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© 2012, English Language Teachers’ Association (NELTA), ISSN: 2091-0487

This is How I Can Write: Towards Sajan Kumar Karn Abstract Nepalese English is arguably making its presence felt in virtually all domains in Nepal and from Nepal is no exception. The study of creative writings in English by Nepalese literary authors exhibit typical Nepaleseness in such an amplitude that a distinctive English literature can be inferred to be in the making. This paper studies nativization in various genres of literature written in English in Nepal and also contends with the evidences that we have leapt towards Nepalese English literature considered from World Englishes literature perspective. Key words: Nepalese English, Bilinguals’ , Nativization, World Englishes, Nepalese English Literature

Backdrop mother tongue merely but extends beyond. I speak three languages, write in two, dream This is why people have been able to create in one literary texts in whatever language/s they Do not write in English, they said use. I myself write in Maithili-my mother English is not your mother tongue………….. tongue, in Nepali- mother tongue like The language I speak becomes mine, its language and also in English -another distortions, its queerness second language as I began learning both All mine, mine alone, it is half English, half English and Nepali simultaneously. As a Indian, funny perhaps user of three languages, I have cultivated but it is honest, it is as human as I am profound compassion for all and pick human…. whatever language I feel comfortable to It voices my joys, my longings my hopes articulate my feelings and thoughts with at particular times. Many people remark that (Kamala Das, 1965, p. 10). my Nepali is Englishized and my English It feels as if Kamala Das, an Indian is Nepalized and my Maithili is both composed the above poem for me and Nepalized and Englishized but I say this perhaps for you also if you share the is how I can write; this is how I can speak same sentiment I have. She wrote as she or use languages as poet Das inferred in experienced- nothing more, nothing the above verse. Neither nativization nor less. In the multilingual milieu, literary Englishization is weird today. They are so creativity cannot be confined to one’s own natural and spontaneous. My assumption

26 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 leads me to envisage that most non-native used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts” of English are probably sailing the (p.528). Also known as New Englishes, same boat in the course of their voyage World Englishes is said to have developed with English literature. However, inward through education system; has developed I could not satiate myself utterly with in an area where a native variety of English this supposition and a passion soared was not the language spoken by most of the inside and led me to investigate into the population; is used for a range of functions theories and practices both behind such a among those who speak or write it in the faculty, that is, literary creativity of non- region where it is used and has become native users of English. Chiefly, I wished localized or nativised by adopting some to discern: What is bilinguals’ creativity in language features of its own (Plat et al., actuality? Why is the English of bilingual/ 1984, pp 2-3, cited in Jenkins, 2009, p. 25- multilingual authors said to be nativized? 26). The plural phrase Englishes represents Is this nativization in literature deliberate? the formal and functional variations, the What strategies do such non native writers divergent sociolinguistic contexts, the of English employ in creating literary texts? linguistic, sociolinguistic and literary What is the status of English literature in creativity and the various identities English Nepal? How far is English literature from has accrued as a result of its acculturation Nepal nativized? What implications does in new sociolinguistic ecology (Kachru, such nativization have in ELT in Nepal? and 1965;, Stevens, 1992). so forth. An attempt here has been made to In Kachru’s (1992) three concentric seek answers of these questions with study circles, Nepal falls into expanding circle and insights both. which suggested that Nepal is an English Nonetheless, before I jump into such as a Foreign Language (EFL) country but discourses, I would like to recapitulate because of its massive use in all domains Nepalese English discourses and theoretical today, the status of English in Nepal is said to bases for World Englishes literature, have debatably shifted to a second language without which it perhaps will not make any (Bhattarai & Gautam, 2005; Sharma, 2006; sense to discuss Nepalese English literature, Karn, 2011). In fact, the tag Nepal as an EFL the very heart of this paper. country is not justifiable for by doing so we would not be seeing any difference between World Englishes and Nepalese English the status of English and Chinese, English The English language has spread far and and Spanish or English and Japanese which wide. This spread has led it towards such are more alien for us. McArthur’s circle diversifications that today English has been of World Englishes employs the phrase nativized in most of the places it is used. ‘Nepalese English’ as a sub-variety of South Owing to the expansion and nativization, Asian English (McArthur, 1998, p. 97). This a number of varieties of English have is perhaps the biggest recognition of the sprung which has been labeled World Nepalese socio-cultural facets in English Englishes. In words of Bhatt (2001), World in Nepal. Nevertheless, Nepalese English Englishes refers to “varieties of English discourse augmented only after Rai (2006)

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 27 presented a paper and then converted is the reason Mid-Western University, it into an journal article titled ‘English, a newly established university in Nepal Hinglish and Nenglish’. His thesis truly has proposed a course, namely ‘Nepalese created a sensation amongst academicians English and Nepalese ELT’ for Master of that English spoken in Nepal does not Educational Science (M.ES.). This is truly only differ from standard Englishes such a historical leap in the study of World as British English, American English Englishes discourse in Nepal in general but also from the neighboring variety of and also a milestone to help authenticate Indian English. His study was based on Nepalese English in particular. The data taken from newspapers, classroom proposed course expects the students to discourses, English literature from Nepal study the typical Nepalese expressions and etc. Rai called the new variety of English in cultural elements in English used in the Nepal, Nenglish considering the influence fields such as education, media, social life, of Nepali upon English. Brett (1996) had work places and also in English literature also implicitly hinted at more or less the created here in Nepal. identical phenomenon. She had used Having established that Nepalese English Nepali English to differentiate it from is creating space in academic dialogues in other varieties of English. Most of her Nepal, I would like to move towards the data come from classroom-students and discourses of World Englishes literature in teachers and interactions between them. order to pave the way for the discussion of Likewise, Daniloff-Merril (2010) studied Nepalese English literature. how Nenglish reflects the identity of Nepalese students. Her analysis was based World Englishes literature and literary on the compositions of Nepalese students creativity pursuing their studies in an American There are various phrases used for English university. Her attempt was to furnish literature created in the ESL and EFL evidence and justify Nepalese English as countries. Whereas some use World an established variety. In their talk, Phyak Englishes literature, others favor the use and Karn (2010) argued that it was the call of ‘contact ’ ‘new Englishes of time to construct a corpus for Nepalese literatures’ or ‘new literatures in English’ English in order to authenticate it. Of late, and yet others go for ‘bilingual literature’. Karn (2011) reviewed the discourses (Brett, Whatever the phrases may be, the 1996; Rai, 2006; Daniloff-Merril, 2010; connotation is virtually the same. In other Phyak & Karn, 2010) on Nepalese English words, World Englishes literature refers to and argued strongly that it is important to English literature from outer and expanding build a corpus of the proliferating variety circles of English after Kachru(1998). I of English in Nepal to help establish would like to quote Dawson (2001) who our own distinctive variety of English. gives a very comprehensive definition These academic discussions have brought of the term: “World Englishes literature considerable changes in the mindset of explores the culture(s) of the country and Nepalese academicians and perhaps this people from which it is written (these

28 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 countries belong to Kachru’s Outer and altered context of situation for language, it Expanding circles); usually the literature emerges from configuration of two or more employs the English of that place (to a languages and it must not be seen from lesser or greater degree); and, moreover, the perspective of formal combination of the chooses to write in that English two or more languages but also a creation over other languages in which she could of cultural, aesthetic, societal and literary alternatively write” (p.4). I follow Boehmer canons. Likewise, in connection to literary (2005) and Dawson (2011) and reject the creativity in English, Bhatt (2001) maintains interpretation of world Englishes literature “the nativization and alteration of English as exclusively post-colonial which is how ensured its use as a medium for indigenous many people earlier understood the term. expressions” (p. 537). Various studies such World Englishes literature for them is not as D’Souza (1991), Kamwangamalu (1992), tantamount to postcolonial literature solely Lowenberg (1992) and Valentine (1992) though the latter is of course a component have revealed that “literatures written in of the former. Unfortunately, most of the different varieties are as unique as the studies available have remained focused varieties themselves”. For instance, Iyengar on literary works from outer circle and (1962,) puts: “Indian writing in English is therefore literary works form expanding but one of the voices in which India speaks. circle have remained ignored. However, It is a new voice, no doubt, but it is as much recently due attention has been given to Indians as the others” (p. 3). literature from expanding circle as well (Chutisilp, 1984; Zhang, 2002). English literature in Nepal: an overview As Nepalese English is considered an World Englishes literature thus is the extension of World Englishes so is the product of literary creativity in ESL/EFL relation between World Englishes literature users. It was in 1985 that Braj Kachru and Nepalese English literature. When coined a phrase bilinguals’ creativity to we attempt to trace the origin of English refer to “those creative linguistic processes literature in Nepal, we find that it has been which are the result of competence in two some seven decades that creative writings or more languages” (p. 20). Further, it refers in English in Nepal began. It was in 1940’s to the act of creating literary texts using that Mahakavi and the linguistic resources of two or more poet cum dramatist Bal Krishna Sama tried languages …” (ibid.). He went on to elaborate their hands in writing in English. the phenomenon and noted “literary texts Followed by them were , Peter J composed in a language other than what Karthak and Padma Devkota during 1970’s. may be termed the ‘mother tongue’ of the Their works are still appearing. A diverse writer……” (1985, p. 25). Kachru (1987) group of writers joined them in 1980’s and discusses the defining characteristics of they were Mani Dixit, Greta Rana, Keshar literary creativity. For him, the processes Lall, Prakash A Raj, Kesang Tseten, Manju originate from local, cultural and stylistic Kachuli, Shailendra K Singh, Yuyutsu strategies, the process of nativization RD Sharma, Tek B Karki, Pallav Ranjan, and acculturation of text postulates an Para Limbu, Laxmi Rajbhandari and D.B.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 29 Gurung (Thapa, 2001; Tsteen & Thapa, ‘The Asian English Language Teachers 2002). Published by Martin Choutari in Creative Writing Group’ formed in 2003. 2002, an other voice: English literature from This group aims to write materials for use Nepal is a powerful testimony to inform in schools and colleges in Asia. Besides the world that Nepal does have authors holding creative writing conferences who can write in fine English. The book in Asian countries annually, Pearson contains poems by Padam Devkota, Tsering Malaysia has been publishing anthologies Wangmo Dhoomap, Wayne Amtzis, Manjul of poems and stories by Asian teachers for Kanchuli, E. Ann Hunkins, , Abhi Asian students with the belief that what is Subedi, Greta Rana, Tek Bahadur Karki, D. available is not culturally appropriate for B. Gurung, Hannah Chi, Yuyutshu R.D. Asian students. They have had conferences Sharma and Stories by Samrat Upadhyay, in the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, , Kesang Tseten, Joel Oman, Nepal, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Isaacson, Mani Dixit, and Hanoi, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Indonesia. Sunil Nepali. Another notable work on In fact, they have had conference twice English literature from Nepal is new Nepal, in Kathamandu, once in Pokhara and new voices: An anthology of short stories this year they are assembling in southern edited by Shushma Joshi and Ajit Baral, Nepal - Birgunj. A university teacher cum published in 2008 by Rupa & Co. This is creative writer Vishnu Singh Rai, one of a compilation of fifteen stories written by the eminent members of is co- Nepalese authors scattered in different parts coordinating the events in Nepal (“Asian of the world including Nepal. The stories English Language Teachers’ Creative there are by Prawin Adhikari, Wayane Writing Project - Our writing”, 2012). Amitzis, Ajit Baral, Sohan Dhakal, Smriti Another significant contribution in Ravindra, Sushma Joshi, Manju Kanchuli, promotion of English literature in Nepal Peter J. Karthak, Madan K. Limbu, Sunil is by Society of Nepali Writers in English Nepali, Greta Rana, Gyanu Sharma, Tara, (NWEN). Established in 2000, NWEN aims Manjushree Thapa, and Sanjeev Uprety. In to promote original writings in English by the concluding paragraph of the editorial, Nepalese authors. The most significant one of the editors maintains “Whether thing about this organization is “to create a emerging or famous, realist or surrealist, sense of national identity through literature, whether their English stems from living in cultural interaction and activities and an English speaking country or through to promote international understanding reading books at the British Council and amity through cultural exchanges”. Library, the writers of the this collection In addition to regular poetry reading have managed to reflect the Nepali sessions, talks, symposia and discussions, experiences through their own particular NWEN publishes a literary magazine lenses” (Joshi, 2008, p. Not given). namely ‘Of Nepalese Clay’ and eighteen A landmark contribution in unleashing volumes of it have already been published. the creativity of English language learners The seventeenth issue of Of Nepalese Clay and teachers in Nepal is by a group named incorporates the poems by Mohan Lohani,

30 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Shreedhar Lohani, Padma Devkota, English literature in Nepal, I have selected Amamarj Joshi, Prakash Subedi, Keshab two anthologies of stories - one by Samrat Sigdel, Sewa Bhattarai and others (www. Upadhyay and the other by Rabi Thapa, nwen.org.np). two poems-one by Abhi Subedi and Some credit for promoting English literature the other by D. B. Gurung, one essay by in Nepal also goes to Nepal Literature Govinda Raj Bhattarai, one by Vishnu Festival. The festival has been organized Singh Rai, and one by Manjushree in twice in 2011 and 2012 by Thapa. They are selected for the reason that the Bookworm Trust in collaboration with they are well known authors having strong . This brings together both academic background and also powerful nationally and internationally acclaimed writing skills in English. First, I have picked literary figures and literature lovers to up and presented, from those works, the a common platform. Their interactions expressions that exhibit Nepaleseness and and book exhibitions have created some subsequently, I have analyzed them with awareness about English literature home reference to the criteria of transfer, shift, and abroad. hybridization, lexical borrowing, code switching and mixing and reduplication, Similarly, there is a long list of poems, the linguistic strategies following Kachru’s stories, , , travelogues etc. framework (1987). from the Nepalese languages rendered into English which should be considered to Nativization in Stories form a part of Nepalese English literature Samrat Upadhyay is an established fiction but the length limit of this article does not writer from Nepal though he lives in the allow me to enter into translated works and US. Arresting God in Kathmandu (2000), but I promise to write about them in future. The Guru of Love (2003), The Royal Ghosts From the above discussions, this is fair to (2006) and Buddhas’ Orphans (2010) are his establish that creative writing activities popular literary fictions. WhereasArresting have thrived in Nepal and therefore it God in Kathmandu, an anthology of stories is important to study them and initiate won him Whiting Writers’ Award, The Guru academic discourses on how and at what of Love was a New York Times’ Notable points English literature produced in Nepal Book of the Year 2003. I have picked up his diverges from other English literatures in anthology Arresting God in Kathmandu for the world. this study. In the following sections, I have made some Arresting God in Kathmandu has the efforts to reveal why, how and to what characters with Nepalese names such as degree English literature created in Nepal Radhika, Pramod, Shambhu, Acharya, is nativized. Durga, Deepak Misra, Anju, Bandana, Hiralal, Rukmini, Shanti, Shakuntala, Nepaleseness in English literature in Moti, Rammaya, Ramcharan, Shanti, Nepal Nandini etc. The settings of the stories In order to study the nativization in are various locations of the Kathmandu

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 31 valley such as Pashupatinath, Hanuman birth. Dhoka, Annapurna Hotel, Royal Palace, You miss your mother? Swyambhunath Temple, Jaisideval, Tundikhel field, Thapathali, Chhetrapati, Please, Ba. I have a headache. Keshar Mahal, Tribhuvan International HIralal took a plate of dal-bhat to his room. Airport, Durwar Marg etc. The deliberate I will expect Moti babu will get a job once selection of Nepalese characters and they are married. settings and events in the stories play a crucial role in demonstrating Nepalese First I get married to a drunkard, then he socio-political and cultural attributes. calls me a langadi and walks out. On my Besides, the anthology is heavily nativized wedding day. from linguistic perspective. Let us observe She is at the hotel, hajur. some expressions picked from the stories: I want Nani to feed me. “Hare Shiva, she said, “How are we going to pay the next month’s rent?” (Upadhyay, 2000, pp. 1-191) I will go and see Shambhu-Da tomorrow. Rabi Thapa is the recent appearance in English literature in Nepal. Like Pramod-ji, I did not know your were such a Upadhyay’s, Thapa’s anthology Nothing to religious man declare (2011) has plentiful Nepaleseness. “That’s ridiculous” Nani Memsaheb said Sixteen stories in the collection are titled: abruptly. Initiation, Angels, No Smoke Without fire, A Nepali Maid, The Trail, From the Road, Shambhu-Da is still doing puja, praying and Tiger!, Home for Dashain, Julus, Night chanting to the gods. out in Kahtmandu, After Party, Arranged I will kill him, he said and laughed. Marriage, Aryaghat and Valley of Tears. The smells of deep-fired jilebies, vegetable Again the events in the stories are set in curries…………… Nepal and revolve around socio-political and cultural realities of Nepal. Specifically, He returned to the neighborhood the stories exhibit ample use of Nepalese bhatti……………….. interjections, words, phrases and sentences Ma ma ma ma ma ……My wife is langadi from Nepali. Some of the Nepalese English Today she was wearing a Pubjabi salwar expressions in his stories are as follows: kameej Chup! That’s enogh… Come in, come in It’s a big day for you –you’re going to be a Consider yourself family. man once your bratabandh is done. She would tilt her head as she combed the Khadka Miss was unmarried………………. coconut-scented Dabur Anwla oil throught La, see you tomorrow. her hari. Oho! Sunita Upadhyay has become a People do what etched on their forehead at pheminist, you hear?

32 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 I made food for you, hajoor, I can heat it up. never knew. Sitting close to me, he would Subodh-babu, the food is ready ask, “Where do you sit in the iskool Saila? Does Thule also sit along with you? She wanted to say darshan to you but you were happily asleep. Mother would shout: don’t use the chulesi, Maila! No, Raja, you do not get these things in London. Hyallow Marsing, How do you ? Oi! What were you doing mujhi? Hyallow Gopal, How do you do? Welcome to UK, hai? Then she brought some ashes in a scoop from the glowing hearth and sprayed it around Jay Shambho, Bikram had intoned as he’d our bed: Now keep the Gita book under the fired up the joint. pillow, and no bad dream will chase you Chiya mastersaab she said. In the meanwhile Maldai spoke: I keep the Gita and Chandee books under my (Thapa, 2011, Pp.1-172) pillow, and a small Khukuri too, but Saila Nativization in puts his bag. Govinda Raj Bhattarai writes thought One day one of my phupas came to our place provoking essays and exceptional with his son Omnath, junior to me at the travelogues in English though he is arguably iskool. the greatest postmodern fiction writer cum At the end of the day we would earn some in . I have selected four or eight anas, some gifts, presents, one memoir-like- essay by Govinda Raj offerings and lot of honor. To be worshipped Bhattarai ‘Reminiscing My Childhood Days’ as a bahunnani or guruputra or the son of a (Ignorance is bliss) from Journal of Nepalese Brahmin was a great honor, incomparable. Literature, Art and Culture published by Nepal Academy (2012). This is perhaps The Pundits and Dhamis were much honored the most nativized English text available in those days. in English literature in Nepal. A critique (Bhattarai, 2012, Pp. 155-164). on encroachment of the English language and cultures upon Nepalese life, this shows Nativization in the extreme case of nativization of English Vishnu Singh Rai has tried his hand in literary text from Nepal. Let us see some poetry, stories and plays and his works are expressions from the essay. well-liked and taught in universities. His The neighbor asked him “Why pundit, where Realities (2012) is a wonderful play which with little Saila ? feels to be composed especially for Nepalese audience in that the author has deliberately Maldaju would sit close by me and ask, made his character utter Nepalised English “What did the masters do to you today Saila? expressions to give a distinctive flavor to So I was very important, I pretended to the text, which however sounds natural. Let know many things that Maldai and Mother us look at some expressions excerpted from

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 33 the play: Nepal’-‘Get Lost!’ by Abhi Subedi and Namaste! I ‘m Prashna. I came from the Crepuscule by D. B. Gurung. Today and Tomorrow TV. Because of its condensed length, it is obvious How many children do you have Prabhuji? that poetry relatively reveals lesser degree of nativization. In Get Lost!, the poet’s Kale, O Kale! Come here. Go and tell your mentioning of holy threads, Bagmati murky malkini to make tea for the guests and then waters, New Road’s nose, Sajag Rana’s tantra bring it. Oi! Come back here. How many house, dharma of growing stupefaction etc cups of tea you will bring here? Four cups, does render Nepalese socio-cultural values. you understand. [TO PRASHNA] Yes? Besides, the poet also nativizes the poem The sarkies (shoe makers) have abandoned with abrupt code-switching conceivably making shoes and the damais (tailors) because he finds it worth to communicate, have stopped playing bands in a marriage to the world, Nepalese linguistic value ceremony. along with culture. Let us see this part of the poem: Hajoor! Children haven‘t eaten anything since yesterday. You’re the only help I know. I will go the bazaar and buy betel leaves for Where should I go? you, my darling! It’s Kamala’s. So what? I will give you 300 Bajaarai jaanchhu rupees for the buffalo, and 50/- for yours Paan kini lyaunchhu wife’s treatment. OK? Come in the evening. I will make the paper ready by then. Kale, Kanchhilai bhaner oi Kale! Don’t you hear, you shit-eater? Tell majam polko thung dalkyou jobana your malkini to give this man some rice. ………………………………………….. If everyone becomes babusaheb, then who (Subedi, 2002, Pp. 84-87) will work for us? Another poem for analysis is by D. B. Kale! Kale!! You donkey. Don’t you see that Gurung. In his poem ‘Crepuscule’, the poet the bullocks are thirsty? Who will give them has borrowed lexical items such as jhankris, water –your father? These servants are all shakti from Nepali. Additionally, the theme idle, lazy bastards. Once you take your eyes of his poem entirely revolves around social off them, they stop working. mess in Nepal. Do the Namaste to the uncle from the TV Up in the attic crepuscular and breezy; (Rai, 2012) Trees dancing like a huddle of jhankris in top Nativization in poetry trance. Whereas Abhi Subedi is a well-known A wide animated view of the Kathmandu playwright and poet from Nepal, D. B. valley Gurung is known for fiction as well as ………………………………………………… poetry. I have chosen two poems published in ‘an other voice, English literature from …………………………………………

34 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 His eyes though lusterless blink with the Ba, I am going to America. shakti of hope Use the opportunity well, chhori And plunge into the metaphysics of another Dal-bhat, She asked. nameless night You cooked dull-bath and ate it all by (Gurung, 2002, p. 129). yourself. Nativization in novel You are the new Nepali, hanh? Manjushree Thapa is another prolific writer Bas, Okay, Chalo. Lets get to work. from Nepal. Her books of fiction include Seasons of Flight, The Tutor of History and Luis, meet my Niru didi and Sushil Bhinaju Tilled Earth. For the present purpose, I (Thapa, 2010, Pp. 1-223) selected Seasons of Flight, her most recent publication. Like Samrat Upadhyay, she Analysis also borrows Nepalese kinship terms The analysis of the above mentioned stories, such as Didi, Bahini, Ba, chhori etc. from essay, drama, poems and novel reveals Nepali. Though the settings are alien here, a that the authors have attempted various Nepalese character struggles to keep intact rhetorical strategies to add Nepalese her original identity even while conversing essence in their literary texts. Some of the with Americans. Let us observe Nepalese strategies used have been discussed briefly elements in the expressions excerpted here: below. ‘Ah, it’s your tea, Didi, it keeps us wanting In order to show Nepaleseness in English more’ literature in Nepal, most Nepalese authors have exploited the process of transfer to Her mother, devout,, used to worship the col show Nepalese socio-cultural elements. at the centre as a shaligram, an avatar of Transfer here refers to both transfer of Vishnu. language and that of cultural and social La, ta. Trailokya shrugged affably. elements. Whereas in some cases, the texts What’s two hundred rupees for a sir like you? show linguistic transfer, in other cases, cultural and social elements have been Did you feel the tremors, Bahini? transported to convey Nepaleseness. For The himals are not visible from the bazaar instance, most of the authors I selected for but foothills ringed the north. the study have suffixed the names of elders You are as good as a son to me. and seniors with –ji, a typical Nepali way of addressing elders and respectable people. Oho, Sir, Sister, Welcome back! Similarly, in the stories, novel, essay and ‘A letter sister! A letter for you from an drama, the Nepalese kinship terms such as Americane Da, Didi, Bhinaju, Bhai, Bahini, Ba, Chhori, mastersaab, phupaju, etc. have been used We do not know anything, Sah’b? which justifies that English equivalents if Much less than you do, Harihar-dai? used, would have conveyed only fractional

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 35 and hazy senses. Zhang (2002) argues In his essay, Govinda Raj Bhattarai has “address terms play an important role in abundantly borrowed lexical items and conveying cultural messages, especially interjections from Nepali. The words such concerning the interlocutors and power as, chulesi, khukuri, iskul etc. Similarly relation between them” (p.308). Particularly Vishnu Singh Rai in his drama has in the stories of Samrat Upadhyay and borrowed Nepalese words such as sarki, Rabi Thapa and the novel of Manjushree damai, bramhin, bund etc. Rabi Thapa has Thapa, such Nepali kinship words are used borrowed the words such as bratbandh, ubiquitously. It can be argued that the doko , slang expression like mujhi etc. authors found it deficient to use English Code-switching is another strategy used by equivalents in those places. In the same Nepalese authors. They have often switched way, Govinda Raj Bhattarai in his essay has their code from English to Nepali at times. transferred Nepali address terms e.g. Saaila, Abhi Subedi in his poem has abruptly and Maldaju, Kaka, Fupas, bahunani, guruputra utterly switched to Nepali to express what etc. Vishnu Singh Rai, in his drama, has perhaps was impossible to be expressed in used Nepalese interjections such as hajoor, English that aesthetically. Similarly, D. B. and address terms particularly used in Gurung has mixed Nepali words such as Terai babusaheb, malkini etc. jhankris, shakti etc. Govinda Raj Bhattarai In addition to transfer, Nepalese authors has also adopted this strategy at times. are found to hybridize words in order to Many a time, Rabi Thapa has switched code exhibit cultural identities. Hybridization in his stories. refers to the amalgamation of words from Govinda Raj Bhattarai has made use of two or more languages to form compound. several old saying and metaphors that Manjushree Thapa has used the words such are shifted from the . The as Americane. This is the Nepalese way of following shift in fact reveals cultural addressing to underestimate the addressee transfer as well. or to show anger or maybe affection towards him/her. In colloquial Nepali, Nepalese use Now keep the Gita book under the pillow, Rame, Shyame, Gite instead of Ram, Shyam, and no bad dream will chase you (Bhattarai, Gita, etc. 2012, 159). Lexical borrowing, another strategy adopted Vishnu Singh Rai has adopted translation by Nepalese authors in their literary texts in his play. The following expressions are refers to the use of lexical items from local translation of Nepalese expression: languages if target language lacks them. kale! Kale! Ta gadha. Herdinas goruharu When English lacks a lexical item with the tirkhako? same semantic interpretation, the authors Kale! Kale!! You donkey. Don’t you see that have targeted borrowing from the Nepalese the bullocks are thirsty? (Rai, 2012) languages. There are ample examples of such borrowings. They have also borrowed In some cases, Nepalese literary authors many Nepalese interjections such as oho, have attempted reduplication differently. Aeya, oi, hanh, heyaah, khai, bas etc. Reduplication involves the process of

36 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 tremendous nativization of literary texts syntactic repetition, namely repetition of written in English by Nepalese authors. The a constituent of the sentence or the use of impulses behind such appropriation are: to appositive elements. manifest the authors’ individual as well as Aah, kasto naraamro sang maaryo ni socio-cultural values, to seek identities and tyaslai. Bichara! How they killed him, the dignity in immensity of World Englishes poor wretch. (Thapa, 2011, p. 120). literature; to communicate the Nepalese Another example from Thapa (2011, p. social values to rest of the world and to 122) is show some empathy towards the English language, the second most used language Ey tya jaumna hami pani, ke bhairacha’. Hey in Nepal after Nepali. Although there let’s go there too and see what’s happening. have been resistance towards English, the Rai(2012) has also attempted reduplication literary creations in English creates a sense but using brackets: of belongingness in Nepalese towards English. Evidences are enough to justify The sarkies (shoe makers) have abandoned that a distinct English literature is in route making shoes and the damais (tailors) to becoming which I have phrased here have stopped playing bands in a marriage ‘Nepalese English literature’ owing to ceremony. uniqueness in it. Nepalese English literature Bhattarai’s essay has also instances of is not merely a fraction of English literature reduplication. For example, but also forms an important component I read it haltingly, after some time she spoke: of . Thumboo(2008) janne bhaichhas saila tara kyari bujhiyena. has rightly argued that authors in such Oh Saila, you are quite a learned boy now circumstances are formed by two worlds but I could not understand anything (2012, and thus are guided by literary ecosystems p.160). of both English and their mother tongues. Nepalese English literature expresses these In the above expressions, translation and two worldviews in their works. reduplication have gone together so that the texts are comprehensible for both English The growth of English literature in general and Nepalese audiences. and its appropriation in particular carry a lot of implications in Nepalese linguistic Discussion and conclusion and ELT landscapes. This development is Gargesh (2006) notes “South Asian writers sure to add new dimension in Nepalese contextualize their English to the extent ELT discourses and reshape teaching of that the connotations and semiotics the English language and English literature that exist in their local languages are both. imported into the medium used” (p.107). This is the first undertaking to examine the According to him, South Asian writers strategies used by Nepalese literary authors are contributing to the development of while writing in English and therefore new canons in world English literature. In further studies are required to study both the same vein, the above analyses reveal originally written and translated works in

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 37 English in Nepal in order to strengthen the Boehmer, E. (2005).Colonial and postcolonial claim. Similarly, in this study, I have not literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. taken into consideration the literary works Brett, L. (1999). Standard English? Welcome to translated into English from the Nepalese Nepal. Journal of NELTA, 4, 85-92. languages, which is essential to substantiate Chutisilp, P. (1984). A sociolinguistic study of an additional language.English in Thailand. the argument. Unpublished DoctoralDissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Illinois at Urbana- About the author Champaign. Sajan Kumar Karn is a Lecturer in English Education at Tribhuvan University, Nepal. He has published on education, applied Das, K. (1965). Summer in Calcutta: Fifty poems. linguistics and ELT. To his credit, there are about two dozens New Delhi: Rajinder Paul. of articles. He has contributed in editing three course books Daniloff-Merril, M.E. (2010). Nenglish and for B. Ed. and M. Ed., under Tribhuvan University namely, New Paradigms (2010), Explorations in English (2010) and Reading Nepalese student identity.Reinventing Identities Beyond Borders (2012). He is the editor of ELT Today, a journal in Second Language Writing. Pp. 240-256. of NELTA Birgunj and co-editor of Journal of NELTA. Earlier, he Dawson, E. (2011). Beyond the postcolonial: also served as a co-editor of NELTA Choutari, a web magazine a project in World Englishes literature. and Academic Voices, a multidisciplinary journal. His areas of interest include World Englishes, especially Nepalese English Translational Literature, 3, 1-9. and Critical Pedagogy. D’Souza, J. (1991). Speech acts in Indian English fiction. World Englishes, 10,307-316. Gargesh, R.(2006). South Asian Englishes. In Acknowledgements B.B. Kachru, Y. Kachru& C. C. Nelson (Eds.), The handbook of world Englishes (pp.90-113). I am grateful to Prem Phyak, my friend for Blackwell Publishing: Blackwell Reference availing me with recent materials on World Online. Englishes. Similarly, my thanks also go to Bal Gurung, D. B. (2002). Crepuscule. In Thapa, D. & Krishna Sharma, another friend of mine for Tsteen, K (ed.), An other voice: English literature going through the manuscript and sharing from Nepal. Kathmandu: Martin Chautari. his observations for further improvement. Iyengar, K. R. S. (1962). Indian writing in English. Similarly, I extend my gratitudes to two Bombay: Asia Publishing House. anonymous reviewers for their suggestions Jenkins, J. (2012). World Englishes: A resource book for students. India: Routledge. to revise the manuscript and bring it to the present form. Joshi, S. & Baral, A. (2008). New Nepal new voices: an anthology of short stories. New Delhi: Rupa& References co. Kachru, B. B. (1985). The bilinguals’ creativity. Asian English language teachers’ creative writing Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 6, 20-33. project.(2012). Retrieved November 22, 2012 from flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/cw/index. Kachru, B. B. (1987). The bilingual’s creativity and html. contact literatures.Discourse across cultures: Strategies in World Englishes. New Jersey: Bhatt, R. (2001). World Englishes. Annual Review of Prentice Hall. Anthropology, 30, 527-50. Kachru B. B. (ed.) (1992). The other tongue. Urbana: Bhattarai, G. (2012). Reminiscing my childhood Univ. Illinois Press. days.Journal of Nepalese Literature, Art and Culture, 7, 1-2, 155-164. Kachru, B. B. (1998). English as an Asian language. Links & Letters, 5, 89-108. Bhattarai, G. R. & Gautam, G. R.(2005). English Language Teachers at Crossroads. Journal of Karn, S. K (2011). On Nepalese English discourse: NELTA, 10, 1-5. granting citizenship to English in Nepal via

38 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 corpus building. Journal of NELTA, 16, 30-41. Subedi, A. (2002). Get lost! In Thapa, D. & Tsteen, Lowenberg, P. H. (1992). The marking of ethnicity K (ed.), An other voice: English literature from in Malaysian English literature: Nativization and Nepal. Kathmandu: Martin Chautari. its functions. World Englishes, 11, 251-258. Thapa, M. (2010).Seasons of flight. New Delhi: McArthur T. 1998. The English languages. Penguin Books India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press Thapa, D. Tseten, K.(2002). An other voice: English Phyak, P. & Karn, S. K. (2010). Identity and Variety literature from Nepal. Kathmandu: Martin in Learners’ English: Building Corpus for Choutrai. Nepalese English. A paper presented at Asian Thapa, R. (2011). Nothing to declare. New Delhi: English Spoken Language Corpus workshop on 23 Penguin Books India. rd November, 2010 in Kathmandu. Thumboo, E. (2008). The handbook of World Rai, V. S. (2006). English, Hinglish and Nenglish. Englishes.Wiley Online Library. Journal of NELTA, 11, 34-39. Upadhyay, S. (2002). Arresting god in Kathmandu. Rai, V. S.(2012). Realities: A radio drama. New Delhi: Rupa& co. Kathmandu: BhundipuranPrakashan. Valentine, T. M. (1992). The nativizing of gender: Sharma, K.C. (2006). English in Nepal from the past Speech acts in the new English literatures. World to present.Journal of NELTA, 11, 24-33. Englishes, 11, 259-70. Strevens P. (1992). English as an international Zhang, H. (2002). Bilingual creativity in Chinese language: directions in the 1990s. Kachru (1992) English: Han Jin’s In the Pond. World Englishes, (ed.) The other tongue. Urbana: Univ. Illinois 21, 305-315. Press.

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