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TITLE: Zimbabwe’s Liberation Struggle Era Conflicts and the Pitfalls of Reconciliation after Independence: A Case Study of Bikita District 1976-2013. By Dorothy Goredema A Thesis submitted to the Midlands State University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History. Faculty of Arts Midlands State University 2015 i Declaration I Dorothy Goredema, hereby declare that this thesis for the Doctor of Philosophy in History at the Midlands State University, hereby submitted by me, has not been previously submitted for a degree at this or any other institution, and that this is my work in design and execution, and all reference materials contained herein have been duly acknowledged. ………………………………………… …………………………………….. Signature Date I hereby certify that the above statement is correct. Main Supervisor, Prof. N.Bhebe………………. …. ………………………… Signature Date Co-Supervisor, Dr.T.M Mashingaidze…………….. …………………………… Signature Date i Acknowledgements I owe a special debt of gratitude to my main supervisor, Professor Ngwabi Bhebe, and Dr. T.M Mashingaidze. Firstly, Professor Bhebe, I will be forever indebted to you. Despite your busy schedule as Vice-Chancellor of a university, you would always make time for me as a student and for my work. You took an interest in my topic and gave direction to many of my disjointed ideas that marked the genesis of the study. You continuously assessed my work, giving me feedback on time and went an extra mile to facilitate co-supervisors and funds that supported my work. I will forever be indebted to your efficiency, wise counsel and critical mind. Thank you Professor for your mentorship and intellectual support. Dr. Mashingaidze, thank you for taking an active role in shaping the direction of this thesis. On several occasions you assisted me with ideas and suggestions that helped in the development of this thesis. The discussions we held opened my mind and changed my way of thinking as my work progressed. You also made available reading materials and books from your rich library that I would otherwise not have accessed. I benefitted a lot from you thank you.You urged me on with words of encouragement even when it looked impossible to move forward. ‘Keep working, and just make sure that your things are in order when the supervisor asks for your work”, you kept advising. I am also grateful to the Midlands State University for financing this study. Professor D.Z. Moyo and your staff in the Post-Graduate Office, I have neither the words nor the space to thank you adequately. Let me also extend my gratitude to Professor P. Chigora for giving me the confidence and encouragement without which this thesis would have been impossible. I also thank Dr. C. Mwandayi and Dr. N. Marongwe for critiquing most of my chapters. Dr. I. Mudeka, thank you for giving me reason to believe in what I was doing. For long hours we sat in the office, discussing my progress. No matter how dumb or fascinating my ideas sounded, you patiently listened, encouraged and gave suggestions. Most of all you were always there, you wiped the tears and cheered me on when I was down. My sincere thanks goes to the Midlands State University Library staff for their assistance. Special thanks goes to Mr.Makandwa, Mr. Makeke and Mrs Tokwe for locating sources that were often difficult to find. Thank you for your support throughout the different ii stages of this study. The same gratitude is extended to the National Archives of Zimbabwe and its staff. The staff at the research desk helped me immensely and made sources readily available. I will not forget my father Mr A Mukanga. I extend my special thanks to you for enabling me to make a quick breakthrough in winning the confidence of my informants in Bikita. Through your influence and knowledge of the district, my fieldwork became much more bearable and enjoyable.I also extend my sincere thanks to all my informants for their co-operation without which this thesis would have been impossible. All this would not have been possible without the support I got from the History department under the leadership of Mr. G. Tarugarira. The department has been very supportive throughout my research. I was allowed the flexibility of conducting research in Bikita while at the same time fulfilling my obligations as a lecturer. Many times compromises were made in some cases to allow this to happen. I was also able to count on the friendship of many people who assisted me in different ways within the department. Special thanks go to Dr. J. Chakawa, Dr. V.Z Nyawo and once again Dr. G. Tarugarira and Mrs.M.D. King. Thank you for your support and encouragement, the ideas and sources we shared. I also wish to thank my husband Sydney Goredema and my children Larry, Leslie and Whitney. Sydney, you have always been a pillar of strength. Thank you for encouraging and supporting me during my field work and for the attention you provided to our children during my dark moments. You tolerated it all right up to the end. Above all you made sure that there was always a home to go to after a day`s hard work. To Pastors Kahonde and Chikwanha, thank you for your wise counsel, support and encouragement. Your prayers were most needed. Above all I thank God Almighty for his guidance throughout the writing of this thesis. Finally I would like to thank Dr. T. D. Javangwe and Dr.T.Musanga for formatting and editing this work. I also wish to thank Mr. K. Muringanisi of the Geography Department for sketching the Bikita map. Without your expertise which you displayed in the maps the thesis would have been bare. Ms T. Ntabeni, many thanks to you for facilitating my meetings iii with Professor Bhebe. You never turned me away. You faithfully communicated all the messages to and from Professor Bhebe and booked me in time all the time. Words fail me, I will forever be indebted to you. To these and others too numerous to mention, who have contributed to this thesis, I extend my sincere thanks. Dorothy Goredema iv Dedication To whom that pursues peace and reconciliation. v Abstract This study interrogates the dynamics of conflict resolution, healing and reconciliation in Zimbabwe using Bikita as a case study. It identifies and critiques state driven approaches used by the Zimbabwean government such as blanket amnesties, deliberate amnesia and presidential pardons among others, to promote healing and reconciliation in the aftermath of the 1970s liberation war and in the post-independence electoral violence. My central argument is that state-driven approaches alone have not provide sustainable solutions to challenges facing communities emerging from violent conflict unless they are co-ordinated and harmonized with indigenous approaches. Bikita demonstrated that conflict destroys physical property as well as the social, emotional and psychological capital leaving victims insecure and traumatized. In cases such as these, state-driven approaches alone are inadequate to heal and reconcile conflicting parties. They lack the necessary mechanisms to reach and heal the emotional, spiritual and psychological aspects of the conflict hence the need for multifaceted and interactive interventions if sustainable reconciliation is to be achieved. Bikita demonstrated that indigenous approaches such as kuripa mhosva/ ngozi. (payment for one`s crime or the appeasement of avenging spirits) dare (the chief`s court), and the performing of burial rituals such as kurova guva and kudzosa mweya wemufi mumusha (rituals to bring back home the spirit of one who dies away from home) among others are holistic and can attend to both the physical and psychological aspects of the conflict, thereby filling the gap left out by state-driven approaches. Furthermore, the approaches are deeply embedded in the people`s culture hence the community has a strong sense of ownership of, and belonging to, them. I also seek to recast discourses on healing and reconciliation in Zimbabwe. Most works argue for institutional transformation, a perspective which does not pay much attention to the history, cultural nuances, wounds, emotions and deeply rooted perceptions of the violated communities. By drawing on the lived experiences of the people of Bikita, the study reveals everyday practices and local perspectives of justice and culturally sensitive methods of healing and reconciliation. The study is qualitative in nature. This was preferred given that the research sought to understand lived experiences of those directly involved in the period under study. Oral interviews, focus group discussions and testimonies on people`s experiences, feelings, views, perceptions, and interpretation about the events under study were complemented by written documents, academic, government and non- governmental reports. vi Table of Figures 1) Map showing the location of Bikita District in Zimbabwe……………page 8 vii Table of Contents DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ II DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................V ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ VI TABLE OF FIGURES..................................................................................................................
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