposition Movement for Democratic Change, but the long time leader would not cede power. Instead he launched a campaign of violence in which scores were killed. Tsvangirai ultimately withdrew from the second round of voting, but later agreed to a power sharing deal with Mugabe, and became the country's prime minister. But by 2011, Tsvangirai declared the agreement a failure.
In 2013, Mugabe won another term in office amid widespread allegations of election fraud. By then, his second wife, Grace, a former state house typist he married in 1996 following an affair, had her eyes set on succeeding her increasingly frail husband. That did not sit well with ruling party veterans of the liberation struggle, who turned on Mugabe.
The curtain began a fast fall on Mugabe's reign when on November6 2017 he fired his once-trusted deputy Emmerson Mnangagwa, who was considered Grace's main rival to succeed Mugabe.
On November 15 2017 the military said it had taken control of the country, putting Mugabe and his wife in custody. Though urged to resign, the long time leader continued to cling to power for almost a week — until when the threat of impeachment gave him little choice, Simmons [2017].
4.5.2 Activity 4.1
1. Identify and list down what you consider to be the former president’ s achievements
2. The land grabbing by war veterans was a noble move .Discuss this assertion.
62 Behind Mugabe’s Rapid Fall:
Adapted from Norimitsu [2017].
Norimitsu [2017] says the rapid fall of Zimbabwe’s president, whose legendary guile and ruthlessness helped him out manoeuvre countless adversaries over nearly four decades, probably has surprised no one more than Robert Mugabe himself.
For years, he was so confident of his safety — and his potency — that he took month long vacations away from Zimbabwe after Christmas, never facing any threat during his long, predictable absences. Even at 93, his tight grip on the country’s ruling party and his control over the military made his power seem impervious to question.
But in just a matter of days, Mr. Mugabe, who ruled his nation since independence in 1980, was largely stripped of his authority, even as he still clung to the presidency.
63 In a much-anticipated speech ,Mr. Mugabe, instead of announcing his resignation as most of the country had expected, stunned Zimbabwe by refusing to say he was stepping down. While he conceded that his country was “going through a difficult patch,” he gave no sign that he recognized, or accepted, how severely the ground had shifted under him in such a short time.
Earlier in the day, the governing ZANU-PF party, over which he had always exercised total domination, expelled Mr. Mugabe as leader, with cheers and dancing erupting after the vote. He was given a deadline to resign or face impeachment by Parliament, Norimitsu [2017].
Just days earlier, soldiers put him under house arrest, and his 52-year-old wife, Grace Mugabe, whose ambition to succeed him contributed to his downfall, has not been seen in public since.
Photo
Adapted from Credit JekesaiNjikizana/Agness France –Press----- Getty Images.
Christopher Mutsvangwa, center, head of the war veterans association, celebrated the dismissal of the president of the ruling ZANU-PF party in Harare.
64 But in his speech, Mr. Mugabe even declared that he would preside over his governing party’s congress in a few weeks. After 37 years in control of the nation, he was refusing to let go easily.
4.5.3 A Fateful Firing
The chain of events leading to Mr. Mugabe’s downfall started on Nov. 6, when he fired his vice president, Emmerson Mnangagwa, a close ally of the military, and then tried to arrest the nation’s top military commander a few days later. Mr. Mugabe had finally come down against the military and its political allies in a long- running feud inside the governing party.“He crossed the red line, and we couldn’t allow that to continue,” said Douglas Mahiya, a leader of the war veterans’ association, a group that has acted as the military’s proxy in the country’s political battles while allowing uniformed generals to remain publicly neutral.
A few hours after he was fired, Mr. Mnangagwa, fearing arrest, fled with a son into neighbouring Mozambique, where he has strong military ties. He eventually made his way to South Africa, allies said. July Moyo, a close ally of Mr. Mnangagwa, said the vice president had prepared himself for the possibility of being fired. “He accepted that things can turn very bad, so he had conditioned himself,”
Over the following days, Mr. Mutsvangwa met with South African intelligence officers, he said, warning them of a possible military intervention in Zimbabwe. He said he had tried to persuade South African officials not to describe any intervention as a “coup” — an important concession to get from South Africa, the regional power.
Though this account could not be verified with South African officials , the South African government did not mention the word “coup” in its official statement after the military intervention occurred .
65 While Mr. Mutsvangwa worked with South African officials, Zimbabwe’s long time top military commander, General Constantino Chiwenga, was in China on an official trip. He was tipped off while abroad that Mr. Mugabe had ordered him arrested upon his return home, according to several people close to the military. The police were going to grab the general as soon as his plane touched down, on November 12, Norimitsu [2017].
But as General Chiwenga prepared to land, soldiers loyal to him infiltrated the airport. His troops — wearing the uniforms of baggage handlers — surprised and quickly overwhelmed the police. Before departing, the general is said to have told the police officers that he would “deal” with their commander, a Mugabe loyalist.
Within just a couple of days, tanks had rumbled into the capital and soldiers had effectively deposed Mr. Mugabe.
Photo
Adapted from CreditJekesaiNjikizana/ Agence France----Getty Images.
66 EmmersonMnangagwa, center, arriving at a funeral ceremony at the National Heroes Acre in Harare in January 2018.
4.5.4 Fierce Infighting
The president’s decision to fire his vice president and arrest the general was the culmination of a long — and increasingly vicious and personal — battle inside ZANU-PF, the party that has controlled Zimbabwe since independence in 1980. The so-called Lacoste faction was led by Mr. Mnangagwa, whose nickname is the Crocodile, and was backed by the military and war veterans.
The rival faction was led by the president’s wife and supported by the police, whose loyalty Mr. Mugabe had ensured by, among other moves, naming a nephew to a top command. This faction included mostly younger politicians with no experience in the war of liberation and was christened Generation 40, or G-40, by Jonathan Moyo, a fearless, extremely ambitious politician widely regarded as the mastermind behind this group.
As Lacoste and G-40 fought each other to eventually succeed Mr. Mugabe, the president did not give either side his declaration of support. To both factions, the biggest factor was Mr. Mugabe’s age and increasingly visible frailty. It was only a matter of time before “nature will take its course” and “the old man goes,” as the political class said.
Time was on Lacoste’s side. Once nature did take its course, power would naturally slip to Mr. Mnangagwa and his military backers, they believed.
Mr. Mnangagwa remained largely quiet, refraining from responding to attacks, and treated Mr. Mugabe with extreme deference. Whenever Mr. Mugabe flew home from a trip, state media invariably showed Mr. Mnangagwa greeting the president on the tarmac, displaying an almost obsequious smile and body language. To the younger members in G-40, time was against them. Their biggest asset, Mrs. 67 Mugabe, would lose all value once her husband died. So they were in a rush to get a transfer of power while Mr. Mugabe was still alive.
Photo
Adapted from the Herald November 2017.
Delegates at the extraordinary ZANU-PF party central committee meeting in Harare .
4.6 The First Lady and the Fall
Charamba C .F. [2017] posits thatMr. Mugabe’s downfall was rooted in his wife’s decision to become a political force in mid-2014, most politicians and experts believed. “Mrs. Mugabe’s entry into politics caused elite rupture in Zimbabwe,” said Tendai Biti, a lawyer, opposition politician and former finance minister in a
68 coalition government a few years ago. “This coup was the result of a disagreement between people eating at the same table, whereas most coups in Africa are done by people eating under the table and receiving crumbs.”
Why Mrs. Mugabe, now 52, suddenly dove into politics is not exactly clear. Married for decades to Mr. Mugabe, she had been known as “Gucci Grace,” someone interested in shopping and leading a lavish lifestyle. She was a typist in the presidential pool when she and Mr. Mugabe began an affair while the president’s first wife, Sally, was dying of cancer. Unlike the much-beloved first wife, the second Mrs. Mugabe was widely disliked among Zimbabweans. Some politicians and experts point to the hand of Mr. Moyo, the originator of the G-40 name, for Mrs. Mugabe’s political intentions.
In ZANU-PF’s ever-shifting alliances, Mr. Moyo had a checkered past. In 2004, he was expelled from the party after planning a power play with — critically — none other than Mr. Mnangagwa himself, who managed to escape politically unscathed. Feeling betrayed by Mr.Mnangagwa, Mr.Moyo vowed never to work with him again, setting off a decade-long feud that fed into the recent military takeover.Mr. Moyo, reportedly admired by Mr. Mugabe for his intelligence, was rehabilitated, rejoined the party and was given ministerial positions in the cabinet.
But in June 2014, Mr. Moyo was again on the outs. At a funeral for a party stalwart at National Heroes Acre, a burial ground and national monument in Harare, the capital, Mr. Mugabe criticized Mr. Moyo for causing dissension in the party. The president referred to him as a “weevil” — an insect that eats corn, Zimbabwe’s staple food, from the inside.“Even in ZANU-PF, we have the weevils,” the president said. “But should we keep them? No.”To secure his survival, Mr. Moyo urged Mrs. Mugabe to enter politics, according to politicians, friends and analysts.“He preyed on her fears,” said Dewa Mavhinga,[2017] a Zimbabwe researcher for Human Rights Watch, referring to Mr.Moyo. “You’re a young wife with an old husband in his sunset moments. You have
69 to guarantee your future. You need people who are loyal to you. And who better to protect your interests than yourself.”
Very rapidly, Mrs. Mugabe and her allies orchestrated the removal of rivals, including JoiceMujuru, a vice president, as well as Mr.Mutsvangwa, who had been Mr. Mugabe’s minister of war veterans affairs.
Photo
Adapted from Getty Images.
The wife of the new president of the ZANU-PF party, AuxiliaMnangagwa, was congratulated on her reinstatement to the party.
Mavhinga [2017] posits that even as the president’s medical trips to Singapore were getting increasingly frequent, he was not making a final decision on his succession.
70
4.6.1 Time was running out.
And so, Mr. Moyo, shortly after expressing his growing frustrations to his friend, appeared to go for broke. In July 2017, in a meeting of party leaders, he launched a direct attack on Mr. Mnangagwa, presenting a 72-minute video said to show his rival’s duplicity and desire to topple the president. At the same time, Mrs. Mugabe intensified her faction’s attacks, describing Mr. Mnangagwa as a “coward” and “coup plotter.”
At a rally in the city of Bulawayo some youths, presumably from the rival Lacoste faction, began heckling Mrs. Mugabe, calling her a “thief.”“If you were paid to boo me, go ahead,” she said. “I am the first lady, and I will stand for the truth. Bring the soldiers and let them shoot me.”The heckling visibly angered Mr. Mugabe, who immediately accused Mr. Mnangagwa of being behind it.
“Did I err in appointing Mr. Mnangagwa as my deputy?” the president said. “If I erred, I will drop him even tomorrow.”Two days later, he fired Mr. Mnangagwa, opening the path for Mrs. Mugabe to become vice president and, once nature took its course, her husband’s successor. Mrs. Mugabe and her allies had finally won. But the victory would soon prove Pyrrhic.
As the Lacoste faction solidified the takedown of Mr. Mugabe, party officials removed Mrs. Mugabe as head of the ZANU-PF Women’s League and barred her from the party for life. Mr. Moyo, too, was barred forever. Mr. Mugabe’s second vice president, Phelekezela Mphoko, who had served for three years, was fired. The ending was much sweeter for Mr. Mnangagwa: the party named him as its new leader.
4.6.2 What led to Mugabe's fall?
Leonid Bershidsky [2017] a political analyst says as leader of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe has survived longer than Stalin in the Soviet Union and Mao in China. If it's coming to an end — which seems likely, given his apparent inability to emerge
71 from house arrest after the military took charge — it's worth reflecting on the mistakes he made to end such a remarkable run.
Daniel Treisman, a UCLA political scientist, argued in a recent paper that most dictators fall for reasons proving that they are all too human: hubris, a propensity for needless risk, liberalization impulses that lead to a slippery slope, picking the wrong successor, counterproductive violence. Mugabe, 93, is no exception; he groomed the wrong person to succeed him and relied too much on his military. When he tried to change his pick, the generals decided they'd had enough.
Later on, in the late 1990s, when Zimbabwe intervened on the government's side in the Second Congo War, Mnangagwa built strong ties with the military, helping it gain mining concessions in exchange for propping up President Laurent-Desire Kabila.
Mnangagwa's political ambitions grew, and in 2005, Mugabe slapped him down, taking away his senior post in the ruling Zanu-PF party following a play for the vice president's post. But he survived the demotion and ended up rising to the vice presidency anyway in 2014— Mugabe saw him as a potential successor.
As Mnangagwa demonstrated his staying power, built ties and accumulated favors in various parts of the Zimbabwean establishment, Mugabe was growing more dependent on the military. Charles Mangongera, a Zimbabwean researcher, wrote in a 2014 paper:
"As the president's authoritarian grip on the state has been gradually slipping in the face of growing opposition, the military has grown more and more involved in politics. Military elites have gained institutional vetoes and blocked the country's transition to democracy through the militarization of key state institutions and the use of state-sanctioned violence against Mugabe's challengers. In return, those military elites have been rewarded with lucrative government contracts, access to prime land, mining concessions, and other perquisites from the predatory state presided over by the Mugabe regime."
72 The Zimbabwe Defence Forces are not the kind of military that, at critical moments, steps in to guarantee normality and adherence to governance traditions, as the Turkish military did more than once in the 20th century. The ZDF are inextricably linked with Zanu-PF, but not necessarily with Mugabe. As the aging dictator became more and more frail, often falling asleep in public, Constantine Chiwenga, the ZDF commander, became known as a Mnangagwa ally. So, when Mugabe fired Mnangagwa, accusing him of disloyalty, and when it became clear the dictator would like his wife Grace to serve as vice president and take over from him, Chiwenga made his move, promising to stop "those bent on hijacking the revolution." The military takeover in Harare took place the following day.
There's little to celebrate about it. Grace Mugabe, with her violent temper and love of luxury, probably wouldn't be a great president. For autocrats elsewhere, however, what happened in Zimbabwe can be a useful lesson. Constantly shaking up the security apparatus and the political leadership allowed Stalin and Mao to die in office. An early decision to establish a dynasty worked well for Kim Il Sung. Mugabe won't be joining the ranks of these undefeated dictators because he's been negligent. It's only human, especially after almost four decades in power, Leonid [2017].
4.6.3 Activity 2
1. List and explain why the former president fell.
2. Why was there jubilation when the former president resigned?
3. Evaluate the role of the army during Operation Restore Legacy.
73 4.7 THE OPERATION
Kadungure [2017] says after the dismissal of Emmerson Mnangagwa from the post of Vice President of Zimbabwe and from Zanu-PF days later, the Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces, Constantino Chiwenga, and several other military generals held a press conference and released a statement warning that the military would not hesitate to step in to solve the problems in Zanu-PF that had resulted in a purge of Zanu-PF members with a liberation war background. In a televised address, the army set in motion a military operation and told the nation that the army was “targeting criminals around former President Mugabe,“ who were committing crimes that were causing social and economic suffering. The operation triggered the fall, Mugabe, as citizens marched in solidarity with the army's action. The citizen's protests increased pressure on Mugabe who resigned a few hours after the start of his impeachment proceedings.
4.7.1 Military's definition of the action
According to Kadungure [2017]the Military claimed that the operation was not a coup but an initiative which was aimed at restoring discipline within the rank and profile of the ruling party Zanu-PF through targeting criminal elements surrounding the former president Robert Mugabe.The Army accused the criminal elements of sowing seeds of destruction in the party causing social, economic and political uncertainty in the country.Major General S B Moyo reinforced the army's stance via a television statement, he assured the nation and the world that the then president and his family were safe and that this was not a military takeover but a move meant to restore order in the country.“We are only targeting criminals around him who are committing crimes that are causing social
and economic suffering in the country in order to bring them to justice,” .[1]
74 4.7.2 Civilians' definition of the action
The Zimbabwean locals saw the army's action as a coup, political analysts described the Zimbabwean military's house arrest of President Robert Mugabe, his wife Grace, and other top state officials as a coup d'état,
despite military leaders denying that it has usurped the presidency.[2]
4.7.3 Regional definition of the action
The Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) held an emergency TROIKA meeting in Gaborone Botswana to discuss the political situation in Zimbabwe.The meeting resolved that member countries monitor the situation in Zimbabwe as the regional bloc was against military takeovers of legitimately elected governments.
4.7.4 International Community's definition of the action
The International community defined this action as an apparent military take over of the Zimbabwean government. In the capital Harare, as uncertainty over the political situation grew, foreign embassies warned their citizens to stay indoors. The United States Embassy said on its website that “as a result of the ongoing political uncertainty, the ambassador instructed all employees to remain home until the situation of what seems to be a coup settles down. Zimbabwe remained in political limbo a day and a half after the military takeover that appears to have put an end to Robert Mugabe’s 37-year grip on power.
4.7.5 Outcomes of the Operation
Arrest of alleged Criminals
75 4.7.5.1 Ignatius Chombo
Zimbabwe’s military detained former Finance Minister Ignatius Chombo after seizing power in an attempt to root out “criminals” around President Robert Mugabe who it said were causing social and economic suffering. Chombo was held in military custody for 8 days before being released and dropped off at his house only to be arrested again minutes after being set free.The Former Zimbabwe finance minister was charged with corruption, including trying to defraud the central bank in 2004.He was denied bail and remanded in custody pending trial.
4.7.5.2 Kudzanayi Chipanga
The former Zanu-PF youth league boss was detained by the army, after reading an apology to the ZDF and General Chiwenga on television. Prior to his detention and Public apology, Chipanga had issued a statement in defiance of the army's directive. He was taken to court after Mugabe had resigned and was charged of kidnapping and communicating falsehoods to the detriment of the (ZDF).
4.7.5.3 Hamandishe
Hamandishe was Chipanga 's co-accused and faced charges of kidnapping , he was denied bail in his first court appearance and remanded in custody to the 8th of December 2017.
4.7.6 Exile
4.7.6.1 Mphoko
76
4.7.6.2 Mr.Mphoko who was believed to be a member of the G40 and former Vice President and second secretary of Zanu-PF was away in Japan on official duty when the military started the operation, which forced him into self- imposed exile in Botswana.
4.7.6.3 Recalling of Robert Mugabe
Zanu-PF recalled Mugabe from the position of party First Secretary and replaced him with Emmerson Mnangagwa whom the ruling party also reinstated as a Central Committee member. These decisions were made during a special Central Committee meeting held at the party’s
headquarters.[4]The Central Committee is Zanu-PF’s highest decision- making organ outside Congress' meeting was attended by 201 members out of 300 members.
4.7.7 Expulsions from Zanu-PF
4.7.7.1 Grace Mugabe
Grace Mugabe was recalled from the position of Secretary for the Women’s League of Zanu-PF for promoting hate speech, divisiveness and assuming roles and powers not delegated to her office. She expelled from the party
4.7.7.2 Mphoko
Mphoko was expelled from the party and also lost his job as the Vice President of Zimbabwe when Emmerson Mnangagwa assumed the presidency.
77 4.7.7.3 Jonathan Moyo
The Zanu-PF central committee recommended and endorsed the expulsion of Moyo from the party after he was accused destabilizing and dividing the party, fanning factionalism among other charges. He was also expelled from Parliament as Tsholotsho North Legislator.
4.7.7.4 Saviour Kasukuwere
On 19 November 2017, Kasukuwere was expelled from ZANU–PF by the party's central committee. Other prominent G40 politicians, including, after that, he was also expelled from Parliament as Mt Darwin South legislator.
4.7.7.5 Ignatius Chombo
Chombo was expelled as the party's national chairman.He was also expelled from parliament as the Zvimba North Legislator
4.7.7.6 Kudzanayi Chipanga
Chipanga was expelled from the party and lost his Job as the party's youth league boss. He was also expelled from Parliament as the Makoni West Legislator.
4.7.7.7 Hamandishe
He was expelled from the party and lost his job as the youth league national commissar.
4.7.7.8 Walter Mzembi
Mzembi was expelled from Zanu-PF and he also lost as a ministerial post when the cabinet was dissolved by the incoming president. 78 4.7.7.9 Paul Chimedza
He was expelled from the party and lost his job as the Masvingo Provincial Affairs Ministry
4.8 MNANGAGWA ASSUMING PRESIDENCY
The operation mounted pressure on Mugabe's regime which forced him to resign. Through weakening Mugabe's power the operation managed to facilitate the reinstatement of Emmerson Mnangwagwa who had been sacked from his post as Vice President of Zimbabwe and expelled from Zanu-PF.A central committee resolution gave Mnangagwa his power back which saw him assuming the role of the first secretary of Zanu-PF and President of the party.
After Mugabe's resignation, Mnangagwa became the 3rd President of Zimbabwe and was sworn in on 24 November 2017.Taking his oath of office, the 75-year-old former security chief, vowed to uphold the constitution of the former British colony and protect the rights of all Zimbabwe's 16 million
citizens[5]
4.8.1 End of the operation
The Zimbabwe Defence forces held a press conference on the 18th of December 2017 to announce the end of the operation which had started on the 15 of November 2017.
79 4.8.2 Endorsement by the African Union
The African Union vowed to work with Emmerson Mnangagwa’s government and was keen to learn ways it can support it. African Union Commission Chairman Moussa Faki Mahamat mentioned the continental body's decision to work with the administration. Former minister in Robert Mugabe’s government, Jonathan Moyo, implored the African Union to investigate the new government for allegedly removing Robert Mugabe in a military coup in November 2017,Kadungure [2017].
4.8.3 OPERATION RESTORE LEGACY, HOW IT UNFOLDED
21 NOV, 2017 - 22:11
General ConstantinoChiwenga, Adapted from Getty Images.
80
Adapted from Getty Images.
President Mugabe . . . misled by a criminal cabal which the Zimbabwe Defence Forces led by General Chiwenga (r) have had to target in order to save the country
13 November 2017 – Army Commander General Constantino Chiwenga called a press conference and warned politicians to stop denigrating the army. He said the army would not hesitate to step in if the revolution is being threatened.
15 November 2017 – In a televised address, the army sets in motion a military operation and tells the nation in a televised address that it is “targeting criminals around President Mugabe,“ who were committing crimes that were causing social and economic suffering. This signaled the launch of an operation code named Operation Restore Legacy.
15 November to 20 November- Catholic Cleric Father Fidelis Mukonori is one of the mediators as President Robert Mugabe negotiates his exit after 37 years in power.
21 November 2017– Parliament begins the legal process to impeach President Mugabe at a joint sitting of the Senate and House of Assembly.
81 4.8.4 21 November 2017 –The Speaker of Parliament, Jacob Mudenda announces
President Mugabe’s resignation
Emmerson Mnangagwa giving his first presidential speech, November 2017
4.8.5 Presient Munanga gwa Brief History
Mnangagwa , born 15 September 1942) is a Zimbabwean politician serving as the third and current President of Zimbabwe. A longtime ally of his predecessor Robert Mugabe and a senior member of the ruling ZANU–PF party, Mnangagwa served as First Vice President of Zimbabwe from 2014 until his dismissal in early- November 2017. On 21 November 2017, Mugabe resigned (a removal recognised in a statement by the African Union, not as a "coup", but as a legitimate expression of the will of the Zimbabwean people),] and Mnangagwa was sworn in as President on 24 November 2017.
82 After being demoted to Minister of Rural Housing in 2005 for openly jockeying to succeed Mugabe, Mnangagwa returned to favour during the general election in 2008. He ran Mugabe's electoral campaign, organised a campaign against the Movement for Democratic Change which led to opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai abandoning the presidential run-off, and negotiated a power-sharing agreement after the election. Mnangagwa served as Minister of Defence from 2009-2013, when he became Minister of Justice. Mnangagwawas also appointed as Vice President in December 2014 and was widely considered to be a leading candidate to be Mugabe's successor.
However, Mnangagwa was opposed by the Generation 40 faction led by Robert Mugabe's wife, Grace Mugabe. After being dismissed from his position by Mugabe in November 2017 for allegedly plotting against the government, he fled to neighbouring South Africa for two weeks. General Constantino Chiwenga, his ally and chief of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces, organised and launched a demonstration to end Mugabe's purges of senior ZANU-PF officials, which ultimately resulted in Mnangagwa assuming the presidency.
He is nicknamed 'Garwe' or 'Ngwena', which means 'the crocodile' in the Shona language initially because that was the name of the guerrilla group he founded, but later because of his political shrewdness, the faction in ZANU-PF backing him is nicknamed Lacoste after the France-based apparel company whose logo is a crocodile]
4.9 EARLY LIFE AND CAREER
4.9.1 Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa was born in Zvishavane, Southern Rhodesia on 15 September 1942 to Mafidhi and Mhurai Mnangagwa as one of six children in the family – though some sources give his birth year as 1946 He is a member of the Karanga ethnic group, the largest subgroup of Zimbabwe's majority Shona ethnic group His parents were politically active farmers, and he had to flee to Zambia with his family because of his father's resistance against white settlers.
4.9.2 In the early 1960s, Mnangagwa first met Robert Mugabe when his future mentor was taken in by his family when teaching in Zambia after returning from Ghana The meeting inspired Mnangagwa to become politically active in the liberation movement for Zimbabwe. Mnangagwa's activism led to his expulsion from school. He then joined the effort to liberate Zimbabwe, then called Rhodesia, from white- minority rule in the Zimbabwean War of Liberation
83 4.9.3 Role in the Zimbabwe War of Independence
In 1962, Mnangagwa was recruited from Zambia as a guerilla fighter for Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) in the Zimbabwean War of Liberation. While at a military training camp in Iringa in Tanzania, he criticized the decisions of ZAPU's leader, Joshua Nkomo, was brought before a tribunal chaired by DumisoDabengwa, and sentenced to death. However, two other ethnic Karangans, Leopold Takawira and Simon Muzenda intervened to save his life, and together they decided to join the newly formed Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in 1963. Mnangagwa then left Iringa to train in Egypt and China,] as part of the first group of ZANU leaders sent for overseas training While in Beijing, Mnangagwa attended the Beijing School of Ideology, which was run by the Communist Party of China
While in prison, Mnangagwa became friends with Mugabe and attended his prison classes, after which he passed his O Levels and A Levels Together, they studied law via correspondence After ten years, including three years in solitary confinement he was released and deported back to Zambia where he continued to study law and earned a law degree from the University of Zambia He also studied at the University of London Mnangagwa then completed his articling with a Lusaka-based law firm led by Enoch Dumbutshena, who would later become Zimbabwe's first black judge.
However, Mnangagwa soon left legal private practice and went to Mozambique where the Mozambican War of Independence against Portuguese colonial rule was ongoing He went to Maputo at the request of Josiah Tongogara (who later became his brother-in-law), and on the basis of the friendship that he had developed with Mugabe while in prison, he became a security chief for ZANU While there, he met Robert Mugabe again, and became his assistant and bodyguard Mnangagwa accompanied Mugabe at the negotiations that led to the signing of the Lancaster House Agreement which recognized the Republic of Zimbabwe.[7]
From 1988 to 2000, Mnangagwa was Minister of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs and Leader of the House He was appointed Acting Minister of Finance from 1995 to 1996 and was also Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs for a short period.
84 4.9.4 2008 election and return to favour
In the March 2008 parliamentary election, he stood as ZANU-PF's candidate in the new Chirumanzu-Zibagwe rural constituency and won by an overwhelming margin, receiving 9,645 votes against two MDC candidates, MudavanhuMasendeke and Thomas Michael Dzingisai, who respectively received 1,548 and 894 votes.]
Mnangagwa was Mugabe's chief election agent during the 2008 presidential election, and it was reported that he headed Mugabe's campaign behind the scenes. Mnangagwa then played a critical role in bolstering the legitimacy of Mugabe retaining power by brokering a power sharing pact with Tsvangirai after the disputed result. When a national unity government was sworn in on 13 February 2009, Mnangagwa became Minister of Defense. Following Mugabe's victory in the July 2013 presidential election, he moved Mnangagwa to the post of Minister of Justice and Legal Affairs on 10 September 2013
Vice President of Zimbabwe
Mnangagwa speaking in 2015
On 10 December 2014, Mugabe appointed Mnangagwa as Vice-President of Zimbabwe, appearing to confirm his position as the presumed successor to Mugabe. His appointment followed the dismissal of his long-time rival in the succession battle, JoiceMujuru, who was cast into the political wilderness amidst allegations that she had plotted against Mugabe. Mnangagwa was sworn in as Vice-President on 12 December 2014 and he was also retained in his post as 85 Minister of Justice. Soon afterward it was reported that Mugabe had begun delegating some presidential duties to Mnangagwa .In 2015, Mnangagwa launched the Command Agriculture program with the backing of the African Development Bank to invest in communities to make them more agriculturally self-sufficient. He also helped negotiate trade deals worth millions of dollars with BRICS members Russia, China, and South Africa. In 2015, Mnangagwa also headed trade delegations to Europe to try and re-open trade ties broken in 2001 with the imposition of sanctions.
4.10 PRESIDENTIAL AMBITIONS
Emmerson Mnangagwa was considered as Mugabe's likely successor owing to the support he has received from Zimbabwe's security establishment and veterans of the 1970s guerrilla war partially because of his leadership of the Joint Operations Command. He was ZANU-PF's Secretary of Administration from 2000 until December 2004, when he was demoted to Secretary for Legal Affairs, which was considered a demotion because as Secretary for Administration he had been able to place his supporters in key party positions The move followed reports that Mnangagwa had been campaigning too hard for the vice presidency. During this time, his main rival as Mugabe's successor was Joice Mujuru, who was his predecessor as vice-president Mujuru had garnered a large amount of support in the politburo, central committee, presidium, and among the provincial party chairs Mnangagwa's support came from the senior ranks of the security establishment, as well as parts of ZANU-PF's parliamentary caucus and younger party members. With Mnangagwa appointment as vice president, Mujuru and some of her key supporters were dismissed from the
government] and from the party. Mnangagwa has a strong image in Zimbabwe
as a cultivator of stability, and also has support from the Southern African Development Community
86 4.10.1 Power struggle, removal from power and resignation of Mugabe
After the dismissal of Joice Mujuru as vice-president in 2014, and Mnangagwa's ascension to that post, his main rival to succeed Mugabe as president was the president's wife, Grace Mugabe. Since 2016, Mnangagwa's political ambitions openly clashed with Grace Mugabe's. The first lady is suspected of leading the G40 faction (Generation 40), while the other faction, Lacoste, is assumed to be led by Mnangagwa Mnangagwa used his leadership of the country's Anti- Corruption Commission to attack leaders of G40 by targeting them with highly publicised criminal investigations.
Mnangagwa said that doctors had confirmed that he had been poisoned during an August 2017 political rally led by the president and had to be airlifted to a hospital in South Africa for treatment. He also pledged his loyalty to the ZANU– PF party and President Mugabe and said that the story spread by his supporters that Grace Mugabe had ordered the poisoning via a dairy farm she controlled was untrue.
Grace Mugabe denied the poisoning claims as ridiculous and rhetorically asked: "Who is Mnangagwa, who is he? Phelekezela Mphoko, Zimbabwe's other Vice- President, publicly criticised Mnangagwa, saying that his comments about the August incident were part of an attempt to weaken the country, the power of the president, and divide ZANU–PF, claiming that doctors had concluded that stale food was to blame.
In October 2017, Mnangagwa lost his position as minister of justice to Happyton Bonyongwe, the country's spymaster, though he maintained the vice- presidency. Mnangagwa was removed from his post as Vice President on 6 November 2017 by Mugabe after allegedly plotting against the government and displaying "traits of disloyalty, disrespect, deceitfulness and unreliability", according to Information Minister Simon Khaya Moyo His removal made it more likely that President Robert Mugabe's wife Grace would follow in her husband's
87 footsteps as leader of Zimbabwe. She had earlier called on her husband to remove the Vice-President.
Mnangagwa subsequently fled to South Africa citing "incessant threats" against him and his family. On 19 November 2017, Mnangagwa became the leader of ZANU-PF and was reported as likely to soon become President of Zimbabwe after the military and public action against Mugabe. Robert Mugabe was given a deadline of resignation by noon of 20 November before the impeachment process would begin. However, he still refused to step down, despite his political controversy. Before impeachment could begin the next day, Mugabe resigned from office. In accordance with the Zimbabwean constitution, the vice president, Phelekezela Mphoko, became acting president, pending nomination of a new candidate by the ruling party. The ZANU-PF chief whip duly nominated Mnangagwa, telling news organisations that he would take over as president within 48 hours Mnangagwa returned to Zimbabwe on 22 November 2017, following a temporary stay in South Africa.[ Zimbabwean State Broadcaster,
ZBC, confirmed that Mnangagwa would be sworn in as President of Zimbabwe on 24 November 2017.
The day before his inauguration, Mnangagwa urged his followers not to seek "vengeful retribution" against his political enemies after calls from his supporters to attack the Generation 40 faction, Kadungure [2017].
Air Marshal Perence Shiri salutes President Mnangagwa at the inauguration.
88
On 24 November 2017, Mnangagwa was sworn in as Zimbabwe's new president in Harare's National Sports Stadium, before a crowd of about sixty thousand Entertainment was provided by singer Jah Prayzah, and attendees included foreign dignitaries including several African leaders, as well as opposition leaders Morgan Tsvangirai and Joice Mujuru
Among the attendees were President Ian Khama of Botswana (warmly welcomed following his repeated recent calls for Mugabe to step down), former Namibian President Hifikepunye Pohamba and founding President Sam Nujoma as well as current Vice President Nickey Iyambo Presidents Filipe Nyusi of Mozambique and Edgar Lungu of Zambia, as well as former Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda, and Rory Stewart, Britain's Minister of State for Africa and the first British minister to visit Zimbabwe in two decades, who issued a statement describing the change in leaders as "an absolutely critical moment" after Mugabe's "ruinous rule Notable absentees included Mugabe as well as President Jacob Zuma of South Africa, who was represented by his telecommunications minister, Siyabonga Cwele as Zuma was hosting a State Visit by Angola's new head of state, João Lourenço
Mnangagwa was sworn in by Chief Justice Luke Malaba During his first speech, he vowed to serve all citizens, revitalize the struggling economy, and reduce corruption He also paid tribute to Robert Mugabe, who did not attend the inauguration for alleged health reasons, as his mentor. Mnangagwa also distanced himself from his predecessor by promising to "re-engage with the world."] He also said that Mugabe's post-2000 land reform programmes would be maintained, although white farmers would be compensated for their seized land. He also said that the 2018 general election would go ahead as planned. He also called for an end to EU and US sanctions against top military and ZANU-PF figures (he is himself still under US sanctions for his role under Mugabe), Kadungure [2017].
89 4.10.2 Foreign Relations
On 18 January 2018, Mnangagwa signalled his desire to re-engage with the west by inviting the United Nations, European Union and the Commonwealth to monitor elections in Zimbabwe in 2018.[74] Additionally, Mnangagwa has signalled his wish to re-establish good relations with the United Kingdom and additionally rejoin the commonwealth.
Activity
1. Identify traits that show that the current president had ambitions to lead the country.
2. What were the outcomes of Operation Restore Legacy?
3. In your opinion, what could have been done instead of this Operation?
4.11 SUMMARY
The unit has introduced you to the history of a long time leader former president of Zimbabwe R,G. Mugabe. In this unit we have managed to trace the life history of the former president, his political career and his rapid downfall. The UNIT has highlighted his achievements such as improvements in the provision of some
social services such as education and health however due to economic challenges these social services faced problems. As you read through the module you have discovered that he had his own weaknesses and those weaknesses led to his rapid downfall. The unit has also discussed Operation Restore Legacy, how it unfolded and how it ended. Events leading to this operation have been highlighted. It was also found very necessary to briefly explain the life history of the current president, ED Munangagwa. His political career has been explored exposing his political ambition.
90 REFERENCES
Jump up↑ [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/14/world/africa/zimbabwe- November
2017. Jump up↑ [1], 'It's a coup, despite what Zim military says' – analysts, Published:
15 November 2017 , Retrieved: 30 November 2017
Jump up↑Mugabe-Mnangagwa-chiwenga.html], Zimbabwe’s Military, in Apparent Takeover, Says It Has Custody of Mugabe, Published: November 14 2017 , Retrieved: 30 November 2017
Jump up↑ [1], 'It's a coup, despite what Zim military says' – analysts, Published: 15
November 2017 , Retrieved: 30 November 2017. Jump up↑ [ http://www.herald.co.zw/zanu-pf-recalls-pres-mugabe/], Zanu-PF recalls Pres Mugabe Published:20 November 2017, Retrieved: 30 November 2017
Jump up↑ [2], Robert Mugabe's grip on Zimbabwe ebbing away after military takes control, Published: 15 November 2017, Retrieved: 30 November 2017
Leonid Bershidsky [2017 ] Bloomberg, Commentary, Published 6:00 pm, Thursday, November 16, 2017
91 UNIT 5
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
5.0 UNIT ORGANISATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the concept of entrepreneurship. The definition of entrepreneurship ,qualities of an entrepreneur, entrepreneurship practice In Zimbabwe, the history of entrepreneurship, thus colonial and post colonial entrepreneurial practices, importance of entrepreneurship and functions of an entrepreneurship will be explored, As you read through the unit you are required to attempt and answer questions given. I hope you will find this unit inspiring and interesting. The unit also intends to be an eye opener and foster a sense of innovation and creativity in the reader.
5.2 AIMS OF UNIT
5.2.1 After studying this unit you should be able to;
5.2.2 state the functions of an entrepreneur;
5.2.3 describe the importance of entrepreneurship;
5.2.4 explain the meaning of entrepreneurship;
5.2.5 outline the qualities of a successful entrepreneur
5.3 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
5.3.1 describe the importance of entrepreneurship;
5.3.2 explain the meaning of entrepreneurship;
5.3.3 explain the role of an entrepreneur
5.3.4 importance of entrepreneurship;
5.3.5 outline the qualities of a successful entrepreneur;
5.3.6 state the functions of an entrepreneur; after 92 5.3.7 state the meaning of entrepreneurship;
5.3.8 distinguish between entrepreneur and promoter;
5.3.9 explain the problems faced by entrepreneur
5.3.10 describe the entrepreneurial practices in India; and
5.3.11 issues and problems faced by entrepreneurs.
5.4 THE CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Let’s try and explain the concept of entrepreneurship .Mr Chatterjee, studying, he observed that the people in Kolkata were so busy that they did not have time to clean their houses. He borrowed Rs. 3,000 and bought a vacuum cleaner and started cleaning houses on Saturdays, Sundays and other holidays on payment basis. Within a year, the demand for his service increased and he expanded his business by engaging more people in his work. Today, Mr. Chatterjee is considered as one of the leading businessmen of Kolkata. Apparently, Mr. Chatterjee has been able to visualise a business opportunity, decided to take the risk, arrange the resources and successfully organised them in his venture. So, he can be termed as an entrepreneur and his efforts as entrepreneurship.
To be specific an entrepreneur is a person who tries to do something new, visualises a business opportunity, organises the necessary resources for setting up the business and bears the risk involved. Thus, an entrepreneur may be termed as an innovator, an organiser and a risk bearer. As an innovator, the entrepreneur introduces new products in the market; finds out new markets for existing products; introduces new production technology; launches new marketing strategy and so on. He bears the risk and uncertainties associated with the business activities. He organises all the factors of production like land, labour and capital and sets up the business to take advantage of the opportunity. Thus, an entrepreneur refers to a person who visualises a business opportunity, takes steps to promote a new enterprise, assembles resources in the form of men, materials and money to make the business venture successful and bears the risk and uncertainties involved.
93 To be specific an entrepreneur is a person who tries to do something new, visualises a business opportunity, organises the necessary resources for setting up the business and bears the risk involved. Thus, an entrepreneur may be termed as an innovator, an organiser and a risk bearer. As an innovator, the entrepreneur introduces new products in the market; finds out new markets for existing products; introduces new production technology; launches new marketing strategy and so on. He bears the risk and uncertainties associated with the business activities. He organises all the factors of production like land, labour and capital and sets up the business to take advantage of the opportunity. Thus, an entrepreneur refers to a person who visualises a business opportunity, takes steps to promote a new enterprise, assembles resources in the form of men, materials and money to make the business venture successful and bears the risk and uncertainties involved. Just as management is regarded as what managers do; entrepreneurship is regarded as what entrepreneurs do.
Entrepreneurships can be described as a creative and innovative response to the environment and the process of giving birth to a new enterprise. Such response can take place in any field of social endeavour, business, agriculture, education, social work etc.
• converting the ideas into action;
• striving for excellence in his/her field of work;
• undertaking promotional activities to launch an enterprise;
The term ‘entrepreneurship’ refers to the functions performed by an entrepreneur. It is the process involving various actions to be undertaken by the entrepreneur in establishing a new enterprise. In fact, what an entrepreneur does is regarded as entrepreneurship. Thus, entrepreneurship can be viewed as a function of:
• identifying and using the opportunities that exist in the market;
• bearing the risk and uncertainties involved, and
94 5.4.1 What is an entrepreneur?
Both definitions do not fall short of the fact that entrepreneurship is a systematic and logical event as shown by the term ‘Process’. That is entrepreneurship is not a haphazard activity. However, Stoner & Freeman have moved a step further in an attempt to distinguish entrepreneurship from management as they look at entrepreneurship as a discontinuous process. That is, it is a discontinuous phenomenon appearing then disappearing until it reappears to initiate another change, unlike management which is a continuous event.
The idea of ‘creative and innovative ideas,’ shows that the two definitions are complete. In business, entrepreneurs should be able to come up with changes or new approaches, means, processes, machinery, tools or techniques and new products in order to meet the needs of turbulent and dynamic market environments. When a new venture is being contemplated on, risks arise involving uncertainties which require intuitiveness and process innovation.
Whereas Appleby clearly states, the idea of “management and organizational skills” in his definition, Stoner & Freeman have remained silent about it. Organizational skills and management are crucial for successful entrepreneurs. These relate to the ability of the entrepreneur to plan, organize, lead and control the organizational members’ activities and resources in order to achieve the stated goals of the enterprise. In other words, the emphasis here is the ability to organize the other factors of production or resources into creative combination for the purpose of producing goods and services in order to satisfy human needs and wants profitably. The combination of resources is as follows:
5.4.1.1 Land
Labour An entrepreneur is the originator (initiator) of an enterprise (economic/business undertaking) in order to satisfy an identified need or want profitably. That is a person who organizes and manages a commercial undertaking especially one involving calculated commercial risks. In other
95 words, an entrepreneur is someone who identifies opportunities in terms of needs and wants of people and mobilizes resources such as land, capital and labor to develop profit-making projects to meet the identified needs and wants. Successful entrepreneurs are not gamblers but take calculated and moderate risks in business. It should, however, be noted that entrepreneurs believe so strongly in their business ideas that they are willing to take full responsibility for developing them and to assume most of the risks should they fail.
5.4.2 What is entrepreneurship?
Various authors define entrepreneurship differently, but their definitions somewhat amount to the same meaning. The following are some of the definitions of entrepreneurship:
Appleby (1989) defines entrepreneurship as the process of bringing together creative and innovative ideas and coupling these with management and organizational skills in order to combine people, money and other resources to meet an identified need and thereby create wealth.
Whereas Appleby defines entrepreneurship as such, Stoner & Freeman (1992) view entrepreneurship as seemingly a discontinuous process of combining resources to produce new goods and service Entrepreneurship education can teach a student all she needs to start her own business.
Entrepreneurship education can teach a student all she needs to start her own business.
An entrepreneur is a person who makes money by founding and operating a business. Different people become entrepreneurs for different reasons. Some do it to earn extra income while they are employed and others do so to gain actualization in self employment. Some educational institutions and governments have introduced entrepreneurship courses in their educational systems to help
96 students learn entrepreneurial skills. Entrepreneurship Education has been applied in various settings to achieve various objectives.
5.4.2.1 People Empowerment
Teaching people innovative ways to make a living enables them to take control of their circumstances. In Tanzania, for example, entrepreneurship education is being used as a tool to empower women. Technically trained women, for example, struggle to find employment in a male dominated domain. The education is aimed at improving their self confidence and giving them a chance at becoming self reliant so that they are not totally dependent on employment. This form of education also builds up self-awareness. It provides a dynamic platform on which an individual can explore his strengths through practical application and not theoretical knowledge gained from basic education.
5.4.2.2 Diversification
Entrepreneurship education teaches students to recognize and seize diverse opportunities for financial gain. This allows people to work in authentic environments that best suit them. As a result there is greater individual satisfaction as compared to conventionally employed workers. Market diversification increases a consumer’s options and allows for more dynamic competition.
5.4.2.3 Creation of Employment
Unemployment is a rampant problem in many societies. Entrepreneurship education aims at empowering people to create employment opportunities. The aim of this training is to enable these people to start the small and medium enterprises important in any country’s growth. This sector accounts for half the private workforce in the United States. Most people seeking
97 employment depend on entrepreneurs to embark on new ventures and hire them.
5.4.2.4 Individual Competence
Entrepreneurship education imparts qualities such as self motivation and financial responsibility. In addition this education empowers people to have self discipline since entrepreneurship involves taking well calculated risks. People who have gone through this kind of training are able to recognize opportunities. Entrepreneurship education also encourages innovation in the running of organizations.
To be specific, entrepreneur is a person who tries to do something new, visualises a business opportunity, organises the necessary resources for setting up the business and bears the risk involved. Thus, an entrepreneur may be termed as an innovator, an organiser and a risk bearer. As an innovator, the entrepreneur introduces new products in the market; finds out new markets for existing products; introduces new production technology; launches new marketing strategy and so on. He bears the risk and uncertainties associated with the business activities. He organises all the factors of production like land, labour and capital and sets up the business to take advantage of the opportunity. Thus, an entrepreneur refers to a person who visualises a business opportunity, takes steps to promote a new enterprise, assembles resources in the form of men, materials and money to make the business venture successful and bears the risk and uncertainties involved.
Just as management is regarded as what managers do; entrepreneurship is regarded as what entrepreneurs do.
The term ‘entrepreneurship’ refers to the functions performed by an entrepreneur. It is the process involving various actions to be undertaken by the entrepreneur in establishing a new enterprise. In fact, what an entrepreneur
98 does is regarded as entrepreneurship. Thus, entrepreneurship can be viewed as a function of:
• identifying and using the opportunities that exist in the market;
• converting the ideas into action;
• undertaking promotional activities to launch an enterprise;
• striving for excellence in his/her field of work;
• bearing the risk and uncertainties involved, and
• harmonising.
Entrepreneurships can be described as a creative and innovative response to the environment and the process of giving birth to a new enterprise. Such response can take place in any field of social endeavour, business, agriculture, education, social work etc.
5.4.3 Importance of Entrepreneurship
It has been said that entrepreneurship is essential for economic development. In capitalistic economies, the entrepreneurs played an important role in their development. In socialist economies, the state played the role of the entrepreneur. But in a developing country like India which followed the path of mixed economy, both the government and the private entrepreneurs played an equally important role. Of course, there has been a significant increase in entrepreneurship in India in the post liberalisation period. People have now begun to realise the crucial role the entrepreneurs have to play for achieving the goal of economic development. They are regarded as the prime movers of innovations and act as key figures in economic development of a country. Thus, entrepreneurship:
• helps the formation of capital by bringing together the savings and investments of people;
• provides large-scale employment opportunities and increases the purchasing power of the people;
99 • promotes balanced regional development in the country;
• helps in reducing concentration of economic power (power to own the factor of production in a few hands).
5.5.5 Qualities of Successful Entrepreneur
The Indian business has seen great successful entrepreneurs like Tatas, Birlas, Modi, Dalmia and many more who came up recently such as Ambaines, Mittals, Jindals, etc. The question is what makes an entrepreneur successful? Did they all have certain common qualities? The answer is, they all had certain prominent qualities which can be summarised as follows.
5.5.5.1 Initiative: An entrepreneur must have an innovative aptitude, pick the right opportunity, and initiate action. If he/she does not initiate action at the right time the opportunity may be lost. Hence, the ability of an entrepreneur to take initiative is the key to the success of the venture to a great extent.
5.5.5.2 Wide Knowledge: An entrepreneur should have wide knowledge of the economic and non-economic environment of business like the market, consumer attitudes, technology, etc. In the absence of such adequate knowledge, the decisions taken by him may be poor and will not contribute to the profitability of his business in the long run.
5.5.5.3 Willingness to assume risk: Entering any venture is full of risks and uncertainties. In order to deal with various kinds of risks and uncertainties efficiently, the entrepreneur should have willingness and necessary foresightedness to assume risks. The quantity and quality of risk taking would determine the quality of business decisions.
5.5.5.4 Open mind and optimistic outlook: An entrepreneur should have an open mind. He/she must possess a dynamic and optimistic outlook so as to predict changes in the business environment and respond effectively without delay.
5.5.5.5 Adaptability: The entrepreneur must understand the ground realities of the business environment. He/she should be prepared to adapt to the changes
100 taking place in the system. Any resistance to change and delay in responding there to, shall lead to losing the opportunity of taking advantage thereof.
5.5.5.6 Self-confidence: For achieving success in life, one should have confidence in himself/ herself. A person who lacks confidence can neither do any work himself/herself nor inspire others to work. Self-confidence is reflected in courage, enthusiasm and the ability to lead.
5.5.5.7 Leadership Qualities: An entrepreneur should possess the qualities of a good leader. He/she should have the traits of self-discipline, presence of mind, sense of justice, honour and dignity and above all, a high moral character.
5.5.5.8 Orientation towards hard work: There is no substitute for hard work in life. While running a business, one problem or the other may occur. The businessmen has to be vigilant about these and find solutions thereof as early as possible. This requires hard work on the part of the entrepreneur. He has to put in extra efforts to ensure success of the enterprise started by him.
In a new business, the entrepreneur is the most important person. The entrepreneur has the responsibility to initiate, manage and see the success of the business. The success of a business largely depends on the entrepreneurial or personal characteristics. The following are some of the characteristics of successful entrepreneurs.
5.5.6 Action Oriented
Successful entrepreneurs are action oriented, that is, they want to start producing results immediately. The critical ingredient is getting off business and doing something. A lot of people have ideas but they are a few who decide to do something about them now and not tomorrow.
5.5.6.1 Success oriented/optimism
Successful entrepreneurs are optimistic, that is successful entrepreneurs do not have ‘ifs’ or ‘buts’ about succeeding. All they think about is how they are going to succeed and not what they are going to do if they fail.
101 5.5.6.2 Perception of opportunity or opportunity seeking
Entrepreneurs should be able to see the unfilled areas or gaps in products, process and application of services. That is successful entrepreneurs are able to see and act on new business opportunities.
5.5.6.3 Moderate risk taking
Entrepreneurs are expected to be able to take moderate and calculated risks. This is contrary to the stereotype that entrepreneurs are gamblers or high- risk takers.
5.5.6.4 Goal setting
In setting a new business, entrepreneurs are expected to have the ability to set goals which are specific, measurable, achievable, and realistic and time bound (SMART) basing on their (ENTREPRENEURS) strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT).
Moreover, their goals must be consistent with their interests, values and talents in order to achieve them. Their belief in the reality of their goals is the primary factor in the fulfilment of those goals. Their plans may seem illogical to others but they are perfectly logical in the context of their own personal values and desires.
5.5.6.5 Long-term perspective
Successful entrepreneurs can tolerate considerable amount of frustration and delay in need gratification and they devote a lot of time and effort in goals that often yield profits at a distant point in the future. Entrepreneurs should be able to accommodate hurdles, difficulties and temporary failures in business.
5.5.6.6 Self-motivation/self esteem/self faith/self confidence
Effective entrepreneurs have solid and stable self-esteem and self-motivation which stem from healthy feeling of self worth and self-acceptance. Entrepreneurs with a positive self-image are basically satisfied to be the type
102 of people they are. This self-faith is even important than self-confidence especially when serious setbacks and failure occur.
5.5.6.7 Innovativeness/initiativeness /creativeness
Effective entrepreneurs have the ability to come up with new products, methods or techniques of production and the accompanying machinery and tools.
5.5.6.8 Adventure someness
Successful entrepreneurs are adventuresome i.e. they are interested in testing out and experimenting phenomena in an endeavour to come up with solutions to the needs and wants of people. 5.5.6.9 Commitment
To succeed in business, you must be committed. Commitment means that you are willing to put your business before almost everything else.
Some of the characteristics of an entrepreneur include; patience, friendliness, hardworking, reliability, dedicated ness, responsibility, objectivity, rationality, honesty, determination, courage, flexibility, imaginativeness a
5.6 FUNCTIONS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR
The functions of an entrepreneur can be summarised as follows.
Conception of an idea: An entrepreneur is the person with a creative mind who can identify business opportunities and take steps for the conversion of ideas into successful business ventures, and give them a concrete shape.
1. Promotion: It is felt that generally an entrepreneur undertakes the risk of setting up a small enterprise as a sole proprietor. But, now-a-days many entrepreneurs have assumed the role of promoters of large companies. In fact, promotion may be undertaken for setting up a new business, small or large expansion of an existing business or for combining two or more business firms. As a promoter, the entrepreneur has to conduct feasibility studies, decide to the
103 form of organisation, assemble the required funds and people, and give a concrete shape to the business proposition.
2. Innovation: An entrepreneur is also seen as an innovator who tries to develop new technology, products and markets. The entrepreneur uses his creative abilities to do new things and exploit opportunities in the market.
3. Bearer of risks and uncertainty: You know that starting of a new business venture involves good amount of risk and uncertainty. To start with, it is the entrepreneur who assumes risks and is prepared for the losses that may arise because of unforeseen situations in future. In fact, it is his willingness to take risks that helps him to take initiatives in doing new things or trying new methods of production.
4. Arranging necessary capital: Arranging funds is one of the biggest hurdles in setting up a new entrepreneur. It is he who has to provide the initial capital
(otherwise known as ‘risk capital’ or ‘seed capital’) for starting the ventures and then make the necessary arrangements for raising additional funds required to carry on and expand the business.
5. Staffing: An entrepreneur has to design the organisational structure and recruit suitable persons for various positions. He also makes an estimate for skilled and unskilled workers required and make arrangements for their recruitment.
5.6.1 Qualities of an entrepreneur
In the following sentences, identify the qualities of a successful entrepreneur;
• An entrepreneur should have the ability to change as per the changing business environment.
• He/She should put in continuous effort to start and run the enterprise.
• He/She should have the willingness to face business uncertainties and the foresight for the same.
• He/She should have the ability to identify the right opportunity and take action to make the best of the opportunity.
104 5.6.2 Issues and problems faced by entrepreneurs
A business enterprise comes into existence due to the pioneering efforts of entrepreneurs. However, there are several issues and problems faced by entrepreneurs while giving shape to their idea. These are as follows:
5.6.2.1 Selection of business: The entrepreneur might be having a very good business idea. However, successful implementation of the idea into business activity involves a painstaking exercise. First of all, he/she has to study the market to know whether the idea of products or services could be accepted by the market. For the purpose, the entrepreneur has to determine the market demands of the intended products/services and carry out exercises to find out the projected costs of the product or services. In this way, the entrepreneur shall be able to know as to whether the venture is profitable or not. This systematic exercise is known as a ‘feasibility study’ and presented in the form of a report known as ‘Feasibility Report’ or ‘Project Report’. Not only that, an entrepreneur may conceive a number of ideas and identify many new business opportunities. In view of limited resources he may like to give shape to most the profitable one. The feasibility studies shall help him/her to identify the same.
5.6.2.2 Choice of form of business enterprise: There are various options available to the entrepreneur as far as the choice of form is concerned. He/She may go in for sole proprietorship, a partnership or a joint stock company. The choice is rather difficult issue. However, there are certain lines of business where one has no choice. For example, take the case of banking and insurance. These can only be taken up by the joint stock companies. The size of the business will determine the form of organisation. Apparently, company form of organisation is suitable in case of large-scale operations, while sole proprietorship or partnership is considered more suitable for small scale and medium scale operations.
105 5.6.2.3 Financing: The problem of arranging finance always troubles the entrepreneur. As you know, without capital no business activity can be started. Capital is needed for the entrepreneur to buy fixed assets like land and building, machinery and equipment etc. Further, finance is needed to meet day-to-day expenses of the business. Having built up the estimate of the amount of capital required, the entrepreneur may have to arrange finance form various sources. Many financial institutions like IFCI, IDBI etc. are providing ‘seed capital fund’ or ‘venture capital fund’ for the financing of good entrepreneurial ventures. So, the entrepreneur shall have to approach these financial institutions and bankers for the purpose, provide some funds on his own and plan for a public issue of capital at the appropriate time.
5.6.2.4 Location: The problem of locating the business unit is another issue for consideration that should be carefully handled by entrepreneur. Location of a business unit depends upon many factors like availability of raw material, availability of transport, power, water, nearness to market etc. The government also provides many incentives in the form of tax holidays, rebate in power and water bills etc. to the unit located in a backward area or underdeveloped area. Thus, the entrepreneurs need to look at all these factors before setting up a business unit.
5.6.2.5 Size of the unit: Size of the business is influenced by several factors like technical, financial and market considerations. When entrepreneurs feel that they can market the intended products or services and can raise sufficient amount of capital, they can start their operations in a big way. Generally, the entrepreneurs may start their operations on small scale and expand gradually. For example, the owner of Nirma Limited, Dr.Karsanbhai Patel used to sell washing powders taking rounds in bicycles in 1980s and with increase in operation it has now become Nirma Limited. There is no doubt that if an entrepreneur starts on a small scale, it is easier for him/her to adapt to changes without much risk as huge investments will not be blocked in
106 permanent assets. However, in the changing business scenario, many entrepreneurs start their ventures on large scale and are prepared to take big risks. Of late, many new entrepreneurs, particularly technocrats (who are professionally trained and employed) have joined in the economic development after leaving their lucrative jobs and started their new ventures in a big way.
5.6.2.6 Machines and equipments: The choice of machines, equipments and processes is a delicate problem before starting a new venture. This depends on various factors like availability of funds, size of production, and the nature of production process. The emphasis should be placed on productivity. Availability of facilities of repairs and maintenance, availability of spare parts and after sale service are also an important consideration while selecting a particular equipment and machinery.
5.6.2.7 Suitable manpower: If the size of business is large, the entrepreneur has to find suitable competent persons for various functional areas. He/She has to identify the right persons for each area and motivate them to join the set up. It is not that easy. It involves a lot of patience and persuasion.
Thus, the entrepreneur has to find solution to many problems and issues while launching a new business. The success is ensured by making proper choices.
5.7 THE ZIMBABWEAN SITUATION
For Zimbabwe to industrialise, its entrepreneurs need government policies that help their firms grow. Zimbabwe’s society boasts of a tremendous literacy rate. In 2009 Zimbabwe recorded a highest of 92.1% and was the highest in Africa. Amidst such celebration and jubilation the closure of industries is just but a few strides ahead. There is an intriguing paradox obscuring development in Zimbabwe and this is a high literacy rate and a low appreciation of entrepreneurial implementation. Small to medium enterprises are on the rise and that’s a fact and more than 3 billion is said to be circulating in the informal sector. And economists
107 cry out every here and then that when we divert that amount into the formal channels Zimbabwe will never be the same again. But hey I don’t want to bore you with such debates.
My concern here is in the making of entrepreneurs and real-big time entrepreneurs. These are entrepreneurs who add value to society not by hand- outs. Entrepreneurs who share a percentage in the employment scales, improve the ordinary citizen by giving them an opportunity to express their talents and or their academic efforts, entrepreneurs who visualize and plan for their grandchildren but setting up grounds or structures that exceed them, people who have a legacy to build and sustain and lastly entrepreneurs who seek to prove a point that within them is a mighty force that can turn around tables every day.
This is just but motivational and or inspirational thoughts I am writing. To achieve that is my concern and with people proposing various means I have my own suggestion which most people have in mind. A number of people consider that:
1. Entrepreneurship is a matter of changing the behavioral aspects of an individual and consequentially inculcates a new culture within them. For this I have a perfect testimony and example Empritec Zimbabwe.
2. Entrepreneurship should be conducted through a learning process just like any other degree or educational process. This means experts are created in the field and the biggest assumption is these individuals would be great entrepreneurs because like a lawyer they have been equipped by the necessary skills.
3. Entrepreneurs are born in families and thus they learn business operations through parent/guardian orientation. Munenzva Bus Company, KukuraKurerwa, Boka Auction Floors and other business enterprises followed this concept. In more cases successes have been noted because among others the three institutions I have mentioned have not only been sustained but developed in one way or the other.
108 4. Entrepreneurs are not made but just directed. This means people like Zuckerberg, Bill gates were born with a rare talent. Society just came in to shape their ideas and that was it.
5. Entrepreneurs are just like experts they need to be monitored, mentored and developed from a tender age. And this is the concept used by the Chinese Tiger-Moms.
Each and every theory above has its merits and demerits while there is hot debate in which one exactly is the best and appropriate way to create and sustain entrepreneurs. What I consider to be the best way and option is one I think fits perfectly in the Zimbabwean society. The uniqueness of the society generates automatically the uniqueness of the solution even though the solution lies within the societies that surround us.
5.7.1 Zim-Entrepreneurs must have traits!!!
1. Experience oriented
“Experience is the best teacher”; the old adage goes. The ability to be involved in ‘deep end’ moment allows one to really understand how their individual capacities operate. It’s rare to want to notice your character when in a jovial moment than a challenging situation. “Wisdom is gathered from different situations: One from which is noble, second from inspiration which is the easiest and third from experience which is bitter”. Experience builds ones character when the results of each experience are directed in the positive direction.
Steve Jobs was booted out of a company he had begun and at that moment he sat down and came back with a bang. Daniel Chingoma after making a helicopter prototype assumed the nation will rally before him but rather he was instructed never to fly that helicopter. Strive Masiiwa brought back home an intriguing idea of individual cell phones but after Parliament passed the cell phone to see it they ruled it out. Nigel Chanakira in a brink almost lost his bank which he had started by selling his own house. Tawanda Mutyebere not only challenged a big food
109 outlet player but managed to outsmart them but was slapped with and intriguing lawsuit of copying. These and more experiences are the ones known and everyone respect these great entrepreneurs.
However my concern is on the untold stories. The small entrepreneurs around Zimbabwe starting their institutions today and are being outsmarted or abused by these big players. The untold stories I believe are the panacea to opening great doors for other upcoming entrepreneurs. The stories of those importing cars and making them taxi’s, the sudden collapse of the change money world and their current plight, the untold stories of the once “over-night diamond” rich fellas. The cross-borders who ‘pray’ that ZIMRA doesn’t work against them. The combi operators who live to give kick-backs to police so that they can operate for that day. The dubious dealers at Zimex who drive flashy cars while selling cell phones.
I believe these and more stories will build the conscience of the contemporary entrepreneurs. Most a time people can watch from a distance and believe that they can copy that business idea and do great with it. For instance, everyone rushed to the poultry project while Rabbit rearing, dog breeding, piggery and other animal projects not only demand the same start-up but have far more exceeding profit margins.
These untold stories are the very experiences that will make my young brother in Form 1 to make a clear and productive career decision than to just think he can ‘copy and paste’ someone’s life. The stories will inspire my Form 3 sister to know that she cannot only conceive a baby but far greater business ideas. The stories will impact deeply on my friend’s brother sitting this year for “O” level to know that, University is not the only way to success and a Boiler maker is no less important than a Medical Doctor. The stories will allow my tech-friend at Chinhoyi University to know that that one person who said, ‘all inventions have been made and there is nothing new’, was just but a lie. Because after that, nuclear bombs were made and now women can freeze their eggs and give birth
110 even after the protracted menopause period. These stories will empower my mother who always wanted to start a salon and she thinks she is way past her entrepreneurial age. The stories will inform every societal member that, they are what they want to become, empower them with formidable momentum to drive their passions, inspire them to raise their hopes in the wake of troubles and tribulations and best of all strengthen them to believe in themselves completely.
5.7.2 Behavior Change
Human dignity is pertinent topic in the circles of behavior and behavior change. The main debate is that: can one’s action strip off one’s dignity. This comes as a posing question to manner in which business is handled, employer – employee relation and finally employee – customer relations. I am strongly of the opinion that, Human Dignity is a sacred bearing that rests on a person by virtue of one being a human being. It does not matter whether the human being is a duche- bag or not, a murderer or pro-life, fraud or law-abiding citizen. A human being is a human being hence human dignity is characteristic that goes with the recognition of one being human.
This might sound theological because it is actually and or political because the argument is also used in death penalty arguments. Allow me to use this human dignity scenario to the stadium of Entrepreneurship and share with you the relationship thereof. Businesses are made, controlled by human beings with the sole purpose of benefiting the human person again. Hence these are the various business concepts I have seen and their preferred way of operation:
1. Econet Wireless, Netone and Telecel – these are telecommunication initiatives. Among other things they have improved communication form the traditional horn blowing to the simple dial and listen on a cell phone.
2. Faithwear, Avo, 263 Clothing, Afriq Media – these are design, manufacture and print companies owned and controlled mostly by emerging adults. They
111 are targeting a certain clique in the community and giving them the 21st century swag and all.
3. Boka, ZLT, CLT- these are agricultural companies but with a specific bias on Tobacco. Their manadate is to plant, harvest, sell and manufacture tobacco products. They in that matter target the optional and vulnerable addicts of smoking.
4. Chicken Inn, Chicken Slice, Barvelinos, Nandos, – these are fast food outlets. They offer the most intriguing fast foods that bring together pals, build relationships, strengthen friendly bonds and also offer social comfort to those spending and enjoying life.
The list goes on and on with examples from each and every industry. The individuals behind the formation of these businesses had something in mind and that was a goal to fulfil. But they also had a common trend of behaviors that had a bearing on how they were or are supposed to sustain and develop their businesses into legacies.
Empretec Zimbabwe trains young people in Entrepreneurship. Their assumption and motto is that an entrepreneur is not foreign to the behavior of an individual. Thus one who decides to be an entrepreneur should therefore think, dream, walk, talk, write, smile, decide, take risks and act like an entrepreneur. Someone would say, guys there are so many entrepreneurial ideas and we cannot all behave the same because we come from different industrial backgrounds which require different behaviors.
It should thus be made very clear that, an entrepreneur is an entrepreneur. It does not matter which field you get into there is what I call, “Entrepreneurial Best Practice – Behavior.” The manner in which you make decisions, take risks can differ with the field of expertise but there is a best practice on how one can take not risks but calculated risks.
Identifying binding constraints to growth is a key step before designing policies.
112 The constraints that entrepreneurs face when starting firms or upgrading their operations relate particularly to skills, infrastructure, the business environment and financing.
Upgrading skills is particularly important on how to better use the opportunities of new technologies for industrialisation.
Zimbabwean firms cite infrastructure, unreliable electricity supply, and access to finance as their most common operating constraints.
Numerous policy areas can impact enterprise performance and their contributions to industrialisation.
These include improving general economic conditions through sound fiscal and monetary policies that includes appropriate exchange rates, boosting the business environment, enforcing stable regulatory frameworks and ensuring fair trade relations.
Reducing trade barriers will increase the size of markets that local entrepreneurs can tap into. However, implementing such policies at the macroeconomic level alone is not sufficient.
Policies need to be tailored to the specific conditions, needs and capabilities of individual countries.
Infrastructure gaps reduce the growth potential of local entrepreneurs, and electricity in particular stands out as a major problem (Omidyar Network, 2016). Infrastructure is a key component in promoting industrialisation, raising incomes, accumulating human capital and facilitating access to markets.
High-tech entrepreneurs, for example, suffer from unreliable electricity supplies and are often too small to afford efficient generators for themselves. Informal firms represent over half of Africa’s economic activity.
Micro, small and medium-sized firms and sometimes even larger firms operate in the informal sector.
113 Informal firms tend to produce less than formal ones, due in part to lower levels of skills, a smaller size which prevents exploiting scale economies and a restricted use of government services and bank financing.
Hence, bringing more firms into the formal sector could increase productivity and promote growth.
Policymakers should consider the reasons why various types of firms operate in the informal sector and assess their ability to upgrade to the formal sector. Simply forcing informal firms to register and comply with the rules for formal firms could be counterproductive, be reducing employment and increasing poverty.
Financial literacy and business training can help local entrepreneurs present their business cases to lenders.
Financial education can include identifying ways to fund startups using existing resources or external finance.
The consequences of constraints to private sector development often fall disproportionately on new entrepreneurs. Start-ups are more subject to credit constraints and less resilient.
In Asian countries, policies that aim to lower risks, for example improving access to finance, tend to improve the entry and growth performance of start-ups.
It is also crucial to tackle policy failures that increase the costs of risks, for example poor contract enforcement.
Helping women entrepreneurs develop viable and productive firms requires an integrated strategy.
Many African countries need to improve women’s rights to make decisions about their own lives and enterprises with adequate, flexible and affordable financial services and business education.
Many female entrepreneurs find financial services inaccessible due to high interest-rates and inflexible repayment schemes.
114 They have difficulty complying with collateral requirements for credit and loans due to gender biases in land ownership.
Female entrepreneurs face additional constraints which affect their firms more than those of men.
Often women endure harassment and discrimination in the market place from government and financial institutions.
In Uganda, 28% of women own land compared to 53% of men; but only 10% of female landowners can use land as collateral compared to 95% of male. Governments, companies, financial institutions and other key actors in the business environment should respect women’s rights to access and control resources.
Africa’s Grow Movement is a successful example of an organisation that offers innovative, inclusive and empowering business education services to women entrepreneurs.
5.7.3 Indigenous entrepreneurship can benefit
The global indigenous populations have been estimated to be about 300 million (General Assembly, UN, 1995). Despite being characterised by poor health, lower education levels, chronic poverty and dependence on direct economic assistance from outside, indigenous populations have potential to achieve indigenous development on the basis of indigenous efforts (World Bank, 2001). Indigenous entrepreneurship is one such activity which can allow these indigenous communities to rebuild and restore their self-worthiness (Anderson and Giberson, 2004).
There are several definitions of indigenous people. The definitions are characterized by the following characteristics: definitions which focus on the sociological and psychological aspects; definitions which focus on the geographical, political and economic domination by latter immigrants; definitions which focus on maintenance of social-cultural norms and institutions, and
115 definitions which focus on descent by delineating between prior and latter inhabitants of a region (Robert, Benson, and Leo, 2008).
For the purposes of this installment, I shall use the definition of ‘indigenous people’ given by the International Labour Organisation (1991) which captures the key characteristics of indigenous people relating to descent and retention of cultural, social, political, and economic institutions. An example of indigenous people in Zimbabwe is the San.
Indigenous entrepreneurship can be construed as the entrepreneurial activities of indigenous people within their indigenous setting. It is predicated on the indigenous people’s attachment to natural resources in their ancestral lands which they are seeking to recover and use. These resources represent their capacity to engage in entrepreneurship and development.
Indigenous entrepreneurship focuses mostly on community-based economic development albeit individual entrepreneurial behaviour within these communities also happens as an outcome of broader community-based economic development (Peredo et al, 2004; Wilfred, 2009). Indigenous entrepreneurship is a key tool by which indigenous communities seek to achieve modern economic development (Peredo et al, 2004).
To understand the position of the San people in Zimbabwe and their potential use of entrepreneurial activity as a driver of economic development, one needs to appreciate how modern economic development for indigenous communities has been and is currently framed. The role of economic development forms the basis of research in indigenous entrepreneurship. An extensive literature reveals that the experiences of the San people of Zimbabwe have largely been overlooked in scholarship characterised by little or no attention at all.
To help understand indigenous entrepreneurship among the San people of Zimbabwe, it is important to ask a number of questions. For instance, does language, parables, metaphorical stories and other cultural characteristics influence perceptions of San people of the social and economic world about them?
116 And does their history, tradition and culture promote or inhibit entrepreneurial features? For the economic development of the San communities, what is the appropriate mix of individual and collective entrepreneurial enterprises?
Pedro et al (2004) outlined three frameworks to understand economic development in indigenous communities as dependency theory, regulation theory, and modernization theory. In his study of the indigenous Namba community of Namibia, Wilfred (2009) also introduced the framework of culture in the discourse citing the pioneering work done by Hofstede (1980) to explain the mediating effects of culture in explaining development in indigenous communities. Based on the foregoing, one can aver that the direction that indigenous entrepreneurship takes or should take depends on the economic, historical, and cultural conditions of the indigenous community being investigated. All these dimensions thus need to be sufficiently interrogated.
Several studies have examined the issue of development within indigenous communities and came up with different findings which have further fuelled debate on the matter (Peredo et al, 2004). A study of Aboriginal entrepreneurship in Canada (Anderson, 1999) established that the Canadian aboriginal approach to economic development is premised on the need for collectivism in achieving economic self-sufficiency, improving socio-economic opportunities, controlling ancestral lands, and strengthening traditional values, languages and culture. These development objectives are attained through creation of sustainable businesses and capacity building on the basis of training, education and institution building and protecting the aboriginal rights to land and resources.
These debates about economic development and indigenous entrepreneurship provide the basis for further research and investigation into the matter. The differing cultural and historical frameworks do not negate the need for economic development in indigenous communities predicated on entrepreneurial enterprises. Studying indigenous communities is not driven by desire to understand them as outliers of the global community.
117 Rather, a study of indigenous San people of Zimbabwe provides a source for empirical and theoretical interrogation of entrepreneurship. This will ultimately lead to the development of generalisable findings or theory which can be applied to other environments. From a theoretical perspective, such research can generate findings which resonate with the developmental aspirations of various nation- states and not just the San people. It is also anticipated that the research will shed useful insights into the impact of globalization forces on indigenous San community and how this community responds to such forces in a manner which creates balance amongst actors in the ecosystem.
Antony Jongwe is a researcher on entrepreneurship. For feedback, e-mail him:
Activity
1. What is indigenous entrepreneurship?
2. Give any four problems faced by entrepreneurs, which the government should address urgently.
3. Identify the business ventures that have been very successful.
5.8 HISTORY OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe has for centuries had strong entrepreneurial abilities. There has been evidence of all industries stretching from primary, secondary and tertiary industry. Agriculture, mining, trade, manufacturing industries were there before the 19th century. The only argument could then be the scale and the technology level. In fact, the history of entrepreneurship in Zimbabwe dates back to the civilization era. In the Mutapa and Rozvi States, there were successful business initiators/ owners who became very wealthy.
By about 1200 to 1890 AD African Entrepreneurs on the plateau between Limpopo and Zambezi Rivers became more advanced due to iron technology. The pre- colonial entrepreneurs included the iron Smiths (boiler makers) or fitting and
118 turning craftsmen (mhizha), potters, farmers (hurudza), hunters (hombarume), among others.
As an evidence to disagree with the explanation of African history that the pre colonial African societies were primitive and unchanging, and therefore any important changes were brought by outsiders, archaeologists have found pottery and iron tools at Great Zimbabwe and in other different parts of the plateau between Limpopo and Zambezi Rivers (Zimbabwe).
Entrepreurship in the Primary industry
5.8.1 Farming
There were great farmers during the pre-colonial era. These were known, in shona, as hurudza. These great entrepreneurs produced not only for their consumption, but for trade and other fellow citizens. Crops like millet, rapoko, ground nuts, round nuts were grown. That was crop farming. Animal farming was also popular. Great entrepreneurs could own as many as 500 or more cattle. Goats and sheep were also kept. The cattle were a form of wealth and could be traded or exchanged for jewellery and other commodities.
5.8.2 Mining
Zimbabweans have been great miners way before the arrival of the British in the 1880s. Entrepreneur – miners extracted iron ore from the ground. Mining rights were given by the King and his advisors. The minerals mined included gold, copper, iron, for instance.
5.8.3 Entrepreurship in the Manufacturing (secondary) Industry
There was a very successful value adding industry before colonization. The output from agriculture and mining was processed. Great and useful items were made to serve the needs of the people then.
119 5.8.4 Metallurgist and Iron smith (Mhizha)
Entrepreneur – metallurgists crushed iron ore and smelt it with very hot fire. At Great Zimbabwe there is still evidence of clay furnace, forge and bellow. This smelting separated the metal from the stone. As the pure iron cooled, it hardened again, and the village smiths could hammer it into shape of hoes, axes and knifes. This was a revolutionary development in the way of life of Africans.
These were the most skillful technicians, engineers, and business people who had the role of processing, the iron, cooper, gold into useful products. The farmers needed hoes (mapadza), axes (matemo) etc. The hunters needed spears (mapfumo), bows and arrows etc. Jewellery such as golden necklaces was also needed by the wealthy people and the royal family. These products could be traded to other kingdom for other products. The ironsmith were usually very wealth. These skilled artisans were entrepreneurs of the time in metallurgy...
The iron smith entrepreneurs were weapon and tool makers. The weapons and tools included arrows, axes, knives, and hoes, among others. At first, iron was used only to make light arrow heads and jewellery. Bigger items such as hoes and axes took much more time and labour
Entrepreneur – village smiths often paid tributes to their Chief or King with hoes, axe heads and other items from iron. Hoes were used for special payments such as lobola.
The use of iron made it easier to hunt wild animals, till land and undertake domestic tasks. People who lived near deposits became entrepreneurs in mining, smelting, and fabrication (boiler making) and traded their products for other goods.
Entrepreneur-Potter Some African Entrepreneurs were involved in pottery designing and making clay pots.
120 5.8.5 Brewing Industry
Millet, rapoko, and sorghum were processed and brewed into different beer flavors. As it is today, after work villagers would gather and drink. This industry had strong competition and successful entrepreneurs were known for exceptional brews and good customer care Colonization and its effect on African entrepreneurship
Colonization negatively affected the Zimbabwean entrepreneurs and/or industrialists as well as their governance.
5.8.6 Wars
When the British arrived, major wars were fought. These are the War of Dispossession or Anglo-Ndebele War: 1893-4; First Chimurenga: 1896-7; and the 2nd Chimurenga: 1966-79. These wars disturbed the smooth running of entrepreneurial activities by blacks in Zimbabwe in so far as farming, mining, hunting, among others, were concerned.
5.9 POST COLONIAL ERA
During the colonial era black entrepreneurs were so limited. The reason being the inability of blacks to access means of production. Technical Education was also biased. From 1980 we saw the cropping of great entrepreneurs from the black populace. There were business Start ups in the transport sector, retailing, manufacturing, farming, and many industries. The government supporting schemes has been the major driver facilitating entrepreneurial activities. Sources of funds be obtained from AGRIBANK, SEDCO, etcFrom 2010 the Indigenization and Empowerment Act created a further empowering tool leading to the starting up of business in areas like mining. Zimbabwe remains one of the African countries with potential for vibrant entrepreneurial activities.
121
5.9.1 Entrepreneurship and Patriotism
In Zimbabwe, as elsewhere in the world, patriotic entrepreneurs play a pivotal role in stabilizing and resuscitating the economy. In other words, across the globe, nations largely depend on the entrepreneurs in both the informal and formal sectors. Statistics, in Zimbabwe, shows that 3 000 000 (three million) people are employed in the informal sector (which is about 75% of the employed people in Zimbabwe). This means that the remaining 25% is shared between the state-owned enterprises and the private enterprises in the formal sector. Apart from being the largest employer, the informal sector is the largest foreign currency earner, among other crucial roles it plays to the economy.
For the business to be successful the ‘needs and wants’ should be identified first through a feasibility study. Identification of needs and wants will indicate whether there is a potential market or not. Thus, the viability of a business largely depends on an effective feasibility study to determine the potentiality of the market. In this case, Appleby’s definition of entrepreneurship is clear about identifying first the needs of customers, unlike Stoner & Freeman’s. Thus, for Appleby, new goods and services should not just be produced for unknown customers as this is tantamount to wastage of resources.
Moreover, Appleby’s definition appears to be more comprehensive than that of Stoner & Freeman as he mentions the idea of ‘wealth creation’. The major aim of any business entity is to create wealth or increase the owner’s equity by maximizing profit. Without profit maximization or creation of wealth, the business will not survive.
5.9.2 Entrepreneurship distinguished from Entrepreneurship
Investor's or entrepreneurs are innovative and creative but not all of them are able to come up with innovations, and as such they leave innovations to
122 innovative managers or employees. An employee or manager who is innovative and creative in an existing organization is known as an entrepreneur. Managers or employees who carry out entrepreneurial roles are aware of opportunities and they initiate changes to take full advantage of them.
The fundamental issue about the entrepreneur is that he/she has to have innovative ideas and transforms them to profitable activities within an existing organization. In other words, he/she is an initiator or originator of the commercial undertaking.
5.9.3 Relationship between entrepreneurship and Patriotism
Patriotism is the spirit of loyally supporting one’s nation. The major thrust of patriotism in the context of entrepreneurship in an economy is to refrain from corruption and sabotage or subversion. Thus, the relationship between entrepreneurship and patriotism is reflected in the following roles that a patriotic entrepreneur plays to the nation that is the entrepreneur should have the spirit of:
• Creating jobs without oppressing fellow citizen workers i.e. the entrepreneur will be expected to provide good working conditions and be worker – centered.
• .Charging fair and affordable prices
• .Producing quality products which compare with international standards
• Conserving natural resources
• .Practicing good ethics and social responsibility in business and the community
• .Generating foreign currency without externalizing it or taking it to the black or parallel market for exchange, but to the registered banks for official exchange
• .Generating government revenue through paying corporate tax.
• .Playing supportive role to the giant firms by being subcontracted in construction, manufacturing and distribution
• .Reducing anti-social activities such as theft, robbery, murder, promiscuity by creating employment for self and other citizens
123
• Reducing rural to urban migration by creating employment opportunities in rural areas
5.9.4 The government has introduced the following;
• .Infrastructural Development Bank of Zimbabwe
• .Agribank
• .Affirmative Action Group (AAG)
• e.Zimbabwe Cross Boarders
• .Zimbabwe Tuck shop Association
The government has also introduced the Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises to ensure that small businesses succeed. Black empowerment and indigenization policy was also put in place to promote entrepreneurship. Land redistribution exercise is a good example to government entrepreneurship initiatives to promote self-sustenance and the development of the country.
Activity
1. Analyze the history of entrepreneurship in Zimbabwe
2. Examine the effects of colonization on entrepreneurship in Zimbabwe
3. Analyze the government initiatives to promote entrepreneurship in Zimbabwe since 1980.
4. Discuss the roles of the following in promoting entrepreneurship in Zimbabwe
a.AAG
b. Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises
c. Zimbabwe Cross Boarders Association
5.10 DESIGNING A BUSINESS PLAN
5.10.1 Generation/creation of a business idea
Every business emerges from an idea.
124 Businesses get started when people (customers) manifest Their needs and wants.
Entrepreneurs develop business ideas out of the needs and wants of people. Usually entrepreneurs exploit the weakness of the existing providers of goods and services to start their own venture
5.10.2 Business planning
It spells out business mission and objectives, its operational and financial details, its ownership and management structure, and how it hopes to achieve its objectives.
It is a written document describing all relevant internal and external elements and strategies for achieving objectives of a business.
A business plan is a document designed to provide sufficient information about a new or existing business to convince financial backers to invest in the business.
5.10.3 The purpose/importance of a business plan:
It provides a blueprint, or a plan, to follow in developing and operating the business. It helps keep one’s creativity on target and helps one concentrate on taking the actions that are needed to achieve the business goals and objectives.
It helps to clarify the business idea. The process involved in creating a business plan means that the entrepreneur has to ask a number of key questions about their idea. This should ensure that before starting up, the business idea would have been considered with care.
It can serve as a powerful money-raising tool. The Plan will often be used as a means of sharing potential investors of lenders the viability and profitability of the business.
125 Financial institutions insist on seeing a business plan before any loan is granted. Private shareholders may invest if they believe in the entrepreneur. Professional providers of venture capital demand evidence of careful planning first.
It can be an effective communication tool for attracting and dealing with personnel, suppliers, customers, providers of capital, etc. It helps them understand your goals and operations.
It can help you develop as manager/entrepreneur, because it provides practice in studying competitive conditions, promotional opportunities and situations that can be advantageous to your business.
It provides an effective basis for controlling operations so one can monitor progress over time, to see if your actions are following your plans.
5.10.4 Components/elements/contents of a business plan
The contents of a business plan vary tremendously, depending upon the type of business, the expertise of the entrepreneur, who the plan is aimed at and how much time is spent researching the plan.
However, regardless the specific format used an effective plan should include at least the following;
5.10.4.1 Cover Sheet
On the cover sheet you should include identifying information so that readers will immediately know the business name, address, phone numbers, names and titles of the principals (owners), and the date the Plan was prepared.
5.10.4.2 Table of Contents
Because the table of contents provides the reader an overview of what is contained in the plan itself, it should be written and presented concisely in outline form, using numerical and alphabetical designators for headings and subheadings.
126 5.11 Executive Summary
It is the most important part of the business plan. It should be designed to motivate the reader to go on to the other section of the plan. It should convey a sense of commitment, challenge, plausibility, credibility and integrity. It can include:
Major aims and objectives
Marketing strategy
Financial projections
Financial requirements
Current business position:
Legal form, when formed, principal owners and key personnel.
Major achievements.
NB. Executive summary is written last, after the rest of the plan has been
developed and should just be that – a summary –so keep it short. 4.
Description of the Business
Include the following:
o Introduction
o Relevant brief history and background of the proposed business
o How the idea for the business original and what has been done to develop
the idea up to this point.
o Owners and manager and their experiences o Products – capitalization/sources of funds o Brief outline of success and achievement o Date or proposed date for commencement o Name of business and trading name
o Legal identity/legal form o Industry that it fall under
o location - business addresses o SWOT Analysis
127 5.11.1 Ownership and Management Structure
• Describe the owners including those you identified by name and title above
• Give more detail about their experience, qualifications and expertise.
• Describe your management team, along with their abilities, training and experience.
• Draw an organisation Chart
• Draw a table showing name, position, qualifications and experiences, duties and responsibilities of managers and employees.
• Include organizational structure, including employee policies and procedures.
5.11.2 Marketing Plan
Include information about:
a. Marketing objectives
b. The target market
c. Sales and marketing mix strategy
d. Competitors analysis
e. Research – that leading to product design – confirmation of demand and future research planned.
5.11.3 Product/Operational Plan
• This motives the details of converting inputs to outputs valued by customers
• Specify products/services to be produced
• Raw materials and suppliers
• Optional location for production activities
• Costing of the products offered.
5.11.4 Financial/Plan/Analysis
• Indicate the expected financial results of your operations
• Show prospective investors or lenders
128
• Include projected financial statements at least up to three trading periods i.e. Trading, Profit and Loss
• Account; Income and Expenditure Statements; Cash
• Flow statements; Balance Sheets etc.
• There should be an analysis of costs/volume/Profits
• (CVP) where appropriate.
• Also include budget forecasting for : Production; Sales and Expenses.
• Show the Financing of the business.
5.11.5 Milestone Schedule
This involves the determination of objectives and the timing of accomplishments. It is like a map of how you will go from one place/stage in your business to the next.
Deadlines should be established and monitored.
5.12 APPENDIX
This section includes supporting documentation for your Business Plan e.g.
• Names of References and Advisors and their addresses and phone numbers
• Bargains, Tables, Charts
• Resumes of officers
• Supportive market research
• Brochures of other published information describing the products you provide.
• Letters of recommendations or endorsements etc.
129 REFERENCES
Bates, T.[ 1990]. Entrepreneur human-capital inputs and small business longevity. Review of Economics and Statistics, 72 (4): 551-559 Nov.
Blanchflower, D.G. & Oswald, A.J.[ 1998]. What makes an entrepreneur? Journal of Labor Economics, 16 (1): 26-60 Jan..
Brockhaus, R.H.[ 1980]. Risk-taking propensity of entrepre- neurs. Academy of Management Journal, 23 (3): 509-520.
Burgelman, R.A.[ 1983]. Corporate entrepreneurship and strategic management - insights from a process study. Man- agement Science, 29 (12): 1349-1364.
Carland, J.W., Hoy F., Boulton, W.R., et al.[ 1984]. Differen- tiating entrepreneurs from small business owners - a conceptualization. Academy of Management Review, 9 (2): 354-359.
Caves, R.E. & Murphy, W.F. [1976]. Franchising - firms, markets, and intangible assets. Southern Economic Journal,42 (4): 572-586.
Dewatripont, M. &Maskin, E.[ 1995]. Credit and efficiency in centralized and decentralized economies. Review of Eco-nomic Studies, 62 (4): 541-555 oct.
Fiol, C.M.[ 1994]. Consensus, diversity, and learning in organizations. Organization Science, 5 (3): 403-420 Aug.
Gersick, C.J.G.[ 1994]. Pacing strategic change - the case of a new venture. Academy of Management Journal, 37 (1): 9-45 Feb.
Hart, O. & Moore, J.[ 1994.] A theory of debt based on theinalienability of human- capital. Quarterly Journal of Econom- ics, 109 (4): 841-879 Nov.
Further Reading
Millson, M.R., Raj, S.P. &Wilemon, D.[ 1992]. A survey of major approaches for accelerating new product development. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 9 (1): 53-69 Mar
Norton, S.W.[ 1988]. An empirical look at franchising as an organizational form. Journal of Business, 61 (2): 197-218 Apr.
130 Sandberg, W.R. & Hofer, C.W. [1987]. Improving new ven- ture performance - the role of strategy, industry structure, and the entrepreneur. Journal of Business Venturing, 2 (1): 5-28 win.
Stuart, T.E., Hoang, H. & Hybels, R.C. [1999]. Interorgani- zational endorsements and the performance of entrepreneu- rial ventures. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44 (2): 315-349 Jun.
WIGSAT: Institutionalization of Entrepreneurship Education Development with a Focus on Women in Technical Education in Tan
131 UNIT SIX
INDIGENOUS KNOWLDGE SYSTEMS OF ZIMBABWE (IKS0:)THEIR INCLUSION IN THE EDUCATION CURRICULUM.
G MUPUNGA
6.0 ORGANISATION OF THE CONTENT This chapter comprises of an introduction, aims, and objectives of the unit, key concept of the topic, content, assessment summary of the topic, a conclusion. A list of references further reading lists and a glossary of terms used in the unit.
6.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is on the content and teaching of the topic Indigenous Knowledge system of Zimbabwe. It will look at the concept of indigenous knowledge systems and justify their place in the education curriculum. Activities to test whether you grasp the concept will be given.
6.2 AIMS This chapter aims to: 6.2.1 Define the concept indigenous knowledge systems 6.2.2 Illustrate types of indigenous knowledge systems 6.2.3 Justify the inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems in the curriculum.
6.3 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of the chapter, we expect you to be able to : 6.3.1 Give the meaning of indigenous knowledge system 6.3.2 Show the various types of indigenous knowledge system 6.3.3 Give reasons why indigenous knowledge systems should be included in the curriculum.
6.4 KEY CONCEPT 6.4.1 As you go through this unit you should pay particular attention to the following
concepts: 6.4.2 Indigenous knowledge refer to the understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings (EMA) it is local knowledge which informs decision making about fundamental aspects of day to day life.
132 6.4.3 It is local knowledge , basis for decision making in agriculture, education, health
care, food preparation (Warren, 1991) 6.4.4 Barnhardt and Kawagley (2005) view Indigenous Knowledge as a system of
survival. 6.4.5 Sern ali and Kincheloe (1999) and Odora Hoppers (2003) view Indigenous
Knowledge as ways of knowing . 6.4.6 Indigenous Knowledge Systems is the sum of the knowledge, skills which people
in a particular geographical area posses (Odora- Hoppers, 2004) 6.4.7 Onwu argues that Indigenous Knowledge is inclusive covering technologies and practices. There have been and are still used by indigenous people for existence,
survival and adaptation. 6.4.8 This implies that Indigenous Knowledge is part of Indigenous Knowledge Systems. 6.4.9 Indigenous Knowledge is passed from one generation to another.
6.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE 1. They are local: rooted to a particular set of experiences and generated by people living in those places. 2. They are orally transmitted or transmitted through imitation and demonstration. 3. Indigenous Knowledge Systems is the consequences of practical engagement in everyday life. It is constantly reinforced by experience and trial and error. 4. The product of many generations of intelligent reasoning . 5. It is tested in the vigorous laboratory of survival according to Hunn (1995) 6. Indigenous Knowledge System is characteristically shared to a much greater degree than other forms of knowledge (EMA) 7. It is sometimes called ‘people’s science ‘ 8. Indigenous Knowledge System is focused on particular individuals
6.5.1 Significance of indigenous knowledge systems 1. Indigenous Knowledge System is an integral part of the development process of
local communities. 2. Knowledge, not capital, is the key to sustainable social and economic
development (1998/99 World Development Report) 3. Indigenous Knowledge System plays a profound role in sciences 4. It helps shape and define their very existence 5. Also provides the foundation for their beliefs and traditional practices 6. Indigenous Knowledge System provides the basis for problem solving strategies
for local communities. 7. It’s an important component of global knowledge on development issues. 133 8. Indigenous Knowledge System is an underutilized resources in the development
process. 9. To develop a community one should first know what local communities quickly
win their support and cooperation. 10. You should understand local conditions. 11. Recognition of indigenous knowledge of local communities. 12. Indigenous Knowledge System can help promote biodiversity conservation by characterizing resource uses appropriate for the particular local landscape. 13. Indigenous Knowledge System can help to develop sensitive and caring values and attitudes promoting future development 14. Indigenous communities have lived in harmony with the environment without damaging it. 15. In dealing with locals, the principle from the known to the unknown should be used. (EMA) 16. Indigenous people have developed volumes of knowledge by interacting with the environment 17. They have knowledge about the soil, water, climate, forest, wildlife, minerals and so on. 18. This readymade knowledge could easily be used in education.
6.5.2 Examples of indigenous knowledge 1. Local controls include codified rules, taboos and regulatory norms. 2. Burial places were accorded special reverences because of their status. 3. Indigenous Knowledge System exist as stories, songs, folktale, drama. Proverbs,
cultural values, norms, beliefs, rituals, local languages and agricultural practices. 4. Taboos, myths and legends such as totems are used to prohibit and restrict some
activities detrimental to the society (Chemhuru and Masaka 2010) 5. Twenty five totems can be identified in Zimbabwe 6. Taboos and totems help to nurture sustainable use of natural resources.
6.5.3 Inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the education curriculum
Historical Background • Education in Sub- Saharan countries has remained colonial type after independence • The current post colonial African school curriculum ignores the voices, indigenous Knowledge (IKs) and cultures of African Indigenous population. • European powers imposed their concept of education and knowledge on African countries 134
• Colonial education was imposed on Africans by European missionaries and colonies. • It was hegemonic and disruptive to African social cultural practices, Indigenous
Knowledge (IK) systems, ways of life and ways of knowing. • Before advent of missionary and colonial rule, Africans were socialized and
educated within their indigenous socio-cultural and political context (Shizha 2014) • Colonization destroyed the roots of Africans and Africanism (indigenous ways of life and existence ) • As a result, traditional institutions of knowledge started disappearing.
6.5.4 The rationale for indigenous knowledge in the education curriculum • THE Zimbabwean way of life is being lost as the elderly die. • This is because the knowledge is transferred through word of mouth. • There is a risk of total extinction of the traditional way of life. • Education is one conduit available to ensure that indigenous ways of life do not die. • Elements of our indigenous knowledge should be embedded into the formal education. • Future generations will still be connected to their identity and culture. • A traditional approach to education will improve strategic utilization of natural resources (Sibanda 207) • Indigenous Knowledge System is actually the future of Zimbabwe • It allows Zimbabweans to utilize their natural resources in way synonymous with their culture • Indigenous Knowledge System does face resistance from some scholars who associate it with the uneducated and backward (Sibanda 2017) • “If students and pupils are taught Firsts Aid in class, why can’t they be taught of natural remedies” ( Sibanda 2017) • This is a good point • Student should be taught in class of natural remedies to various ailments. • For example natural remedies exist of headaches, stomach aches, tooth aches. • These have various indigenous cures from trees, tree barks, roots and charcoal.
Activity 6.1
List ten ailments and their natural indigenous cure
135
• Introduction to Indigenous Knowledge System into the education system should start at Early Childhood Development level • Indigenous Knowledge System is a broad subject • It is actually a lifetime syllabus • We can start with the Early Childhood Development; remove abstract poems such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star.... Sibanda. • You can replace them with indigenous poems that have a meaning in their immediate surroundings • Shakespeare should be removed from literature and replaced by Zimbabwean African Literature. • Children should be taught our heritage • Teachers should use the elderly members of the society as resources persons. • It is difficult to de- racialise African education in the absence of Indigenous Knowledge System (Mawere, 2015) • Indigenous Knowledge System paves way for creative thinking in dealing with problems. • What I would say creating African solutions to African problems. • For example in Nigeria’s Jigawa state, one young man invented a natural refrigeration system. • This does not require electricity, gas, or paraffin to operate. • The pot- in-pot cooling system is able to keep foods fresh for up to one month. • Three quarters of the Jigawa people have adopted the system. • This reinforces the point that indigenous education was practical and relevant to the needs of society. • Due to Western education we are surely losing our cultural identity in Zimbabwe. • Incorporation of Indigenous Knowledge System could help reclaim the previous moral fibre. • Sekuru Fiday Chisanyu , a renowned herbalist said Zimbabwe is at risk of losing all its priceless pieces of helpful traditional knowledge. • Traditional practices especially medicines, are dying with their holders he said • Very sad indeed as these are the same solutions to the problems that have been plaguing most Zimbabweans. • Sekuru also lamented the fall in the popularity of local languages which are rich in traditional living hacks. • “it is sad that some families do not want their children to speak in Shona” • Devices like idioms have a preserving message he said. • Sekuru is fully behind the incorporation of Indigenous Knowledge System into the school system. 136 • To him knowledge is more valuable than anything. • A lot of traditionalists were willing to assist as resources persons. • Traditional methods are free, easily accessed and easy to follow. • It is true that today many people are moving back to traditional foods. • These are healthier than the processed food causing many ailment today. • China is way ahead in preserving their Indigenous Knowledge System especially
herbs) and are exporting it. • Organisation like Tienz are selling packaged herbs which can be found in Zimbabwe.
• According to UNESCO languages and schools are conduits for the transfer of indigenous knowledge • Local languages are the means of or preserving, transmitting, and applying traditional knowledge in schools.” • The revised curriculum introduced in Zimbabwe in 2015 should take note of this point. • It is now or never • Subjects like FAREME, Heritage- social studies, languages, History, Geography, and Sciences should incorporate Indigenous Knowledge System in their syllabi. • In fact Indigenous Knowledge System is a cross cutting issue through the revised syllabus. • Education is an instrument of socializing people to their cultural heritage and value system. It enables people to appreciate and understand their history, way of life and cultural identity who they are, where they come from, where they are now, where they will be tomorrow, and how they will get there. Culture embodies people’s way of life and national identity ( Magagula and Mazibuko, 2004) • Therefore education in Africa should reflect the culture of the people. • The curriculum, from primary school to university should incorporate the socio cultural commemorations of the indigenous African People (Shizha 2014) • Shizha makes a strong and valid point when he says “African students should learn about their own socio-cultural existentialities, histories and ways of life, traditions and practices before they learn foreign cultures.” • This is true • The author of this unit has not been taught his Manyika way of life. • Its a pity and very painful • It is like a tree without roots. • Its time to emancipate ourselves from mental slavery. • Colonial education was oppressive compared to traditional education. (Shizha)
137
• Therefore, current African education should liberate learners , teachers, and African thinking. • Garvin defines oppression as the destructive effects of social institutions on people...” • Such institutions damage their identities denigrate their lifestyles and deny them access to opportunities” • Indigenous Knowledge System forms part of the indigenous cultural capital of African people
6.5.5 INDIGENOUS CULTURAL CAPITAL Comprises tastes, skills, posture, clothing, mannerisms, materials belongings and credentials one acquires through being part of a particular social class.”(
Bourdieu) • When similar forms of cultural capital are shared with others a sense of collective identify and group position is established. • Because indigenous African students share the same ICC with their teachers, learning becomes meaningful • Students are likely to meet learning, materials and learning situations that are familiar. • The languages will also be familiar and concepts easy to grasp. • “Education becomes an integral part of the culture and history of their local community” ( Shizha 2014) • It reminds me of the back to Africa movement by Marcus Garvey . • “ICC will liberate learners from a sense of dehumanization, alienation, powerlessness and hopelessness”(Shizha 2014) • This is a powerful statement
6.5.6 Africa must be free now ICC should be taught using indigenous languages. This will foster active teacher –student interactions enabling students to develop
critical and analytical thinking skills. Students will also effectively communicate their thought and ideas in learning
situations. Shizha also argues that incorporating African cultures, Indigenous Knowledge System and philosophies in the African school curriculum will promote and
enhance learner’s school achievement and academic performance. This is because students will be taught in the language they understand This is very fundamental to our new curriculum planners in Zimbabwe. 138
6.5.7 African knowledge as democratic and emancipatory knowledge • Much of what African students learn today is for from democratic (Shizha 2014) • It has no roots in their cultural capital and not related to their socialisation. • Socialisation is thought to shape the ways in which individuals acquire their attitudes, beliefs, and values from their social and natural environment. • According to socialization theory, once established cultural orientations are likely to crystallize and persist – (Shizha) • Even if foreign knowledge systems are introduced, they will survive. • Culture value past knowledge, and historical commemorations should, by and large form the foundations of African school curriculum (Shizha) • Before the revised curriculum Western knowledge in Zimbabwe was treated as the legitimate school knowledge. • However, democratic, knowledge is political and works to decolonise Western knowledge. • It frees the oppressed and colonised African knowledge systems looked down by westerners. • Democratic knowledge encourages participation and reflection by community members into situations and challenges facings them. • Education has the power to free people from misconceptions about knowledge, the nature of knowledge and the utilization of knowledge (Shizha2014) • “Education is the practice of freedom for dealing critically and creatively with our reality to participate in the transformation of our world” (Freire, 1998) • Liberated individuals and communities are empowered with skills, attitudes, knowledge and tools for active productive participation in society. • Both adults, as teachers and learners took part in constructing and developing knowledge through doing. • Learners encountered learning situations during play and during community activities. • Learning was situational and practical • Knowledge was extracted from the cultural environment of learners not from textbook. • Because it was in formal and unstructured, learners had freedom to explore new knowledge within their environment • Today’s learning is too structured and rigid and many students at Grade 7 and ‘O’ level are failing. • The knowledge is too bookish and theoretical • In spite of its achievements modern education is facing a deep dilemma 139 • It promises to bring freedom to people while in practice it builds new cages” (Freire) • Africans have become too dependent on bookish western education at the expense of our home –grown education. • Today’s African schooling model is extremely structured and limits the freedoms of both teachers and students • Western education tends to focus on abstract and positive knowledge that does not correspond to the world- views of African students (Shizha) • African students should break its chain of slavery and attain new freedom. • How do we achieve this, one may wonder! • The African education school curricular should incorporate African indigenous knowledge system. • This is because they mirror the actual cultural needs and expectations of community in which schools are located. • In short, African education is derived from their communities. • This knowledge brings with it an identity crises in students • Practical and participatory learning serves as the praxis of liberation (Freire, 1998) • Therefore indigenous knowledge systems that are rooted in indigenous cultures, have a liberating effect. • Questions like who are we? Why are we forced to learn western education cause an identity crises and a lot of anxiety among African students.
6.6 CULTURAL RENAISSANCE • However it is impossible to replace Western systems of education completely • It is simply a call to include African ways of knowing • Cultural reclamation in African education is a necessary mean of deconstructing Eurocentric schooling programs • The purpose is to decolonise African education systems. • This is through providing educational programmes that are programmatic and culturally responsive to African needs (Shizha 2014) • There is a need for the rebirth of African ways of knowing • Current African education is a relic of the historical colonial past. • You need to know the purpose of colonial education. • It was for economic exploitation and assimilation of indigenous Africans into western cultural realities (Shizha)
140 • This is very true. • Unfortunately post colonial Africa education continues to recreate these realities. • We have inherited the colonial masters ways of knowing and shun ours creating an identity crisis. • There is also an identity perception gap between what schools teach and what most students experience in their homes and communities. • There is limited direct relationships and association between what is in the curriculum, pedagogical practices and the everyday lived experiences of students (Shizha ) • This culminates in conflict which is reflected in the failure by students to see the purpose and relevance of school knowledge to their communities. • What is needed in Zimbabwe and Africa in general, is a cultural renaissance in educational programs. • Reclaiming the culture that was demonized and marginalized during colonial rule should be the cornerstone of current practices (Shizha) • Cultural renaissance will reinforce the self identities and cultural identities of African learners. • It will link the culture of the school to the culture of the communities from where the learners come. • It also becomes a tool to recreate and reinvigorate cohesive and holistic community living (Shizha) • This curricular frees the African minds from the bondage of capitalists altitudes.
• Therefore, African cultural value, past knowledge and historical commemorations should be the foundations of contemporary African school curriculum
6.6.1 Restoring indigenous culture Let’s take a look at some ways in which the African school curriculum can be
revisited 6.6.2 Curriculum hybridization • Its a fact in this age of globalisation and knowledge society, knowledge is no longer available from only one source • Knowledge travels so fast across borders resulting in a hybrid of knowledge. • According to Shizha , “ it is important to emphasises that the African curriculum should be a hybrid of local, regional and international knowledge” • It should blend Western knowledge and indigenous African knowledge. Shizha • The curriculum should emphasize, legitimatize and validate African indigenous knowledge systems. 141
• Local cultural knowledge’s should be the basis of the curriculum and knowledge construction. • They are not additions to western knowledge. • The curriculum should emphasize indigenous African philosophies of Ubuntu/unhu. • This is based on respect of self and community, participation in community life, respect of African spirituality, holism and philanthropist • Hybridization does not involve taking everything of indigenous cultures of foreign cultures. • According to Magagula and Mazobuko, “ there is need for African people to maintain and preserve what is good from their own cultures and discard what is bad.’ • The same goes with foreign cultures. • Aspects of foreign cultures should be carefully selected. • We should select what is good for Africa and leave out the bad. • For example, Africans and the West do not see eye to eye on gay rights. • What Zimbabwe need is a home-grown curricular which is inclusive of various stakeholders. • These include teachers, teachers organisations, students organization, government policy makers, academics and researchers, leaders of industry and community leaders. • An inclusive curricular “ build bridges and unite diverse groups from various life worlds” (Milner, 2010) • The end result of an inclusive curricular is improved academic performances • It also reduces disconnections and misrepresentations that are historically presented in the curriculum. • This is what Doctor Dokora revised curricular is all about • Correcting the wrongs and injustice of the past but many people, do and seem to recognise this • The term revised curricular is also very appropriate.
6.7 INDIGENOUS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION AS AN EDUCATIONAL CULTURAL TOOL
• Let’s look at the aspect of indigenous language as a medium of instruction.
• You should take note that Africa suffered linguistic imperialism.
142
• Colonizers imposed their languages on the continent like English, French and Portuguese.
• Most books used in school and higher education are written in foreign languages.
• Languages play a pivotal role in the production and transmission of knowledge.
• The language that is used in schools determine the extent to which students will participate in contributing knowledge to the learning situation (Shizha)
• In most African classroom foreign languages are used to teach learners.
• This limit contributions from the learners
• Students who cannot master a foreign language excluded from their right to learn, especially in their mother tongue.
• Foreign languages perpetuate colonial oppression of the self and mind. (Shizha 2014)
• The colonialists labelled indigenous languages as deficient in technological and scientific terms for education practice.
• This is pure Eurocentric bias and racism.
• If the Chinese Japanese, Russians and British can successfully use their languages in education why should not Africans?
• Surprisingly current African government continue to perpetuate policies that favour European languages.
• A shift is needed in the attitudes of languages policy makers, parents and teachers.
• As a country we should develop and promote teaching in mother tongue languages at schools.
• This will heighten students conceptual understanding and cognitive development (Goskri)
• Research studies show that children who use their mother tongue for basic education develop good language proficiency
• They also perform better than those who use a foreign language. (Shizha 2014)
• Resistance towards making indigenous languages media of instruction still exists.
143
• The continued use of foreign languages in African schools silences students’ voices (Shizha 2014()
• Finally it undermines their school performance and academic achievement.
6.8 CONCLUSION
• Emphasis in African education is on legitimizing Indigenous Knowledge system and indigenous cultures in post- colonial African in schools.
• Schools in Africa run the risk of reproducing colonial knowledge’s inappropriate to Africa.
• Some current African elite are disconnected from the African realities.
• Restoring Indigenous Knowledge system in schools acknowledges the value of African cultures in socioeconomic development.
• Besides colonialism African cultures are threatened by globalisation.
• Hence African governments, policy makers and curriculum planners should lead in the promotion of indigenous cultures and Indigenous Knowledge system.
• Thus, redefining school knowledge for African education.
• It is more than fifty years since most African countries gained independence.
• More effort have been put to promote African cultures and Indigenous Knowledge system in schools curriculum in an African language.
• Political will is required to effect this decolonization process.
6.9 RECOMMENDATIONS
• Indigenous Knowledge for plant medicines should be included into school science teaching and learning.
• Since First Aid is taught in class, natural remedies should follow suit.
• Traditional plant knowledge should be taught in a science class.
144 Table 1: some medicinal plant knowledge in Chivi.
Condition Some of the drugs
Snake bites Ruvhunabadza, Gomarararenyoka , Chidzororo
Dysmenorrhoea (jeko) Jekacheka , Mupanda
Stomach aches Mupfura, munhengeni, muurumanyama mufufu
Wound healing (external) Mupfura, gavakava
Reproductive organs problems Rukato (infertility)
Adapted from Dominic Mashoko International Journal of English and Education LSSN: 2278-4012, Volume: 3, issue: 3, July 2014.
• Pupils should be taught traditional diets, cereals, fruits, vegetables and medicinal herbs.
• Examples are muringa, nyeve, black jack (tsine) known to retain iron, and pumpkin seeds.
• Food and Nutrition and Home Economics to incorporate traditional diets.
• Schools should teach traditional dance education and reclaim our culture identity
• Dance should be a stand-alone subject in primary school (Shizha2013)
• Traditional dance involves a political performance of the nation’s tragic histories, pain, joy and triumphs through bodily movements (Banks 2013)
• Schools should teach Jerusarema
• Mbende
• Jikinya
• Mbakumba
• Isitshikitsa
• Muchongoyo
145 • Jiti
• Amabhiza
• Ngorormbe
• Ingquzu
• Chinyambera
• Imbube
• Zvipunha
• Sangoma
• Majukwa
• Teacher can make use of the dance educators and dance resources persons
• Schools should teach Shona and Ndebele children’s games and play songs.
• Children’s games and play songs are an indigenous way of knowing. (Nyoka and
Mapara 2008)
• Children learn values like good behaviour, hard work, competition, handling success and failure and leadership.
• Values and virtues learned become useful later in life.
• Games also play a role in the cognitive development of the young (Nyoka and Mapara 2008).
6.9.1 Mahumbwe
• Mahumbwe or playhouse is a socio- dramatic play.
• It teaches children the duties or roles they are expected to play when they become parents.
6.9.2 Nhodo
• Teaches numeracy
• Each player is taught to count in an orderly manner in an ascending order.
• It improves motor skills.
146 6.9.3 Pote Pote round and round
• The game is accompanied by a song
• Teaches participants top behave positively.
6.9.4 Dedezangara uyo muti? What type of tree is that?
• The game teaches youngster and understanding of some aspects of their biophysical environment
• Children learn to identify different types of trees and plants.
• Children are able to identify trees and plants used for building, firewood, medicinal and herbs, fruits, edible roots and tubers.
• They also identify poisonous plants.
• Children learnt not to cut trees Willy nilly.
• The play song teaches responsible citizenship in their own language.
6.9.5 ASSESSMENT
1. Define indigenous knowledge systems and give examples.
2. Is there any justification for the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the education curriculum in Africa?
3. What is your view to the use of indigenous medium of instruction as educational cultural tools?
4. Carry out a study on indigenous knowledge system in your local teaching area and explain their significance in various fields.
6.10 CONCLUSION
There is no doubt this was an interesting discussion. Quite an emotional subject requiring political will by government. A lot of effort remains to be done if Zimbabwe is going to reclaim its lost cultural identity.
147 6.11 SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed organization of the content, introduction, aims, objectives learning outcomes, as well as key concepts. Content covered characteristics of Indigenous Knowledge significance of Indigenous Knowledge system and examples of Indigenous Knowledge. The major discussion point was the inclusion of Indigenous Knowledge in the educational curriculum. Recommendations as what to teach under Indigenous Knowledge system was given at the end.
148 REFERENCES
Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 200 Act 2013. Government Printers, Harare.
Dzenga L. Indigenous Knowledge systems: The missing link. The Herald 14 June 2017.
Environmental Management Agency (zw) what are Indigenous knowledge systems: https://www.ema.co.zw/index.php/129-indegenous - knowledge - are – we loosing – our – traditional – practices html.
Mashoko D. Indigenous knowledge for plant medicine; Inclusion into school Science Teaching and Learning. International journal of English and Education. ISSN:2278 – 4012, Volume: 3, issue: 3, July 2014.
Nyota S. and Mapara S. Shona Traditional children’s games and play; songs as Indigenous ways of knowing. The Journal of Pan African studies, Vol 2, No. 4, June 2008.
Shizha E. Rethinking contemporary sub-Sahran African School knowledge; Restoring the indigenous African cultures. International Journal for cross – disciplinary subject in Education IJCDSC), special issue volume 4 issue 1, 2014.
Zengeya Makuku v., Kushure, L. , Zengeya A. and Bhukuvhani C.E. Secondary School Teachers’ Conception of Indegenous knowledge: A Basis for its Inclusion into the Curriculum International Journal of Innovative Research and Development www.ijird.comAugust, 2013 Vol 2. Issue 8.
149 FURTHER READING
Diamond, Dziva, Mpofu V. and Ksure L.P, Teacher’s conceptions of indigenous knowledge in service curriculum in the context of mberengwa. African journal of education and technology, Volume 1 number 3 (2011).
Jacobs, K.R, The classroom Implementation of indigenous knowledge in the science curriculum by science teachers in the WESTERN Cape PROVICE, South Africa University of Cape Town, 2015.
Mapara, J. (2009) Indigenous knowledge system in Zimbabwe; Juxtaposing Post Colonial Theory. The Journal of Pan African Studies Vol 3. No.1.
Mavhunga, P.J (2008) Africanising these Curriculum: A case for Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research. Vol 20.No1.
150 GLOSSARY
Ailments
Diseases
Cultural hybridization – this is a blending of different cultures
Cultural renaissance – The reawakening of indigenous cultures.
EMA – Environmental Management Agency
FAREME – Family Religious Moral Education
Indigenous Cultural Capital – Comprises tastes, skills, posture, clothing, mannerisms, material belonging and credentials one acquires through being part of a particular social class.
Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) – ways of life and way of knowing.
Pedagogies – the science or art of teaching or education.
151 UNIT SEVEN
CLIMATE CHANGE
G MUPUNGA
7.0 ORGANIZATION OF THE CONTENT
This chapter comprises of an introduction, aims and objectives of the unit, key concepts of the topic, content, activities for you to practice, some assessment items, a summary of the topic, a conclusion, a list of references, further reading titles and a glossary of items in the unit.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter is on the content and teaching of the topic ‘Climate Change’. It will look at the concept climate change, causes of climate change, evidence of climate change, effects/impact of climate change globally on Africa and on Zimbabwe. This chapter will also look at ways in which we can adapt to the impacts of climate change and finally look at ways in which we can mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
7.2 AIMS
This chapter aims to:
7.2.1 Make teachers and learners aware of climate change
7.2.2 Explain the causes of climate change
7.2.3 Predict future impacts of climate change
7.2.4 Suggest ways of mitigating climate change
7.3 OBJECTIVES/ LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the chapter we expect you to:
7.3.1 Describe climate change
7.3.2 Give the causes of climate change 152 7.3.3 Show the impact of climate/evidence of climate change
7.3.4 Implement ways of mitigating climate change
7.4 KEY CONCEPTS
As you study this unit please pay attention to the following climate terms:
7.4.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
This chemical compound is the primary greenhouse gas and drives of climate change. It is part of the life cycle on earth. CO2 is produced through animal and human perspiration and absorbed by plants. Human activities are seriously altering the carbon cycle in many ways. Burning fossil fuels and adding more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are common.
7.4.2 Greenhouse Gas
7.4.2.1 It is a chemical compound found in the earth’s atmosphere.
7.4.2.2 Example are carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor and other human made gases.
7.4.2.3 These gases allow much of the solar radiator to enter the atmosphere
7.4.2.4 Radiation energy then strikes the earth and warms the surface.
7.4.2.5 Some of this energy is reflected back towards space as infrared radiation.
7.4.2.6 A portion of this outgoing radiation bounces off the greenhouse gases.
7.4.2.7 Traps the radiation in the atmosphere in the form of heat.
7.4.2.8 The more greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere, the more heat is trapped.
7.4.3 Emissions
7.4.3.1 These refer to greenhouse gases released into the air.
7.4.3.2 They are produced by numerous activities like burning fossil fuel, industrial agriculture and melting permafrost.
153 7.4.3.3 Heat is trapped in the atmosphere, slowly increasing the Earth’s temperature over time.
7.4.4 Weather vs Climate
7.4.4.1 Do not confuse the two terms.
7.4.4.2 Weather refers to atmosphere conditions in the short term.
7.4.4.3 This includes changes in temperature, humility, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, wind and visibility.
7.4.4.4 Weather is always changing.
7.4.4.5 Climate is the average o weather patterns over a period of time usually 30 or more years.
7.4.5 Global warming vs Climate change
These are two more terms used incorrectly
Global warming is an increase in the Earth’s average surface temperature This is due to human-made greenhouse gas emissions
Diagram
Burning coal releases 70% more carbon dioxide than natural gas(Coal plantTaiyuan,China).
Climate change refers to the long term changes in Earth’s climate or a region.
154 It includes the average surface temperatures, variation in snow, sea level and ice.
7.4.6 Fossil fuels
7.4.6.1 These are sources of non-renewable energy.
7.4.6.2 Formed from the remains of living organisms buried millions of years ago
7.4.6.3 Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil to produce energy is dangerous.
7.4.6.4 This is the greatest source of greenhouse gases
7.4.6.5 The demand for energy is big and burning of fossil fuels has risen
7.4.6.6 More greenhouse gases are being trapped into the atmosphere.
7.4.6.7 Air temperatures have also risen.
7.4.7 Sea-level rise
7.4.7.1 Climate change is causing sea-level to rise.
7.4.7.2 More water is being released into the ocean as glaciers and land ice melts.
7.4.7.3 Secondly, the ocean expands as ocean temperatures increase.
7.4.7.4 These two actions are accelerating sea-level rise around the world.
7.4.7.5 Millions of people living the coastal communities are at risk.
7.4.8 Global average temperature
7.4.8.1 This is a long term look at the Earth’s temperature, usually over the course of
30 years, on land and sea.
7.4.9 Renewable Energy 7.4.9.1 Is energy that comes from naturally replenished resources, such as sun light, wind, waves and geothermal heat 7.4.9.2 23% of global electricity by end of 2014 came from renewables ( ) 7.4.9.3 Renewables do not produce the greenhouse gases that drive climate change. 7.4.9.4 It is therefore necessary to shift away from fossil fuels to renewables.
155 7.4.9.5 It is safe and sustainable.
7.4.10 Methane
7.4.10.1 Is another greenhouse gas that traps heat in the atmosphere?
7.4.10.2 It does not stay in the atmosphere for long but absorbs heat 84 times ( )
7.4.11 Mitigation
7.4.11.1 Refers to an action that will reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions.
7.4.11.2 You can plant trees in order to absorb more carbon dioxide
7.4.11.3 It can include developing and deploying new technologies
7.4.11.4 Also use of renewable energies like wind and solar, or making older equipment more energy efficient.
7.5 CONTENT
7.5.1 Causes of climate change
7.5.1.1 The Earth’s climate has always been changing
7.5.1.2 It is now changing faster today than it has for thousands of years
7.5.1.3 According to scientists, rapid changes recorded in the past century have been caused by human activity.
7.5.1.4 Human activities are altering the composition of the atmosphere causing warming.
7.5.2 What causes climate change? Let us explain
7.5.2.1 A greenhouse is a glass building that allows light and heat in
7.5.2.2 However, a greenhouse prevents heat from escaping.
7.5.2.3 Its function is to enable plants to be grown in cold countries during winter.
7.5.2.4 The gases in the earth’s atmosphere act like a greenhouse, forming a layer to keep the plant warm
156 7.5.2.5 Without the natural greenhouse effect, the earth would be cold for life
7.5.2.6 However, human activities have caused excessive greenhouse to build up in the atmosphere
7.5.2.7 The planet earth is heating up too much, an effect known as global warming.
7.5.2.8 The gases that trap heat are called greenhouse gases.
7.5.2.9 Fig 1.2 shows how greenhouse gases become trapped in the atmosphere and
cause global warming.
7.5.2.10 The heating of the atmosphere leads to many other changes
7.5.2.11 These include the melting of ice and snow on mountains and at the north and south poles
7.5.2.12 As the ice melts, the extra water causes sea levels to rise
7.5.2.13 Global warming also affects ocean and wind currents, leading to changes in rainfall patterns
157 7.5.2.14 Extreme weather events include storms, floods, fires and droughts
7.5.3 Greenhouse gases
7.5.3.1 Human activities, such as burning coal and oil (fossil fuels) for industry and transport and to produce electricity, release greenhouse into the atmosphere.
7.5.3.2 Large scale commercial agriculture and forest clearing also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
7.5.3.3 Fig 1.3 shows the main greenhouse gases and their percentage of contribution to climate change.
Fig 1.3 The main greenhouse gases responsible for climate change (Source Environmental Protection Agency 2015)
158 From this we see that carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from burning of fossil fuels as well as deforestation and other land-use activities are major contributors.
Methane (CH4) mainly comes from livestock farming and waste management Nitrous oxide comes from agricultural activities mainly related to fertilizer use. Fluorinated gases come from industrial processes, refrigeration and some consumer products.
Fig 1.4 shows the main activities that cause the release of the greenhouse gases.
This is given by the percentage contribution of these activities to climate change.
Methane and carbon dioxide contain carbon, the main element in the climate story.
159 7.5.4 Who is causing greenhouse emissions?
Rich countries are responsible for releasing the largest amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere
Fig 1.5 shows the to 20 countries emitting the most greenhouse gas in 2012
China currently produces around 22% of global greenhouse gas emissions The US is responsible for 12%
If we leave out the figures of South Africa and Nigeria, Africa as a whole contributed only 4,6% of total global emissions.
Historically the US and Europe have contributed the most to climate change.
7.5.4.1 Who will be affected
Everyone on earth will be affected by climate change.
Countries and communities in the developing world will experience the most severe impacts.
Due to their location, economic status and the burden that they already bear.
160
7.5.4.2 Evidence for Global climate change
There is overwhelming evidence for global climate change by scientists. However, some people including politicians (Donald Trump included) and a few scientists, doubt that climate change is happening.
They argue that most scientists have got their facts wrong.
They argue that global warming is not real.
Others believe that global warming and climate change are occurring, but rule out human activities.
They believe that climate change is a natural phenomenon, period.
However 97% of scientists around the world agree that climate change is Happening and is caused by human activities.
7.5.4.3 Evidence from temperature measurements
Scientists can get impression of the Earth’s climate in the past
They study tree rings, ice cores, coral growth rings and sediments at the bottom of lakes (Brazier, p37)
In the past century the planet has experienced an extreme and unusual increase in temperatures
That is unlike anything experienced in the past 100 years (Brazier, p.37)
This strongly corresponds with the increasing level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities.
Most of the increases in temperatures has occurred since 1970s
The warmest atmospheric and ocean temperatures have been measured in the past 10 years.
2014 was said to be the hottest year on record (Brazier, p.38)
2015 was thought to be even hotter.
161 7.5.4.4 Evidence from the oceans
The oceans absorb a great deal of the carbon dioxide emitted through a natural process.
While reducing some of the worst effects of climate change, it has caused the oceans to become more acidic and killing sea life.
The global fishing industry on which millions of people depend for food and in come has been ruined.
7.5.5 Melting snow and ice in the Himalayas threaten the water supply of billions
• India, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh depend on the snow and ice in the Himalaya Mountains for their water supply.
• If this snow and ice could melt too quickly and do not reform due to warmer winters,
• Avalanches, floods and Landslides could result.
• Major rivers could run dry leaving billions people with drastic water shortages.
7.5.5.1 Evidence from snow and ice
• Global warming has caused melting of glaciers, snow and ice on mountains and at the poles.
• The melting has caused sea levels to rise by 17cm in the past years.
• Hundreds of cities worldwide are threatened with flooding.
• Because snow and ice are an important water store for many countries, melting has reduced the water quantity and quality available.
7.5.5.2 Evidence from plants and animals
• Plants and animals in many countries as well as fish have shown the effects
• There are shifts in their location and reductions in their populations.
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• As temperatures have risen, plants and animals have moved to cooler areas in order to survive.
• Since 1970, scientists have measured a decline of 52% in representative population of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish.
• All this is attributed to human activities and climate change.
7.5.5.3 Evidence of extreme events
• There has been an increase in extreme weather events.
• Heat waves, drought and storms have increased.
• You have seen on TV uncontrollable bush fires in North America, Australasia and South Africa.
• Vast areas of vegetation and human settlements have been destroyed.
• Remember the recent ‘Florida wild fires’ in the USA.
• In recent years, storms and floods have caused devastation to crops and settlements, particularly in Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America.
7.6 EVIDENCE FROM ZIMBABWE
• Climate change is already occurring in Zimbabwe if you are not aware.
• Records since 1900 show that average annual surface temperature has increased by 0,4%.
• There are now more hot days and fewer cold days than in the past.
Study fig 1.7
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The temperature increased has been most pronounced during the dry season. The five warmest years on record have occurred since 1987 (p40)
The total amount of rainfall received during a rainy season has decreased since 1900.See fig 1.8
• While temperatures are increasing, the rainfall pattern seems to be changing.
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• More rain than the average is occurring at the beginning of the season, in October.
• Less rain than the average is being received between January and March.
• But this season 2017-2018 was the opposite
• More dry days have been recorded during the rainy season.
• Droughts and floods have increased in frequency since 1990
• Often occurring back to back with a flood year immediately following a drought year(Brazier, p40).
• The increase in rainfall variability, make it difficult for people who depend on rainfall and water resources.
• Agriculture, tourism and industry fail to plan their activities.
Activity
1. Conduct a case study describing changes seen by the community members in your teaching practice area caused by climate change and how people are using traditional strategies to cope.
7.6.1 How climate change will affect us future
7.6.1.1 There is no doubt climate change will affect us in future.
7.6.1.2 Let us look at the potential impacts of climate change.
7.6.2 Future global impacts
7.6.2.1 It is difficult to predict how climate change will affect us in future.
7.6.2.2 This will depend on the rate at which we increase greenhouse gas emissions.
7.6.2.3 How greenhouse gas emissions will affect temperature, rainfall and sea level changes.
165 7.6.3 The Earth for the rest of the century
7.6.3.1 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) reports that by the end of the end of the 20th century, the average global temperature is very likely to have risen by 20 degrees celcius
7.6.3.2 There will be more hot and fewer cold extremes across the globe.
7.6.3.3 This will be on a daily and seasonal basis with more frequent and longer heat waves.
7.6.4 Rainfall changes
7.6.4.1 According to the IPCC report rainfall is likely to increase in some high and mid- latitude areas.
7.6.4.2 For example the Artic and the Antarctic, Northern Europe, Northern Asia, Northern US AND Canada, East Africa and so on.
7.6.4.3 Rainfall is likely to decrease in the mid-latitude dry regions.
7.6.4.4 These include Southern Europe. Parts of Asia, Australia, North and South America and the sub-Tropics including Southern Africa.
7.6.5 Changes in the Oceans
7.6.5.1 Oceans will become more acidic decimating sea life and causing extinctions.
7.6.5.2 Catches of global fisheries will severely be reduced causing food shortages and unemployment.
7.6.6 Melting ice and sea levels
7.6.6.1 Snow and ice on mountains will continue to melt at rapid rates
7.6.6.2 There will be water shortages.
7.6.6.3 Sea levels at the poles will continue to melt rapidly and sea levels will rise faster.
7.6.6.4 This will threaten the lives and livelihoods of millions of people in coastal areas across the world.
166 7.6.6.5 Buildings and crops will be submerged.
7.6.6.6 So many natural disasters are threatening world humanity.
7.6.6.7 According to the IPCC, sea level could rise by between 26cm and 55cm by end of the century.
7.6.6.8 That is if the greenhouse gas emissions are reduced.
7.6.6.9 But they could increase by between 45cm and 82cm if emissions continue at the current rate of increase.By 2100, sea levels could be up by 98cm (p49)
7.7 IMPACTS ON NATURAL SYSTEMS
7.7.1.1 By 2050 one quarter of the Earth’s species risk extinction if the warming continues.
7.7.1.2 Plants and animal species will lose their habitants as vegetation pattern changes.
7.7.1.3 Polar bears, seas turtles, whales, pandas, orang-utans, elephants and tigers are particularly threatened.
7.7.2 Impacts on Human communities
7.7.2.1 Global food security is likely to be severely threatened.
7.7.2.2 Production of all the major food staples (maize, rice and wheat) will be disrupted.
7.7.2.3 This will be due to rising temperature, water shortages and increases in pest disease attacks.
7.7.2.4 Due to diminishing water resources there will be competition for water between different geographical regions and economic sectors.
7.7.2.5 Agriculture and industry will be highly affected.
7.7.2.6 Climate change will likely bring about increased migration and increase the threat of violent conflicts.
7.7.2.7 Health problems particularly among low-income communities in developing countries will increase.
167 7.7.2.8 Urban communities will face water shortages, heat waves and flooding.
7.7.2.9 Rural communities will face water shortages, crop failures and loss of livestock.
7.7.2.10 This will lead to health problems, food insecurity and threats to lives and livelihoods.
7.7.2.11 Floods are leaving a trail of destruction in Gauteng, South Africa as I write ( ANN7 1 pm news, 24/03/18).
7.7.3 Future impacts on Africa
7.7.3.1 Africa is predicted to be the continent that will be worst affected by climate change.
7.7.3.2 This is due to its global position, its vulnerable populations and its poor land use practices.
7.7.3.3 However not all Africa’s problems are caused by climate change.
7.7.3.4 Climate change will have a modest effect overall(Brazier, 2015).
7.7.3.5 The IPCC predict that average temperatures across most of Africa will increase more quickly than global average.
7.7.3.6 By the end of the 21st century temperature could increase between 3 and 6 degrees celcius.
7.7.3.7 Rainfall is likely to reduce over North Africa and the south–western parts of Southern Africa.
7.7.4 Summarizing the data from several recent reports the major risks are seen as:
7.7.4.1 A reduction in annual rainfall and ground water recharge, except in East Africa where rainfall will increase.
7.7.4.2 A shift in rainy seasons and more frequent dry spells.
7.7.4.3 More frequent climate hazards such as droughts, heat waves, wildfires, storms, intense rain and floods causing damage to natural systems, crops, transport network and human settlements.
168 7.7.4.4 Threats to soil fertility from erosion and increased temperatures.
7.7.4.5 Rising sea levels threatening coastal communities.
7.7.4.6 Accelerated expansion of deserts, especially in Namibia and Botswana and into Zimbabwe.
7.7.4.7 Increase in ocean acidity, resulting in degradation of coral reefs and damage to fisheries.
7.7.4.8 Reduced quantity and quality of water available for domestic and economic activities.
7.7.4.9 Faster growths of dry and desert areas and heat and water stress and shortened growing seasons, leading to declines in crop yields.
7.7.4.10 Accelerated species extinction and destruction of wildlife habitats, depleting important ecosystem services such as the provision of fertile soil and clean water and damaging tourism.
7.7.4.11 Increases in pest infestations and disease of crops and livestock.
7.7.4.12 Increases in malnutrition and human diseases.
7.7.4.13 An upsurge in migration and displacement of human population due to extreme events.
7.7.4.14 Droughts, floods and rising sea levels as well as social conflicts as people begin to compete for dwindling resources shall be experienced.
7.8 Future impacts on Zimbabwe
7.8.1.1 The future is not so good looking
7.8.1.2 Climate change will intensify the variability of rainfall
7.8.1.3 It will be difficult to predict the availability of water for human activities, particularly agriculture.
7.8.1.4 Poor land use practices, notably deforestation, soil degradation and water pollution will increase
7.8.1.5 Vulnerable communities caused by economic hardships and disease will find it even harder to cope.
169 7.8.1.6 Several studies on the impacts of climate change indicate by 2050 to the end of the century there will be:
7.8.1.7 A modest decrease in total amount of rainfall
7.8.1.8 Changes to the onset and end of the season
7.8.1.9 More frequent and longer mid-season dry periods.
7.8.1.10 Reduced ground water recharge
7.8.1.11 Erratic rainfall distribution across the country.
7.8.1.12 More droughts and floods that may recur in successive years.
7.8.1.13 Temperature increases of between 1degree celcius and 3 degrees celcius, which is greater than the global average.
7.8.2 These changes are likely to lead to:
7.8.2.1 Reduced water supply for domestic and agriculture use from surface and ground water.
7.8.2.2 The expansion of natural region V and the shrinking Natural region 1
7.8.2.3 Shifts will occur in the areas covered by natural region iii and iv
7.8.2.4 Degradation of natural resources especially soil, water, natural vegetation, crop, livestock and wildlife species.
7.8.2.5 Reduced food security because of the impact on agriculture will lead to undernutrition in children.
7.8.2.6 Increases in the incidents of diseases such as diarrhea, malaria and cholera due to reduced water supply.
7.8.3 Impacts on natural resources
7.8.3.1 The ecosystem that provides clean water, fertile soil, timber and fuelwood and nutritious wild foods will become further depleted.
7.8.3.2 Losses and even extinction among plant, animal and other species will happen.
7.8.3.3 Wildlife will encroach on human settlements, threatening people, livestock and crops.
170 7.8.3.4 Soils are likely to be degraded due to vegetation loss and erosion.
7.8.4 Water Resources
7.8.4.1 The most serious impact will be on the country’s water resources.
7.8.4.2 Climate change is likely to cause an annual rainfall decrease in all Zimbabwean catchment except Mazowe and Manyame (World Bank/Government of Zimbabwe Report, Davis and Hirji 2014)
7.8.4.3 The largest decline will be in the Runde and Mzingwane catchments
7.8.4.4 Rainfall will decrease by between 12% and 16% by 2050.
7.8.4.5 The recharge rates of wetlands and acquifers will also reduce
7.8.4.6 The decrease in water availability will affect irrigation for agriculture, energy generation for mining, manufacturing and commerce and tourism and human health.
7.8.4.7 Urban and rural communities in south and west Zimbabwe could be affected by water stress.
7.8.4.8 There will be increasing dependence on ground water sources in Zimbabwe.
7.8.4.9 Management of ground water is crucial.
7.8.5 Other impacts
7.8.5.1 Natural regions will shift
7.8.6 Impacts on people and the economy
7.8.6.1 Disruption to the economy is most likely to be seen in agriculture, industry and tourism.
7.8.6.2 Human health and livelihood are also under threat.
7.8.7 Agriculture our mainstay
7.8.7.1 Food insecurity will increase
171 7.8.7.2 Greater incidents of heat stress and infestations of pests (fall armyworm) and outbreaks of disease will increase.
7.8.7.3 Crops and livestock will reduce driving up expenditure on pesticides, herbicides and veterinary drugs.
7.8.7.4 There are likely to be shifts in the start and end of rainy season.
7.8.7.5 The onset of the rains may be delayed by between four and six weeks.
7.8.7.6 There will be increased demand for irrigation.
7.8.7.7 The nutrient content of the soil will reduce requiring farmers to apply more fertilizers.
7.8.7.8 Livestock and wildlife will suffer from changes in the quality of grazing land.
7.8.7.9 Dairy farming may decline in the face of water shortages.
7.8.7.10 Wheat, maize and horticultural growing areas will shift and yields could decline.
7.8.7.11 Maize will be particularly hit.
7.9 Tourism
7.9.1.1 Most of Zimbabwe’s natural parks are in areas most likely to be severely affected by climate change.
7.9.1.2 Loss of habitat, grazing, pest infestations, diseases and water shortages will reduce the populations of many animal species
7.9.1.3 Elephants will be severely hit
7.9.1.4 Loss of plant and animal species are likely to deter visitors.
7.9.2 Industry
7.9.2.1 Climate change will disrupt industrial activities because they require electricity and water.
172 7.9.3 Vulnerable people
7.9.3.1 People in the rural areas especially children, women and the disabled will bear the brunt of the changes
7.9.3.2 The women will have to do extra work
7.9.3.3 Men and children will walk long distances to collect water and firewood
7.9.3.4 Clean water and fuel for cooking will become increasingly scarce
7.9.3.5 Household hygiene and nutrition will be affected
7.9.3.6 The health of pregnant and breastfeeding women and their children will be at risk.
7.9.4 Human health
7.9.4.1 Higher temperatures, flooding and reduced rainfall are likely to increase human health problems.
7.9.4.2 Lack of clean water and flooding raise the risk of diseases and associated with poor hygiene
7.9.4.3 Diarrhea, typhoid, cholera and bilharzia will increase
7.9.4.4 Malaria could spread countrywide
7.10 Urban Communities
Towns and cities being built up with less vegetation are more likely to experience heat waves
Greater demand for air conditioning will emit more greenhouse gas
Cities will be more prone to flooding particularly those built on wetlands like Harare
7.10.1 Migration
There is likely to be an upsurge in cross-border migration and urban drift
How Zimbabwe can prepare for climate change Adaptation and resilience
173 As a country we should prepare for the unforeseen We should adapt to these changes
Adaptation is described by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in its 2007 report as “the process through which societies increase their ability to cope with an uncertain future, which involves taking appropriate action and making the adjustments and changes to reduce the negative impact of climate change” (p72)
There is potential to reduce some of the effects of climate change
We have to increase effective adaptation measures, such as encouraging farmers to plant drought resistant crops
Changes to infrastructure, such as digging boreholes or flood proofing roads and bridges.
7.10.2 Building resilience
Resilience is the ability to withstand and recover from hazards or shocks.
It is an important part of adaptation.
We should learn from past disasters in order to reduce future risks.
Resilient people are better adapted to climate change.
Our communities should operate as part of a system in order to be resilient. Zimbabwe boasts abundant natural resources and a well-educated, resilient population.
Zimbabweans are highly adaptable to change.
The social network that exists in Zimbabwean communities particularly in rural areas are still fairly strong.
Zimbabwe has a wealth of local and traditional knowledge which enables them to survive.
7.10.3 Encourage diversity
To survive climate change we must encourage diversity in all forms.
174 Different water sources are needed, as well as growing different crops and diverse sources of income.
Diversity makes the system stronger.
We should grow maize as well as mille, sorghum and legumes in case of drought.
We should increase diversity of crops to include drought-resistant varieties.
7.10.4 Adaptation and mitigation
Adaptation measures should lower greenhouse gas emissions.
This will reduce or mitigate the effects of future climate change
Let us plant trees and protect existing forests.
This will protect the soil and improve the ability of rainfall to recharge underground water stores.
Trees will take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, reducing global warming.
175 Adaptation options for Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe needs to take these specific adaptation measure
Table adaptation measures for some of the main sectors which will affected by climate change
176 7.11 ZIMBABWE AND MITIGATION
Here are some ways in which Zimbabwean can contribute to greenhouse reduction, locally and globally.
Mitigation of climate change involves minimizing the future impacts and risks of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
7.11.1 International negotiations
Zimbabweans joined negotiations to reduce greenhouse emissions which began in 1994 with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
There are currently 200 signatories to this treaty including Zimbabwe.
7.11.2 The Kyoto Protocol
The UNFCCC signatories adopted the Kyoto Protocol at the Conference of Parties( COP3) in 1997.
This provides legally binding targets for development nations to reduce their emissions and mechanism to enforce compliance. The US refused to sign the Kyoto Protocol.
This is a serious drawback to efforts to combat climate change.
7.11.3 Global emission reduction
Most greenhouse gas emissions come from power generation.
Clean energy production plays a major role in helping reduce emissions.
7.11.4 Renewable energy
There has been growing global interests in renewable energy technology. Countries should encourage use of solar, wind and water energy, hydro- electricity and biofuels.
177 Biofuels are made from fresh plant and other organic material including human and animal waste.
They include bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas.
The world should do away with coal-burning power stations.
They account for the largest greenhouse gas emissions.
7.11.5 Alternatives to coal
The main alternatives to coal power are electricity generated from natural gas or nuclear power.
These methods produce fewer emissions than coal, they are not popular and carry major risks.
7.11.6 Zimbabwe emissions source
Zimbabwe’s contribution to greenhouse gas emissions are modest.
Zimbabwe not at great risk of climate change but should play our part in the global fight against climate change
However, demand for power is fueling greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Burning of fossil fuels- coal, oil and natural gas to generate power are the
largest culprits to Zimbabwe emissions.
Rural and energy supplies are a problem.
The country should plant more forests and vegetation to stem the advance of climate change.
We should grow more trees.
7.12 Future energy use
Zimbabwe needs large scale forest protection and regeneration.
The official policy to promote clean and renewable energy should be strengthened.
Dependency on coal fired power generation should be reduced.
Zimbabwe could switch from coal fired power to natural gas which is plenty.
178 The country should exploit solar energy.
Zimbabwe should use energy efficient stoves to reduce amount of trees being harvested for fuel.
Biogas or methane is another source of renewable energy.
Finally, we need a change of mindset about climate change.
There should be behavior change
7.12.1 ASSESSMENT
1. Carry out a case study on climate change and its effect in the area that you are teaching currently.
2. Indicate steps that the world is taking to arrest climate change.
3. Who is responsible for climate change? Explain.
4. Is there a permanent solution to the problem of climate change?
5. Giving examples, discuss the most recent effects of climate change, globally.
6. ‘Climate change is linked to the end of the world or second coming of Jesus according to the bible” Discuss
7. What is the difference between climate change and weather?
7.13 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the key concepts of climate change. We also looked at the causes of climate change and evidence of climate change. Future impacts of climate change on Africa and Zimbabwe in particular were examined. Steps that Zimbabwe can take to resist and adapt to the impact of climate change were discussed. Mitigation measures against climate change were also discussed.
7.14 CONCLUSION
I hope you have learnt about the concept of climate change and you are now aware of how serious it is. This calls for you and me to play our part in mitigating the effects of climate change if we are to preserve our planet. If government and the
179 people do not take climate change seriously, the consequences are dire. We must act now to address the biggest threatto humanity today. For the sake of the future generations, we cannot afford to delay.
180 GLOSSARY
Adaptation The process through which societies increase their ability to cope with an uncertain future, which involves taking appropriate action and making the adjustments and changes to reduce the negative impacts of climate change
(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC]2007).
Carbon dioxide (CO2) One of the main greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that is causing climate change. It is produced by the burning of fossil fuels, cutting cutting down or burning of forests and various other sources.
Climate change The –term change in the Earths climate caused by the release of green-house gases-notably carbon dioxide and methane –that trap heat in the atmosphere.
Global Warming The heating of planet caused by climate change.
Greenhouse effect A greenhouse is a glass building that allows light and heat in, but prevents heat from escaping. Its function is to enable plants to be grown in cold countries during winter. The gases in the Earth’s atmosphere act like a greenhouse, forming a layer to keep the planet warm. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the Earth would be too cold for life. However, human activities have caused excessive greenhouse gases to build up in the atmosphere, causing the planet to heat up too much, an effect known as global warming.
Greenhouse gases Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect. The main gases responsible are carbon dioxide (C02), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (NO) and fluorinated gases. 181
Mitigation Actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions which lead to climate change.
Resilience The ability of an entity such as a family, community, forest or farm to recover from shocks and hazards, enabling it to adapt better to hazards and shock in future.
Sustainable development that meets the needs of the present without
Compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Vulnerability The degree to which an individual, household or community is exposed to risk of harm.
Wetland An area that is permanently or seasonally saturated with water and that contains characteristic plants.
182 REFERENCES
1. Brazier, A. 2015. Climate Change in Zimbabwe. Facts for Planners and Decision Makers. Konrad Adenauer Stiftung. 26 Sandringham Drive, Alexandra Park, Harare.
2. Brown , D., Chanakira, R., Chatiza, K., Dhliwayo, M., Dodman, D., Masiiwa, M., Muchadenyika, D., Mugabe,P. and Zvigadza, S. 2012.’’Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation in Zimbabwe’’. IIED Climate Change Working Paper 3,
October2012:http;//pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10034IIED.pdf,accessed August 2015.
3.Canali.L.2013.‘’VisualisingaWarmerWorld’’.Connect4Climate:www.connect4climate.org /blog/visualizing-a-warming-world,accessed August 2015.
4. Chanza, N. 2015. ‘’Indigenous Knowledge Practices Related to Climate Change: Case Study of Muzarabani, Zimbabwe’’. Personal
5. Davis, R. and Hirji R. 2014. ‘’Climate Change and Water Resources, Planning, Development and Management’’. Issues paper. World Bank & Government of
Zimbabwe:http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/10/23839207/climate- change-water-resources-planning-development-management-zimbabwe,accessed August 2015.
183 FURTHER READING:
1. Enviromental Protection Agency (EPA) 2015. ‘’Global Greenhouse GAS Emissions Data’’;www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/global.html,accessed August 2015.
2.GoZ2014.‘’NationalClimateChangeResponse
Strategy’’:www.ies.ac.zw/downloads/draftstrategy. pdf, accessed August 2015.
3. World Wildlife Fund, Effects of Climate Change, file;///F./Effects%20 of20%Climate%20Change%20Threats%20%20WWFhtml.
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