A Survey of Selected Economic Plants Virgil S

Eastern Illinois University The Keep

Masters Theses Student Theses & Publications

1981 A Survey of Selected Economic Plants Virgil S. Priebe Eastern Illinois University This research is a product of the graduate program in Botany at Eastern Illinois University. Find out more about the program.

Recommended Citation Priebe, Virgil S., "A Survey of Selected Economic Plants" (1981). Masters Theses. 2998. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/2998

This is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Theses & Publications at The Keep. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of The Keep. For more information, please contact [email protected]. T 11 F:SIS H El"">RODUCTION CERTIFICATE

TO: Graduate Degree Candidates who have written formal theses.

SUBJECT: Permission to reproduce theses.

The University Library is rece1vrng a number of requests from other institutions asking permission to reproduce disse rta tions for inclusion in their library holdings. Although no copyright laws are involved, we feel that professional courtesy demands that permission be obtained from the author before we allow theses to be copied.

Please sign one of the following statements:

Booth Library of Eastern Illinois University has my permission to l end my thesis to a reputable college or university for the purpose of copying it for inclusion in that institution's library or res e ar ch holdings•

. �� /ft/

ff nfl. Author

I respectfully request Booth Library of Eastern Illinois University not allow my thesis be reproduced because -----� ------

---··· ·--·· · ------

Date Author

m A Survey o f Selected Economic Plants

(TITLE)

Virgil S. Priebe

THESIS

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

Master of Science

IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL, EASTERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS

1981 YEAR

I HEREBY RECOMMEND THIS THESIS BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE GRADUATE DEGREE CITED ABOVE if /9f/ D)V;'E

t-11��1 DATE

DATE ABSTRACT

A library research project was done to gain informa tion on the ethnic uses o f p lants cited in C. B. Arzeni and B. N. McKnight 's "Ethnobotany" , a workbook used i n conjunction with Botany classes 2320 and 5452 off�red at Eastern Illi nois University at Charleston . The work book represents a series of exerci ses on plants and their impact and importanc� to man . At present , there is no s ingle book that offers explanations and comments on the diversity of plants that appear in this workbook .

The purpose of this paper , therefore , is to bri ng together such information in one work , with the hope that it wi ll be useful in fulf i lling the assignments required of the workbook . Included are di scuss ions of the cryptogams , i.e. the bacteri a, algae, fungi, bryophytes , pteridophytes , horsetai ls , psi lopsids , and club mos ses; various plants used as fumitories and masti catories , spices , medicinals , hallucinogens , and poisons . Within a particular section , attempts have been made to introduce the subject with relation to its historical discovery; to compare and contrast specific plants or genera concerning their present bonafide uses and past folklore uses ; to describe their preparation for u s age ; and to state what cultures , i f any , are the primary users of a particular plant . In the discussion of poi sonous , hallucinogenic, and medicinal plants , an attempt has also been made to elaborate bri efly upon the chemical and physiological effects of the active principles involved.

Appearing at the end of each section are lists of the common names of plants mentioned in that section , with their appropri ate scienti fi c names and family names . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wi shes to thank the fo llowing people for thei r assistance in the compl etion of thi s work :

Dr . C. B. Arzeni for having faith in me and for the many facets of guidance he provided;

Drs . R. L. Dardi ng and W. C. Whi teside for their constructive comments and cri ticisms ;

Dr . T. M. Weidner for encouraging this type of study;

Valer i e Keener for encouragement and proofreading;

Greg Oseland for proofreading;

Eastern Illinois University for a graduate assistant- ship;

Kathryn Priebe , my mother and typist; and

The other members of my family for the ir support, encouragement , and fai th .

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

...... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......

LIST OF TABLES ...... iv

I. Introduction 1

II . Cryptogams 2

III . Fumitories and Masticatories ...... 30

IV. Spices ...... 38

56 V. Poisonous Plants ......

VI . Hallucinogenic Plants 83

...... 102 VII. Medicinal Plants ......

122 VIII. Literature Cited ......

iii LIST OF TABLES

1. Spice Table Listing Some Common Spices

and their Uses ...... 4 4

iv INTRODUCTION

This project i s intended to bring together , in one _ paper , information concerning the ethnic uses of plants ci ted in the workbook , "Ethnobotany ", written by C. B.

Arzeni and B. N. McKnight. The workbook represents a series of exercises on plants and their impact and importance to man . It i s hoped that the material contained herein wi ll be usefu l in working the assign ments found in the workbook .

The goal i s not to offer a comprehensive work in the field of ethnobotany , but rather to deal with a few selected topics which the author considers of interest and of lasting importance . It is also intended to pre sent botany of interest and appeal to the nonspecialist.

This paper addresses itself to the aspects of economic botany that inc lude cryptogarns , spices, fumi tories and masticatories , hallucinogens , poisons , and medicinals . Concerning each o f these, an attempt is made to elaborate on their history , various methods of preparation and utilization , folklore and bonafide uses , and the countries and cultures of their origin.

1 CRYPTOGAMS

The term "cryptogam " probab ly holds little meaning for anyone but the botanist. It is a term used in some of the earliest plant classification systems known to man . Included

in this category are all the plants with concealed reproductive organs , that is to say, plants whose reproductive organs are unobservable without the aid of magnification . In fact ,

the term cryptogam comes from the Greek words kruptos meaning

"hidden" and gamos meaning "wedded " (Smith 1955). Historically , the plants now recognized as fungi , algae , and bryophytes were at one time classified as a single unit. Later, the fungi and algae came to be considered as the lower cryptogams , and the bryophytes , along with the p silopsids , lycopsids , sphenopsids , and pteridophytes , became known as the higher cryptogams

( Doy 1 e 19 7 O ) •

Cryptogamic plants are found in all environments capable of supporting life . They are in the soil , water , and air, in or on living or nonliving hosts , and may be found in diverse habitats which range from hot springs to arctic regions . The diversity of their distribution is equaled by their diversity

in form and economic significance . The first part of this paper will deal with both the positive and negative aspects of the significance of some of the cryptogams .

In dealing with systems of classification lines of 2 3 demarcation are often difficult to define . At times it becomes necessary to "pigeon hole'' an organism or even an entire group of organisms. Such is the case with the bacteria.

Bacteria are primitive forms of life posses sing characteristics of both plants and animals. The current view is to "pi geon hole" the bacteria into botanical sys tems of classification.

Proof of the existence of these organisms had to await the development of instruments that would greatly increase the re solving power of the human eye . Thus it can be deduced that the bacteria have concealed reproductive structures , and so should be discussed as c ryptogams .

As previously inferred , the bacteria are microscopic in size . Because of this, we are frequently unaware of their presence. However , the bacteria are possibly the most ubiqui tous of all the cryptogams , i f not of all living things . Many are the disease causing enemies of man. The real significance of the disease causing organisms can be appreciated if we con sider the tremendous impact of epidemics in a world ignorant of their pres ence . The time prior to Pasteur could be consid ered as some of the blackest in history , when disease ruled the world . In those times , disease spread with the populace , often changing the course of history . Armies unconquerable by man were defeated by these infinitely smal l organisms , and entire cities , even nations , were wiped out in single epidemics.

Ranking high among the bacterial diseases which claimed lives were typhoid fever, dysentery , cholera , and diphtheria.

We often think of autumn as being a me lancholy season.

Perhaps this sterns from the age when typhoid fever and 4 dysentery could be expected to take many lives at that time

of the year . Typhoid fever is frequently a seasonal disease occurring in the late summer and early autumn months. The disease o�ganism is Salmonella typhosa, a species of bacteria .

It is spread by water , shellfish , and other types of food .

Those who suffer the disease and recover from it may be chronic carriers of the organism . It may grow in the gall bladder , liver , bile ducts , kidneys , or intestinal tracts of convalescents , and their fecal material may contain virul ent microorgani sms for the rest of their lives ( Gebhardt and

Anderson 1964) .

The typhoid bacterium mus t be ingested to do harm .

Therefore , the best prevention is by maintenance of sanitary drinking water and food supplies . A vaccine is also available .

The causative agent of bacillary dysentery may be one of several species of the genus Shigella. Perhaps the most

infectious is � dysenteriae , which is seldom encountered in

the United States . This particular species produces an exotoxin which causes a poisonous condition in the patient .

This genus rarely invades the bloods tream ; instead it remains

in the intestinal tract where it causes severe inflammation and diarrhea . Shigella is similar to Salmonella in that it too is more or less seasonal , occurring in the late summer , and that the recovered patient may remain a carrier of the disease (Gebhardt and Anderson 1964) . It also occurs in wa ter and may be controlled through sanitary measures .

The disease known as diphtheria has also claimed many 5 lives . The causative agent is Corynebacterium diphtheriae .

Diphtheria is a local in fect ion which begins as a slight fever and a sore throat. The mucous membranes of the nose,

�hroat , tonsils, trachea, and bronchi are the sites of growth for the organism , where , by growth and toxin production , it produces a gray , leathery membrane (Gebhardt and Anderson

1964) . The toxin i s released locally and passes into the bloodstream via capillaries which come into contact wi th the meinbrane . While in the bloodstream , the toxin can have injurious effects on the nerve cells, peripheral nerve f ibers , the heart muscle, and certain glandular tissues (Walter and

McBee 1962). Paralysis of the swal lowing muscles may follow , making swallowing impossible . Immediate treatment is necessary if the life of the pati ent is to be saved . Antibiotics such as penicillin or erythromycin destroy the microorgani sms , but have no effect on the toxin . Therefore , it is necessary to administer an antitoxin i n conjunction with the antibiotics.

Most individuals who recover from this ordeal have a fairly lasting immuni ty to the disease . Diphtheria , unlike the previ ous ly mentioned diseases , is most often spread from person to person, especially by coughing and sneezing . Although this disease is present throughout the year , it i s similar to the others ih that there is usually an increase in the number of cases between August and December (Walter and McBee 1962).

Vibrio comma , the causative agent of Asiatic cholera , is another water borne organism . Cholera is , or was, by far the more serious of these diseases . It has been said that cholera could strike with such malice that a "child laughing and happy 6 in the morning , could be a drawn-faced corpse by evening "

(Gebhardt and Anderson 1964) . This d i sease causes severe diarrhea as well. as damage to the intesti nal mucosa such that flecks of epi thelium may be seen in the stool (Burnette and Schuster 1973) . Large amounts of fluids are lost during the severe diarrhea , resulting in sunken eyes and leathery , wrink led skin of the patient . Treatment of cholera is primarily through replacement of lost fluids and salts . Preven- tion and control may be accomplished by vacc inations and sanitary contro l of water and food supplies .

I t has been briefly alluded to that the l ight microscope , which has been widely available for less than a century , was necessary for the discovery of these organi sms . It was wi th the continued development of the microscope and the science of microbiology that many of these d i sease organisms were brought under control .

In spite of these advances , the vacci nes and antibiotics , chlorinated water , and pasteurized milk , we still have bouts with the organisms of the microscopic world . Some of them such as the tubercle bacterium (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), the pneumoni a bacterium (Diplococcus pneumoniae) , and the venereal bacteria (Treponema pallidum and Neisser i a gonorrhoeae) , to name a few , still remain serious problems . Still others which are perhaps less important give us the unpleasant- ries of pimples , s ore throats , boils, abscesses , skin infections , and throat , sinus , and middle ear infec tions. Thes e latter problems are usually caused by the staphylococci and streptococci, which are responsib le for more infections of man 7 than perhaps all the other bacteri a combined (Walter and

McBee 1962) •

Bacterial microorganisms are not only the diseases of man and animals, but also of plants . Among plants , these organisms often cause spoilage and rotting . Fresh fruits , because of their moisture , acidity , and high sugar content often fall victim to bacteria i f thei r protective skin is damaged . Vegetab les may likewise be attacked i f skin or tis sue damage is present . The bacterial infection of vegetables often results in the breakdown of tissue , causing soft rot of tubers , and/or the wi lting of leaves and stalk which in turn results i n smaller and fewer , if any , fruits .

Bacterial plant pathogens inc lude Corynebacterium michiganense , the causal agent of tomato cankers , Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the causal agent of soft rot of potato tubers , and Erwinia amylovora which causes f ireblight of corn , to name a few (Delaat

19 79) •

Spoilage due to bacteri a is by no means limited to fresh fruits and vegetables . Raw meats, fish , dairy products , and even canned processed foods are also invaded by these microorganisms . One of the chief causative agents of processed food spoilage is Clostridium botulinum . As a result of its metabolism c. botulinum produces at least five neurotoxins (Burnette and Schuster 1973). If toxin contaminated foods are inges ted , one or more of these neurotoxin s causes a form of food po ison- ing known as botulism . The i nitial symptoms include headache , weakness, lassitude , doub le vis ion , and dilated pupi ls, and develop with in a few hours to a few days . Muscle paralysis 8 ensues and death follows due to respiratory paralysis or cardiac failure . The only treatment for botulism is the intravenous administration of anti toxins (Burnette and

Schuster 1973). Delaat (1979} s tates that even with the

�dministra tion of speci fic antitoxins , the chances for re- covery are limited . Burnette and Schuster (1973) suggest that the reason for this is that once the botulinus toxin reacts with nerve tissue , the antitoxin has no effect.

Fortunately , botuli sm is not a common disease . Although it may result from eat ing canned or processed foods, it most often results from ea ting improper ly preserved home-canned foods . Nearly all ca ses of botulism could be prevented if canned foods are boiled for ten to fifteen minutes .

One cannot study the economic importance of the bacteria without considering antibiotics . Antibiotics are substances found in bacteria and other organi sms ( some of the fungi) which, if administered in dilute solution , destroy or inhibit the growth of other microorgani sms (Encyclopaedia Britanica

1979). With few exceptions , these bacteria are the only organisms that can cur e diseases by eliminating their causes

�urnetteand S chuster 1973). In addition to curing established diseases, antibiotics are valuable in preventing other infectious dis eases . It is worthy to note , however, that no single antib iotic is effec tive against all microorganisms . Some of the commonly used bacterial agents that produce antibiotics include s everal spec ies of Streptomyces (S. antibioticus yields actinomycin , � lavendulae - strepto thucin , � griseus - strep- tomycin , s. aureo fac iens - aureomycin, s. venezuelae - chloro- 9 my cetin, � rimosus - terramyc in, and � erythraeus - erythromyc in} , and several species of Bacillus (B. brevis - tyrothrian , tyrodin, and gramicin, B. po1ymyxa - polyrnyxin , and B. subtil i s - baci tracin and subtilin}. Among these, .the antibiotics derived from species of Bacillus , although produced commercially , are too toxic for intravenous administration . Those which have a low toxicity for the human body are formed by the genus Streptomyces (Gebhardt and Anderson 1964) .

In early times , man unknowingly used microorganisms to bring about desirable changes in h is food , drink, or clothing .

These early practices have led to the f i eld of industrial microbiology in which microbial processes are used to produce economically valuable materials . Most of these products are obtained from bacteria as a result of their metabolic activi ty .

Some of the metabolic by-products are the enzymes used in fermentation . Perhaps the mo st widely used organisms in fermentation are the yeasts . Sti ll, many fermented products are derived f rom the activities of bacteria . Lactic acid and other flavor producing substances are derived from the fermentation of lactose . The agents whi ch cause the fermentation of lactose are Streptococcus lactis and related species (Walter and McBee 1962). Through fermentation these organi sms impart a variety of flavors to many of our dairy products , including the flavor of butter , buttermi lk, and many cheeses . Some bacteria may be used alone or i n conj unction with Streptococcus to produce various products . One of these is Lactobaci llus bulgaricus which i s used to produce yogurt . Others i nclude speci es of Propionibacterium whi ch are used together with the 10 streptococci and lactobacill i to produce Swiss cheese . It is interesti ng to note that the holes or "eyes " in Swiss cheese are formed by the accumulation of carbon dioxide produced during the breakdown of lactic acid to propionic acid , acetic acid , carbon dioxide , and water (Wa lter and McBee 1962) .

A discussion of the bacteria is incomplete without mentioning their role in the nitrogen cycle . Although free nitrogen composes about four-fifths of the atmosphere of the earth , it remains the most critical of the plant elements

(Walter and McBee 1962) • It is the one that is most likely to be in short supply , because all of the higher plants lack the means of obtaining this element .

To be useful to plants , and subsequently to animals , including man , nitrogen must unite with some other element or elements to form a compound . For most plants this mus t be in the form of ammonia (NH3) or the nitrate ion (N03). In the first s i tuation, nitrogenous compounds in plant and animal ._ residues are decomposed by bacterial processes into the ammonia form, a process termed ammonification . Bacteria such as in the genus Bacillus are especially active in this process .

Followi ng ammonif ication may be the oxidation of ammonia to nitrites . This may be accompl ished by the genera Ni trosomonas and Nitrobacter. Further oxidation by Nitrobacter results in the formation of nitrates . Thi s two-step process is referred to as nitrif ication . The latter step (nitrites to nitrates) is essential because nitri tes are toxic to plants , wh ile ni trates are readily used by green plants and microorganisms (Gebhardt and Anderson 1964) . The process of nitri fication can be 11 reversed by other microorganisms, especially if areas

typically aerobic in nature become anaerobic temporarily,

for instance , through saturation with water . Under these

conditions bacteria use nitrogen to supplement depleted

oxygen supplies . The nitrates are thus reduced to nitrites ,

anunonia , oxides , and gaseous nitrogen (Gebhardt and Anderson

1974). Thi s process is referred to as denitrification. Some

authors reserve this term for the process in which gas eous

nitrogen is the end product, and use the term "ni trate reduc-

tion " to refer to nitrogenous compounds that are lost from

the soil in a nongaseous form (Walter and McBee 1962) .

The los ses of nitrogen compounds via plant utilization

and denitrification are very real and could eventually be a

serious threat to soil fertility if the nitrogen is not

replaced. Fortunately , nitrogen compounds are redeemed as a

result of nitrogen fixation .

Briefly, nitrogen fixation is a physiological reaction

peculiar to cer tain bacteria , and a few other organisms , wh ich allows them to transform free nitrogen gas into com-

pounds which eventually become useful to higher plants . The

nitrogen f ixing bacteria are of two types : 1) symbiotic bacteria and 2} nonsymbiotic bacteria (De laat 1979) . The

former refers to the relationship which exi sts between

leguminous plants and root nodule bacteria. Although several bacteria are thought to be capable of fixing nitrogen, only

species of the genus Rhizobium have been studied extensively

as nitrogen fixers . The mechani sm of the process is not

fully understood , but its practical significance is one of 12 the major contributions of soil microorganisms to the economy of the world.

The second form of nitrogen fixation is carried on by nonsymbiotic or free-living bacteria . These bacteria are known to fix molecular nitrogen without the aid of higher plants. The process is l argely one of metabolism. Utiliza- tion of nitrogen during the build-up of protoplasm may result in the excretion of small amounts of nitrogen compounds into the soil. Furthermore, the death o f these bacteria and their subsequent decay results in the transformation of proteins into nitrates via the ammonify ing and nitrifying bacteria previously mentioned . Free-living bacteria which fix nitrogen include several species of the genera Azotobacter and Clostrid- ium . Species of Clo stridium appear to be more abundant in the soil, although both are recognized as normal soil inhab iting organisms (Gebhardt and Anderson 1964). Attempts at innoculat- ing soils with these and other beneficial organisms have met with little success (Delaat 1979).

Concluding the discussion of bacteria brings us to another group of cryptogams , the algae . The algae are simple organisms , most o f which contain chlorophyll that enables them to produce their own food via photosynthesis . These organisms are di stin- guished from other cryptogams on the basis of sexual reproduc- tion and morphology (Smith 1955). Recent studies tend to include physiological characters also in classifying these organisms . They range in size from microscopic unicellu lar forms to "seaweeds" which may be several feet in length. There are few places on earth where algae of some kind are not found . 13 They occur in great abundance in the oceans and seas , and in fresh water lakes , ponds , and streams . Others are found in damp soil, on rocks , tree bark, epiphytic on other organisms, and epizoic on some animals . These small aquatic forms make up a large part of the floating life in water called plankton .

Plankton consists of both plants and animals . The plant or algal component may be referred to as phytoplankton , whi le the animal component is referred to as zooplankton. As stated , the two together are referred to as plankton , and form the basis of the food chain , which provides the basic food for

aqua tic animals .

Man also utilizes algae as a food source . The larger algae or macro scopic algae are used for this purpose . The earliest uses of macroscopic algae date back to ca . 800 B.C . in China. Records of algae found in the Chinese Book of

Poetry state that "pondweed " or "duckweed " was a delicacy , and was often used as a sacrifice to revered ancestors (Chapman

1964).

Scores o f d i fferent species of algae have been eaten in various parts of the world . Hawaii boasts a total of seventy- five va riet ies of edible "seaweed", however , not all are of choice quality (�hapman 1970). The Japanese, perhaps due to their lack of variety in vegetables , also utilize numerous types of "seaweed " . Many of these , likewise, are not of choice quality, and only a few have enjoyed true widespread consumption . Among those that are uti lized world wide are several species of the genus Porphyra . The Chinese used this genus as a base for soups , while the Japanese used it primarily as a 14 salad . The spec ies P. tenera has been cultivated by the

Japanese in Tokyo Bay . Purple laver, as this alga is commonly called, was also used by the Bri ti sh and French.

The Europeans used it not only as a s alad but also as a

" f i l ler " by frying it in fat, or by boil ing it into a semi- fluid breakfast dish, or baking it into laver bread . With the diver sity in preparations, common names proli fer ated.

Some of them are "sloke" , " slouk", "slack", "sloucawn ", and "marine sauce " (Chapman 197 0). � pe'r forata was exploited by the Indians of the northwe stern Uni ted States . They referred to the a lga a s "sea lettuce", which also refers to Ulva lactuca. Ulva lactuca is also known as green laver and i s used in the same manner as spec ies of Porphyra . There are numerous other spec ies of edible algae . Some of the more important ones are: the kelp (Larninaria japonica) , dulse

(Rhodymenia palmata), and Ge lidium corneum •. The latter also serves as the primary source of agar-agar, which i s used extensively as a culture medium.

Algae, besides being used as a source of food for man, have been and are still employed on farms as livestock feed .

The modern practice i s to dry the algae and grind it into a meal which i s th en fed to the l ivestock . A percentage of the total ration weight is typically used in conjunction with ordinary foodstu ffs . Many speci es of algae are utilized for a particular perc entage of carbohydrates , protein, potash, and fat , etc . The most popular algae of th is type in- elude the followi ng : Fucus vesi culosus , � serratus ,

Ascophyllum nodosum , Laminaria s a ccharina and L . digita t a , 15 which may be used together or separately . Although sui table food materials are obviously derived from the algae , there . �. are certain drawbacks which arise from the indigestibility of the smal l percentage of these organisms in the ration

( Chapman 1970).

The algae may also be used as fertilizer . Species of

Ulva , Fucus vesiculosus , Macrocystis pyrifera and the genus

Sargassum are just a few of the algae uti lized in this manner .

Virtually all of the algae, not just those mentioned , are relatively high in nitrogen and potash (Chapman 1970). They also add a considerable amount of organic matter to the soil .

Unfortunately , the phosphate content i s low and so phosphates must be added. Another drawback is that the nitrogen is not readily available . It must be broken down as previously discussed . Although algal masses provide an excellent fertilizer , their transporta tion poses yet another problem . For thi s reason , the use of the algae as fertilizer is somewhat restrict- ed to coastal regions (Chapman 1970).

A highly important commercial product of algal origin i s diatomaceous earth , or diatornite. Diatomite is a siliceous material derived from the remains of the shells or frustules of the diatoms (Hi ll 1952) . One o f the chief uses of diatomite is in industr i al filtration techniques , including the processing of oil, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages , antibiotics, solvents , and chemicals . It i s also used as a filler in paints , plastics, soaps , detergents, etc . and also adds texture to these ingredients. One of the oldest and perhaps best known uses of diatomite is that of a very mild abrasive in metal polishes and 16 toothpaste (Hill 1952).

On the negative·side , dense algal growths are detri mental . Algal "blooms " occur in which there is a very rapid growth rate of these organisms . Water supplies may be severly affected by such blooms which occur i n rivers , lakes , and reservoirs. In commercial fishing areas , mas sive growths of algae interfere with harvesting and may even deplete the oxygen content of the water , thus killing many of the fish.

Rivers , lakes and reservoirs which are subject to algal blooms may be the cause of maj or crises for communities using the water . These organisms cause problems in water treat ment plants by shortening filter runs , clogging intake screens , forming slime layers of growth on the walls of filters , set tling basins , intake pipes , and aerators, and by increasing sludge deposits. They also change the pH , carbon dioxide and oxygen content , color , and turbidity of the water (Mervin

19 64). In lakes and reservoirs , algal abundance speeds up the aging or eutrophication processes . Eutrophication , how ever , is l argely promoted by the introduc tion o f fertil izers that are a supply of nutrients , permitting rapid algal growth .

The organisms which are responsible for these problems include species of Anabaena , Microcystis , Oscillatori a, Chlamydomonas,

Eu·glena , many of the Vol vox complex, many of the diatoms , and many others (Chapman 1964) . Attempts to control the growth of these algae usually i nvolve the use of algicides . Copper sulfate is the most commonly used algicide and has met with some success. Care must be taken when using algicides as they tend to be selective in their toxicity . They may elimi- 17 nate one kind of alga but allow for the subsequent b loom of a

more resistant kind . Other control measures involve the clear-

ing or removal of vegetation and other nutrient materials in

areas of reservoirs and impoundments , the covering of canals

,�nd small reservoirs to eliminate algae growth and control of

lands surrounding re servoirs to reduce contamination , fertili-

zation , and siltation of impounded waters (Mervin 1964) .

Closely related to the algae are the fungi . Fung i are

nongreen plants devoid of chlorophyll . The plant body is

characteristically composed of microscopic branching f ilarnents

called hyphae or mycelia . They are classified partly on the

ba sis of their cell wall components , the nature of the hyphae ,

i .e. septate or nonseptate , and perhaps more importantly, on

the basi s of their fruiting or reproductive bodies (Bold , et al

1980) .

The fungi are a large group of plants comprising thousands

of species , and the l ist gets longer each year . A great

number of fungi are relatively obscure , but some have received

attention because of their economic importance . Since ancient

times fungi have served as "folklore" medicinals . Among these

remedies is the use of Daldini a concentrica, which , when

carried in the pocket, would serve as protection against

abdominal cramps (Rolfe and Rolfe 1926) . Auriculari a auricula,

commonly known as "Jew's ear", was used to treat diseases of

the throat . This may be considered an example of the "doctrine

of signatures", as the hyrnenial surface of the fungus resembles

the structure of the upper throat of humans (Gray 1959} . One

of the most widely used fungi was Fornes officinalis . Considered 18 a panacea , this fungus was used as a treatment for ailments ranging from col i c , sores , and bru i ses to cures for liver ailments, asthma , jaundice, dysentery , and as a purgative and antidote for poisons (Rolfe and Rolfe 1926; Gray 1959; Hard

19 08).

Sti ll, in other cultures , medicinal properties of fungi , and other plants , were closely related to their hallucinogenic properties . The hallucinogens are discussed in a later por- tion of this paper, and so wi ll not be di scussed here. The l i st of fungi used as folk lore medicinals goes on and on.

The bonafide medicinal uses of fungi , on the other hand , are relatively short. One of the most important is as a source of antibiotics . The best known of these is penicillin , which is derived from Penicillium chry sogenum and P. notatum . Recent research has found anoth er in calvacin , a mucoprotein derived from Calvatia sp ., one of the puf fballs . In laboratory studies calvacin has been found to be capable of arresting thirteen of twenty-four types of cancer (Lewi s and Lewis 1977) .

A relatively small number of fungi have been used in house- holds and industry . Some of the old household products inc lude the use of bracket fungi such as Fornes fomentarius , Daedalea quercina , and Polyporus lucidus as ti nder (Rolfe and Rolfe 19 26;

Gray 19 59). Ink was derived from Coprinus comatus , and dyes of various colors were obtained from species of Fornes , Echino- dontium , Pisolithus , Polyporus , and Ru ssula (Rolfe and Rolfe

19 26) . The colorful dyes ob tained f rom these fungi were also mixed and comb ined to give sti l l d i fferent shades and colors .

Most , if not all, of these uses have been replaced by modern 19 products .

Several of the industrial uses of fungi , on the other hand , are irreplaceable . Perhaps the most important is the production of antibiotics , which has been previously dis cussed . Others impart flavor to some of our cheeses

(Penicilluim roquefortii and P. camernberti ) while others are responsible for making bread rise (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and still others are used in the wine and beer industry as fermentors (Saccharomyces ellipsoideus , S. pyriformis, and

S. sake) (Gray 1959).

A wide variety of fungi are edible. While this is true , no single feature of any fungus is sufficient to determine its edibi lity . Positive identi fication of all fungi intended for consumption should be made , as many fungi are poisonous or hallucinogenic. Once the fungi are properly identified they may be prepared in various ways. They may be baked , fried , stewed , boi led , roasted or stuffed . They may also be made into catsups , soups , purees , ragouts and fritters (Gray

1959). The l ist of edible fungi is long indeed , and not all of them can be mentioned here. f.._ few of the more common edible fungi are lis ted below:

Agaricus bisporous - commonly called the

"button mushroom" , this species is the fungus

of commerce often found in the supermarket.

Armillaria mellea - the "honey mushroom "

is considered to be one of the most palatable

of the fungi .

Calvatia spp. and Lycoperdon spp. - also 20 edible , these fungi must be collected �i th

the utmost discrimination as young , poison-

ous Amanitas are very similar in appearance .

Morchella spp . - the common morel i s a

seasonal delicacy popping up only in the

spring .

Pleurotus ostreatus - commonly called

the oyster mushroom because of its appear-

ance and fish-like taste .

Polyporus sulphureus - another fungus

who se common name , chicken-of-the-woods ,

indi cates i ts savory qual i ties .

As one can see, there are numerous economic uses for the

fungi . However , they are most important economically as the

causal agents of diseases. Whi l e fungi may be harmful to both man and animal, the largest monetary losses are i ncurred

through plant diseases . In a paper published by the Agri-

culture Research Service (1965), i t is estimated that in the

United States , for the years 19 51 to 196 0, the average annual

crop losses totaled slight ly under four bi llion dollars .

Diseased plants may be defined as those which have become altered in their physiological and morphological

development to such a degree that signs of such effects are

obvious (Walker 19 69). These external s igns or symptoms are

often characteristic of a given disease . Perhaps the most

important of the diseases are those which infect cereal or

grain crops . Among these , "stem rust" , which attacks many

cultivated and wild grasses , is chief in importance . It is 21 caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis. Some authors suggest that it has become differentiated into specialized varieties that require specific hosts (Boewe 1960) . For example, one variety chiefly affects wheat, while another affects oats, and still another primarily affects rye . Whether they are dif ferent varieties or not is of little cons equence . All stem rusts cause low yields and poor quality , shriveled grains .

Nearly as important are species of the genus Ustilago .

Ustilago also infects wheat and other members of the grass family causing a disease cal led "loose smut ." "Loose smut of corn", caused by the species � maydis , does the most damage in terms of economy . The amount of damage is dependent on the location o f the gall. The gall, a reproductive structure, is the most conspicuous phase o f the smut , and may occur on stems , leaves , axilla ry buds , ears , and parts of male flowers . All infections result in a reduction o f yield due to inferior kernel size (Walker 196 9) .

The eradication of most plant diseases is impossible .

However , many crops are bred for resistance to these pathogens , and a variety of controls , such as fungicides , exist to prevent extreme losses . Consequently , the United States continues to produce food , feed , and fiber i n greater abundance than at any previous time in history .

In some instances , a symbio tic relationship exists between an alga and a fungus wherein thousands of algal cells are enmeshed in a matrix o f fungal filaments . The resulting organism i s a lichen . Li chens lack a differentia- 22 tion into leaves , stern, and roots . They grow a tha llus corn- posed of elongated cellular threads called hyphae instead .

Th e color and growth form , i.e. foliose , crustose, or fruti cose, of the thallus, along with various chemi cal tests are used to distinguish genera and species . Like many of the cryptogarns , the lichens are found nearly everywhere . They are most abundant in the alpine and arctic tundra where they are the dominant form of vegetation . In these areas , lichens are util ized by caribou , elk , deer , etc . as a source of food .

One area in which lichens are scarce is large cities . In general, they cannot tolerate great quantities of pol lution .

Consequently, they may be used as natural pollution indicators .

The main economic importance of lichens, however, is their use as antibiotics. In Europe , yellow lichens of the genus

Cladonia are harvested for the extrac tion of usnic acid, which is th e base of several antibiotic salves . Complex chemicals obtained from lichens have been used effectively against a wide range of bacteria as well as treatment for ulcers and second and third degree burns (Hale 19 74).

Ecologically, lichens are slow but efficient soil formers .

Some secrete acids which break down solid rock into small pieces .

This in turn provides a place for mosses and more highly developed plants to grow .

The oak moss lichen , Evernia prunas tri , i s gathered i n southern Europe and used in perfumes . It functions as a fixa- tive to slow down the evaporation of the fragrances in perfumes and soaps (Hale 19 74) .

Probab ly the most familiar use of dyes derived from lichens 23 is found in the li tmus paper used by chemists . The reddish-

violet dye , li tmus , is used as an acid-base indicator .

In emergencies, some lichens such as the rei ndeer lichen ,

Cladina rangi ferina , and rock tripe , Umbilicaria mamulata ,

have been eaten when other foods were scarce .

The plants previously considered have all been lower

cryptogams . The higher cryptogams include the mosses and liverworts , the psilopsids , the horsetails , the club mos ses ,

and the ferns (Doyle 19 70). The higher cryptogams , so far

in history , have no t proven to be extremely important econom-

ically . Probably the most important are species of the moss

genus Sphagnum . This moss has been used for fuel where other

vegetation is scarce . Its greates t importanc e is due to

anatomical feature s known as leucocysts (Watson 1974). Leuco-

cysts are porous , water holding cells in the '' l eaves " that

allow it to be an excellent absorbant. As such , it i s very

useful as a germinating medium , wound compress , and packing ma terial . Other mosses have been utilized as pollution

indicator s, as substitutes for mortar in chinking between bricks , and Polytrichum juniperi num has been used as an

infusion in treating urinary obstructions , dropsy , and a s

a diuretic (Hill 19 52) . Ecologically , they are similar to lichens in being important soil formers.

The horsetails , Equisetum arvense and E. hyemale , have

also been used i n treating dropsy and other ailments such

as kidney trouble , ulcers , and external wounds (Hill 19 52) .

. Bunches of the stems can be used as scouring utensils for

polishing metal , particularly kitchen pots and pans . 24 There are two species of economic importance in the

club mos ses , Lycopodium clavatum and � flabelliforme .

These plants are dried and used as stomachics and diuretics ,

arid also to treat ailments ranging from kidney complaints

and diarrhea to dys entery , gout and even scurvy. Today ,

they are used primarily as a pill powder to prevent pills

from adhering to pill bottles and boxes (Hill 1952}.

The psilopsids , a primitive group of plants lacking

leaves and roots, as yet offer no members of economic

importance . The pteridophytes , or ferns , also have few

members of economic importance . The fiddleheads , i.e. the

unrolled fronds , of some species are edible . They are

collected and eaten as substitutes for asparagus and other

greens . Care should be taken in doing this , because some

ferns , particularly Pteridium aquilinurn , the bracken fern ,

contain the enzyme thiaminase . This enzyme destroys

thi amine (vi tamin B1}, and prolonged use may result in

serious deleterious effects (Hill 1952 } . There are few

other uses reported for the higher cryptogams .

PLANT NAMES

Scientific Name Common Name Family

Acetobacter � Pseudomonadaceae

Agaricus button mush Agaricaceae bisporous (Lane} Sing . rooms

Anabaena spp . Nostocaceae

Armi llaria honey mush Agaricaceae me llea (Vahl .) Fr . room 25

PLANT NAMES - continued

Scienti fic Name Common Name Family

Ascophyllum Fucaceae nodosum (L.) LeJolis

Auricularia Jew's ear Auriculariaceae auricula L. ex Sehrt .

Azotobacter spp . Azotobacteriaceae

Bacillus . Baci lliaceae brevis Mig . emend . Ford

B. polymyxa (Prazm. ) Mig . Bacilliaceae ° B. subtil"is Cohn emend. Prazm. Bacilliaceae

Calvatia spp . puffball Lycoperdaceae

Chlarn.ydomonas spp . Chlamydomonadaceae

Cladina reindeer Cladoni aceae rangiferina (L.) Harm . lichen

Cladoni a. spp . Cladoniaceae

Clostridium botulism Bacillaceae botulinum (van Erm.) Holl.

Coprinus inky cap Agaricaceae - comatus (Fr. ) S.F. Gray mushroom

Corynebacterium diphtheria Corynebacteriaceae diphtheriae (Flug.)Leh .& Neu .

� michiganense (Erw. Smith ) Jen . Corynebacteriaceae

Daedalea oak Polysticaceae quercina (L. ) Fr . daedalea

Daldinia Sphaeriaceae concentrica (L.ex Fr .)Ces .& DeNot .

Diplococcus pneumonia Lactobacteriaceae pneurnoniae Weich .

Echinodontiurn spp . Hydnaceae

Equisetum horsetail Equis etaceae arvense L.

� hyemale L. scouring Equisetaceae rush 26 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientific Name Common _Name Fami ly

Erwinia f i reblight Enterobacteriaceae amylovora (Burr .} Winst.

Euglena spp . Eugl enaceae

Everni a oak mos s Usneaceae prunastri (L.} Ach . lichen

Fornes Polyporaceae fomentarius (L.} Fr .

F. officinalis (Vi ll .ex Fr .) Faull Polyporaceae

Fucus Fucaceae serratus L.

F. vesiculosus L. Fucaceae

Ge l idi um ag a r-agar Gel idiaceae corneum ( Hud . } Lam.

Lactobacillus Lactob acil liaceae bulgaricus (Luer . & Kuhn) Holl .

Laminaria kelp Laminariaceae dig1tata (L.) Edm .

L. japonica Aresch . kelp Laminariaceae

L. saccharina (L.) Lamour. kelp Lam inari aceae

Lycoperdon spp . puf fball Lycoperdaceae

Lycopodium ground pine Lycopodiaceae clavatum L. running pi ne

L. flabelliforme Fern . club moss Lycopodiaceae

Macrocysti s Lessoniaceae pyrifera (L .} C. Ag .

Microcystis spp . Chroococcaceae

Morchella spp . sponge Peziz aceae mushroom

Mycobacterium tuber Mycobacteriaceae tuberculosis (Zopf _} Leh.& Neu . culosis 27 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientific Name Common Name Fami ly

Neisseria gonorrhea Neisseriaceae gonorrhoeae Trev .

Nitrobacter spp . Nitrobacteriaceae

Nitrosomonas spp . Nitrobact�riaceae

Oscillatoria �pp . Oscillatoriaceae

Penicillium Camembert Moniliaceae cameffiberti Thom . cheese

P. chrysogenum Thom . penicillin Moniliaceae

P. notatum Westling penicillin Moniliaceae

P. roquefortii Thom . Roquefort Moniliaceae cheese

Pisolithus spp . Sclerodermataceae

Pleurotus oyster Agaricaceae ostreatus (Jacq.) Fr . mushroom

Polyporus Polyporaceae lucidus Leys ex Fr .

P. sulphureus (Bull .) Fr. chicken-of- Polyporaceae the-woods

Polytrichum Polytrichaceae JUn1per1num Hedw .

Porphyra sea let Bangiaceae perforata J. Agardh . tuce

P. tenera Kjellm. purple Bangiaceae laver

Propionibacterium � Propionibacteriaceae

Pseudomonas soft rot Pseudonadaceae aeruginosa (Sehr .) Migula of potato tubers

Pteridium bracken Polypodiaceae aqu1l1num (L.) Kuhn . fern

Puccini a s tem rust Pucciniaceae graminis Pers . of wheat 28 PLANT NAME

Scientific Name Common Name Family

Rhizobium spp. Rhizobiaceae

Rhodymenia dulse Rhodymeniaceae palmata (L. ) Grev.

Rus sula spp . .Agaricaceae

Saccharomyces Brewers ' Saccharomyc etaceae cerevisiae Hansen yeast s. ellipsoideus Hansen Saccharomycetaceae s. pyriformis Ward Saccharomycetaceae s. sake Yabe Saccharomycetaceae

Salmonella typhoid Enterobacteriaceae typhosa (Zopf .) White fever

Sargassum spp . Sargassaceae

Shigella dysentery Enterobacteriaceae dysenteriae (Sh iga.) Cast. & Chal.

Sphagnum spp. peat moss Sphagnaceae

Streptococcus Lactobacilliaceae lactis (List.) Loh .

Streptomyces Streptomycetaceae antibioticus (Waks. & Wood .) Wak.s. & Hen .

S. aureofaciens Duggar Streptomycetaceae

S. erythraeus (Wak.s . ) Wak.s . & Hen . Streptomycetaceae s. griseus (Krainsky } Waks . & Hen. Streptomycetaceae s. lavendulae (Waks.&CUrtis ) Wak.s & Hen . Streptomycetaceae s. rimosus Sobin et. al. Streptomycetaceae

S. venezuelae Ehr._ et. al. Streptomyc etaceae

Treponema syphilis Treponemataceae pallidum (Schaud .& Hoff .)Schaud

Ulva sea let Ulvaceae ---ra<:tuca L. tuce 29

PLANT NAMES - continued

Scienti fic Name Common Name Family

Umbi1 icaria rock tripe Umb ili cariaceae mamula ta (Ach.) Tuck .

Ustilago loose smut Ustilaginaceae maydis (DC. ) Cda . of corn

Vibrio cholera Spirillaceae comma (Sehr.) Wins. et.al .

Volvox spp . Volvocaceae

* if applicable FUMITORIES AND MASTICATORIES

Smoking and chewing have a curiou s history . Throughout time , man has smoked or chewed various substances for pleasure , for some phys iological effect, in connection with religious ceremonies, or simply to get "high." Some of these substances are prefectly harmless, the only benefit possibly being a psychological one brought about by the mechanical acts involved .

The ma jority of substances that are chewed or smoked , how ever , have some stimulating or narcotic effect , due to the presence of certain alkaloids . The least harmful of these acts only as mild stimulant and produces no effect on the conscious nes s of the user (Hill 19 5 2). These inc lude tobacco , betel , cola , and chewing gums of various sources . The smoking and/or chewing of substances such as coca , opium , and cannabis , on the other hand , release from them substances wh ich are considered to be narcotic and in most cases detrimenta l to the user .

The use of tobacco originated from the religious practices of the early Indians in Central America and Mexico (Brooks 19 52) .

The plant spread to North America and was incorporated into the lives of North American Indians for similar reasons (Robert

1949) . Columbus was probably the first white man to note its use by the Indians and subsequently introduced it to Europe

(Brooks 19 52). The narcotic and soothing properties o f tobacco

30 31 made i t a popular plant , both medicinally and recreationally .

These same characteristics are respons ibl e for its rapid exploitation and dissemination throughout the rest of Europe , and even to Africa , Asia, and Australia.

Today , tobacco is an important commodity throughout the world . Some fifty species of tobacco are known , but only two of these are used commercially (Hi ll 1952) . Nicotiana tabacum i s the most widely used species at the present time . Ni cotiana rustica is a smaller , hardier plant, but , because of i ts harsh taste , is not widely used (Robert 1949) .

The processes of bringing a tobacco crop to market are high ly specialized and thus are also costly. Because tobacco seeds are so smal l, they are planted in seed beds , and the seedlings are later transplanted . The field itself must be cultivated as the tobacco plant requires a speci fic soi l type , fertilizers , soil temperature , and moisture (Hill 195 2) . After the plants get a good start, the terminal bud is removed in order to concentrate the nutrients i n the leaves (Tso 1972) .

The inferior leaves are removed . When fully ripe , the entire plant may be harvested or the leaves alone are cut off, one by one , as they mature (Brooks 1952) .

Fol lowing the harvest, the plants or leaves are allowed to wilt and then are suspended in an inverted pos ition to be cured (Brooks 1952) .

There are two principal methods of curing : air curing and flue curing . Very briefly , air curing is a slow and natural process carried on i n well-ventilated barnes . Flue 32 curing exploits the use of artificial heat and is a much quicker process (Robert 1949) .

The process of c uri ng i nvolves oxidation in which the leaves lose thei r moi sture and green color and become tougher .

Chemical changes occurring at thi s time impart many 0£' -the desired qual i ties to the tobacco (Tso 1972) . Once cured , the leaves are separated , fermented , and aged before further processing . This process alone , during whi ch undesirable qualities are eliminated , may take from six months to three years (Hi ll 195 2) .

The cured and aged tobacco is finally graded . Grading is based on such criteria as the me thod of curing , the region in which i t was grown , its intended use , texture , color , and quality characteristics (Robert 1949) . The consumer may purchase the fi nal manufactured product in a variety of forms ,

• wh ich include snuf f, chewing tobacco , smoking tobacco , cigars , and cigarettes .

The alkaloid wh ich gives tobacco i ts soothing , narcotic effect is nicotine (Tso 1972) . However , whi le tobacco is a source of pleasure to many , it fouls the air of publ i c places , wa stes a good deal of productive effort , i s habi t forming , and is l i nked to increased instances of lung cancer . The smoke , besides contai ning common gases such as nitrogen , oxygen , and carbon d ioxide , also contains sma ll quantities of po isonous substances such as carbon monoxide , hydrogen sulfide , hydrocyanic acid , and ammonia (Tso 1972) . The alkaloid nicotine is also lethal to most i nsects and , consequently, i s used as a contact poison insecticide (Hill 1952) . 33 Tobacco i s easily the most widely used fumitory ; however , as a masticatory it is far surpassed by the betel nut . It has been estimated that over 400 , 000 ,000 people chew betel nuts

(Hill 1952) . This may be a reflection of its origin . A native of Malaysia, this p lant i s cultivated in most o f the places where it is used exten s ively . The habit of chewing betel nuts is indul ged in from Zanzibar to India, Burma and

Ma laysia, southern China , the East Ind ies and Philippines , all of which are of . great population . The simplest and most widely used method invo lves the use of three ingred ients : betel nuts , betel leaves , and lime . The nuts are the seeds of the betel-nut palm (Areca catechu) , and the leaves are obtained from the betel pepper (Piper betle) . Usually , slices of ripe or semiripe nuts are placed in the mouth and chewed with the betel leaves , which have first been smeared with lime (Hill 1952).

Betel nuts are chewed by a ll classes of peop le and at any time . Most often , however , they are chewed after dinner as a breath sweetener . As yet, no deleterious effects of chewing betel nuts are known . In fact, they may even aid in digestion (Hill 19 5 2) .

In tropi cal Afri ca and the adj acent Sudan , the seeds of the cola tree (Cola nitida ) are used extensively a s a masti catory. The seeds , which are marketed fresh , are usually chewed alone without the addition of other ingredients . The use of cola nuts results in slight stimulation and a temporary increase in vigor . These effects are due to the combined actions of the alka loid, caffei ne and the essential oi l and 34 glucoside, kolanin . In young seeds , the kolanin tends to act as a heart stimu lant, but old seeds lose their kolanin , and so are less invigorating (Hill 1952) . The chewi ng of cola nuts has no other deleterious effects , and does not effect consciousness .

Although cola nuts and betel nuts share the fame of being chewed by the largest numbers of people , chewing gum alone is the most important in monetary terms . Each year millions of do llars are spent just to advertise this commodity .

The act of chewing gum has a long and fascinating history .

Exactly when and where this act developed is unknown .

Hendricksons (1976) states that Mayan cul tures chewed what is known a s chicle as early as the second century . Chicle is a term that refers to a milky latex that, when boiled , yields a coagulated gum that i s smooth and almost tasteless (Hendrick son 19 76) . Chicle may be extracted from many species of trees , but it is believed that the Mayans used the creamy latex of th e sapodilla tree (Achras sapota ) to obtain their chewing gum .

One can surmise that once the discovery was made, it was passed on to neighboring peoples , who, perhaps due to a lack of that specific tree, d i scovered sources of their own .

In North America th e white settlers were introduced to chewing gum by the Indians . They util i z ed several species of spruc e (Picea ) tha t produce a resin whi ch can be made into a , chewing gum . The pri ncipal producers o f this resin gum are black �pruce (Picea mariana ) and red spruce (Picea rubens ) .

It was from these two species that the spruce gum industry evolved . 35 John Curtis was the first to make chewing gum commer-

cially (Hendrickson 19 76). Curti s made the gum by throwi ng spruce resin into a kettle and boi l i ng it to the consistency of thick molasses . The bark and other impurities were then

skimmed off to leave a pure , refined product . Lard or grease, or pitch and sap , and sometime s sugar were added to increase

the vo lume and make the mixture thicker . When the right con-

sistency was obtained , it was poured out on a slab and cut into pi eces for marketing. Curtis went from rags to riches in a very short time , and his son , John Bacon Curtis, carried on the tradition . John Bacon Curtis invented a number of machines for mak ing gum that formed the b asis of a ll gum making machines of that era (Hendrickson 1976).

Since then , numerous fortunes , i ncluding tha t of William

Wri gley , Jr . , have been made producing and selling chewing gum . There have also been a number of changes in the making of chewing gum . Today , men and women in clean wh i te uni forms handle the operations involved i n making chewing gum .

Although the exact formula , always a highly guarded secret , may be different for each chewing gum , most are manufactured in essenti ally the same way . First, the crude materials are ground into a coarse meal and spread on hot trays to remove " excess moisture. These ingredients are then steam cooked i n large kettles at 240 degrees until they achieve a thi ck , syruppy consistency . This sterilized syrup is then fil tered through fine mesh screens , centri fuged , and then filtered again through ultra-fine vacuum strainers to remove foreign matter and impurities . Next , the melted gum is partially 36 cooled and piped into mixi ng kettles . The next step, the addition of sugar , is the most delicate . The particle s i ze of sugar ultimately effects the bri ttlenes s or flexibility of the f inal product . For thi s reason , mos t manufacturers use pulverized sug ar that is f iner than the powdered sugar available on the market . Also at this step, other i ngredi ents such as corn syrup , glucose, natural or arti fici al flavorings , vegetab le oils , etc . are added . These ingred i ents are added to retain moisture and flexibility . They must be added at exactly the right time and cooked for an exact amount of time .

From the mixers , the now fragrant mass of gum is passed onto cooling belts and into machines that, in effect , knead the gum i nto a smoother texture . The gum is now ready to chew . Before it is put on the market though , i t is passed through a machine cal led a "loaf cutter ." In this process , the gum i s passed through a series of rollers that reduce it to the correct thickness , and then chops it into large sheets , and scores the sheets in the form for which it is intended .

Finally , in one continuous process, the sheets of gum are broken i nto sticks, aluminum foi l and paper wrappers are appl ied to each , and they are gathered and sealed in airtight , mo isture proof packages ready for the market (Hendrickson 1976) .

New discoveries of natural chicle substitutes accompanied these changes . Hendrickson (1976) states that i n the Sapotaceae fami ly alone , there are thirty-five genera and 600 species that may be used as substi tutes i f blended correctly . Even though these substi tates exi st, today 's chewing gum industry uses chicle and other natural latexes less frequently every year 37 ( Hendrickson 197 6) . They are replaced by synthetic plastics that were developed during the chicle shortages created by

World War II. According to Hendri ckson ( 19 76) , Wrigley is one of the few companies that still uses chicle.

Some plants tha t are used as fumitories or masticatori es contain alka loids which are narcotic, that is, they dull� the s enses , relieve pain, or i nduc e sleep . Plants that contain narcotic alkaloids which are released when chewed or smoked include coca , opium , cannabi s, peyote , ololiuqui , caapi, and many others . Each produces a characteristic physiological and/ or psychological effect (s) . When used with discretion , many of the alkaloids have been proven to be i nvaluable as medi c i - nals . Others in sufficient quantities may be fatal , and still others may be s imply intoxicating . A detailed description of these effects is presented in the medicinal , poisonous and hallucinogenic sections of this paper .

PLANT NAMES

Scienti fic Name Common Name Family

Achras sapota L. sapodilla Sapotacea

Areca catechu L. betel nut Palmaceae palm

Cola nitida ( Vent.) A. Chev . cola nut Sterculiaceae

Nicotiana rustica L. tobacco Solanaceae

N. tabacum L. tobacco Solanaceae

Picea mariana ( Mil l.) BSP . black P i naceae spruce

� rubens Sarg . r ed spruce Pinaceae

Piper betle L. betel P iperaceae pepper SPICES

In today 's world little though t is given to the spices we use in flavoring foods . At one time , however , the alluring scent and flavor of spices insp�red men to sai l uncharted sea s

in quest of thes e condiments . Though its origin is buried deep in antiquity , the spice industry has served man in every known era of history .

Mo st spices are indigenous to the hot , damp tropical regions of southern China , Indonesia , Sri Lanka , and the Spice

Islands of the East Indies, Java , Sumatra , and the Mo luccas

(Chartwell Books 197 9) . There are three , however, that are native to the new world : allspice (Pimenta officina l is or

!:..:_ racemosa), red pepper (Capsicum frutescens ), and vanilla

(Vanilla planifolia) (Rosengar ten 1969 ) . Many other spices have been introduced and adapted to the western hemisphere , but in general, very few will grow well under artificial conditions . The se spices , together with cinnamon (Ci nnamomum zeylanicum ) from Sri Lanka and cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata or Syzygium aromaticum) , nutmeg and mace ( Myristica fragrans) comprised the precious cargo carried on the hazardous land and sea routes between the eastern Mediterranean and Europe (Chart- well Books 197 9) .

By 46 0 B.C. the Greeks and Romans were making lavish use of the spices . They are reputed as the greatest indulgers of 38 39 spice usage in the world . They were used for everything from scenting ointments and baths, and f illing pil lows to seasoning and garnishing meal dishes . They were even used in bartering and could be used as a medium of exchange (Chartwell Books 197 9) .

Thi s state of affairs remained essenti ally the same until the Dark Ages . At thi s time spices , and many other facets of life , took a downward turn . They were essenti ally ignored for hundreds of years unti l the Crusade s brought a new way of life reminiscent of the Roman times . Spices, and l i fe in general, flourished again. It was a mark o f wealth to be able to present a colorful and savory display of foods garnished with spices .

Through all of this, those who supplied the merchants and the wealthy , the middle men , were getting rich quick . They fooled their buyers with l ies and my thical legends of the habitats of the s e spices , saying that they were found only in the damp , dark swamps of interior Africa and were often guarded by enormous bat-l ike birds (Parry 1953).

Continued confusion and deliberate concealment about the origin of spices set the stage for an era of exploration . One of the first of the explorers was Marco Polo , who journeyed to

China and returned with a fortune in silks , jewels , and mo st importantly, spices . He was treated with skepticism , and for another 200 years Europeans continued to pay the exorbi tant prices imposed by the middle men .

Finally , tired of pay ing these prices , the European nations set out to search for the Spice Islands via sea exploration . The result wa s a veritable race to finance voyag es 40 to discover and capture the lands wh ich yielded these ri ches .

One wi ll remember from history that the f i r st ons laughts were made by Spain and Portugal . These countries f i nanced such men as Diaz , Vasco da Gama , and Columbus . Before long , the Dutch and Engl i sh were also in the race .

With so much profit at stake , rivalry heightened to the point of war between many of the European nations . As a result, most o f the spice producing areas came under the inf luence of the British , French , or Dutch . By the end of the eighteenth century , however , the Dutch company had gone bank- rupt . This left only the French and British to monopolize the

spice trade (Parry 195 3) •

Across the Atlantic, America was recovering from her most recent war for independence . Eager to gain fast profi ts and establish herself as a world power and center of trade , America joined the race . With fast and well equipped ships left over from the war , America opened trade with the East Indies . It was not long until the first Amer i can fortunes were being made .

Today , most of our spices still come from the East Indies .

Great quantiti es are still imported from China , Japan , and the Mo lucca or Spice Islands . India still suppli es most of the world 's mace, pepper , saffron (Crocus sativus) , and ginger.

Allspice remains the major spi ce of the western hemi sphere coming from the British West Indies (Rosengarten 196 9 ).

Throughout the discussion of spices the question may have presented itself to the reader , jus t what is a spice? This is not a question with a readi ly available answer . The classification, and even the definition , of spices is a controversial 41 matter . One of the prob lems which aris e s is that spices are often confused , and perhaps justi f i ably so , wi th herbs . Both are derived from various parts of aromatic plants ; inc luding seeds , flowers, leaves , sterns , roots , bark , and fruits

(Loewenfeld and Back 1974). While there are no strict botanical definitions to state that one i s a spice and the other is- an herb , a few basic distinctions are that herbs are usually fresh and impart mild flavors , while spices are dried , and have a strong taste of their own which is imparted to the food .

To put it more succinctly , herbs are flavori ng agents wh ile spices are seasoning or "spicing " agents , i f one can draw such a fine distinction. It mus t also be kept in mind that the terms

"herb " and "spice" are not scientific in origin and as such are subject to change as are the tradi tions in whi ch they are used .

Consequently , there are several possible ways in whi ch to classify spices . One way would be to group them according to th e plant part used . For example, dried flower buds would include cloves; fruits would include allspice, black pepper

(Piper nigrurn) , chi lis, nutmeg, and vanilla ; underground sterns would consist of ginger (Zingiber officinal e) , horseradish

(Armoracia rusticana) , and turmeric (Curcurna longa) ; bark wo uld refer to cassia (Cinnamornurn cassia) , and cinnamon ; and seed and seedlike structures wou ld cover anise (Pirnpi nella anisum) , caraway (Carurn carvi) , cardamon (El ettaria carda- momum) , coriander (Coriandrum sativurn) , cumin (Curninum cyminum) , dill (Anethurn graveolens), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum - graecurn), mustard (Brassica nigra or � alba) , poppy (Papaver somni ferurn} , and sesame (Sesamum indicum) (Rosengarten 1969) . 42 They could also be grouped according to thei r properties .

Under this system the categories might be : stimu lating spices ,

like black pepper , capsicum peppers , garlic ( All ium sativum) ,

hors eradish , .. and mus tard ; aromati c spices such as anise, cara-

way , cardamon , c innamon , cumin , cloves , di ll, and sesame ; and

sweet herbs like basil ( Ocimum basil i cum) , chervi l (Anthriscus

cerifolium ), fennel (Foeniculum spp.) , �arsley (Petroselinum

·crispum) , and sage (Salvia officinal i s) (Rosengarten 1969)..

Another method of arranging the spices would be according

to the botan ical famil i es to which they belong . For example,

the Umbell i ferae or carrot fami ly includes ani se, caraway ,

celery seed (Apium graveolens), chervil, coriander , cumin , dill,

fennel , and parsley ; the Labi atae contains basil , marjoram

(Origanum maj orana) , mint (Mentha spp . ), oregano (Oreganum

vulgare) , rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sage , and thyme

(Thymus vulgar is) ; and the Zingiberaceae whi ch includes carda-

mon , ginger , and turmeri c; etc . (Parry .1945) . While this system

relieves the problem of the many ambigui ties of the other system,

it conveys little to anyone but the trained botanist.

To s imp l i fy the presentation of this material , this paper

wi ll consider both spices and herb s under the broad and general

headings of spices . As with all sections of this paper , the

species are listed at the end wi th their corresponding families .

The use of spices as condiments in cooking is well known .

Less well known , perhaps , is their use as medicinals and cos

metics . Until a relatively recent time , spices were the main

source of all cosmetics { Loewen feld and Back 1974) . Recipes

for making these natural aids were handed down from generation 43 to generation . Mos t recipes involved the infusion of the

spice in water or oi l. When this was done the active princi - ples within were released and acted directly on the skin , clearing spots , pimples, and refining i t, accordi ng to the

spice used . Today, methods of synthesizing these properties have made their use as cosmetics obsolete .

As medicinals , spices have played an important role in the survival of man . Today, these uses are also nearly obsolete .

In earlier times , however, their healing powers were much respected . It was common knowledge that wounds could be healed effectively with agrimony (Agrimonia eupa tor ia) and comfrey

(Symphytum officinale) ( Loewenfeld and Back 1974) . Di sorders of the urinary tra ct, bladder , and kidneys were also rel i eved by various wi ld berries , leaves, and flowers . Other remedies include chamomi le (Anthemis nobi l i s) , comfrey, and the hors e- tails (Equisetum spp.) , which were used for coughs , colds , and sore mouth , eyes , and ears (Rosengarten 196 9) . Defic iency di seases such as scurvy were also corrected wi th preparations of rose h ips (Rosa spp.) , b i lberries (Vaccinium myrti llus) , chickweed (Stellaria medi a) , and many others (Loewenfeld and

Back 197 4) . S till others have found help for d iabetes through th e use of stinging nettle, (Ur ti ca spp.) , dandel ion ( Taraxacum officinale) , and teas made of bilberry leaves and elderberry

(Sambucus canadensis or S. pubens) (Loewenfeld and Back 1974).

The healing powers of these plants apparently l ie in constituents such as alkaloids , glycosides , essenti al oils , volatile oils , mi nerals , trace elements , protein, etc . Some alkaloids produce a stimulating effect on the nervous sys tem , while 44 others are needed to stimu late lower digestive g lands wh ich

in turn aid in digestion and consequently stimulate the

appeti te. The effect of substances known as glycosides are

ma inly anti-inflammatory and antipyretic . Saponins are a

particular type of glycoside whi ch have a cleansing , diuretic ,

and expectorant influence on the system .

The essential and volatile oils are the substances which

impart the various fragrances to the spices . They also . in

crease the production of whi te blood cells thus improving the

circulation of the blood to the skin , and are thought to pro-

mo te perspiration , soo the i nflammations and posses s bacteri -

cidal and disinfectant qualities .

Some of the minerals present in spices are in the form of

inorganic salts . Two of these are potassium, which acts as a

diuretic , and calcium which is important in bone formation .

Others are in the form of salts of organic acids such as c i tric

and oxal ic acids . These substances can increase resistance to

infection , influence the blood count , and act effectively a s

laxatives (Loewenfeld and Back 1974) .

Table 1 provides general informa tion about some of these

plants .

TABLE 1 - Spi ce tab le listi ng some cor.rrnon spices and thei r uses . (Revised from Loewenfeld and Back 1974 and Chartwell Books 1979)

NAME PARTS OF PLANT USES

Agr imony Leaves Infusion for coughs , colds , arthritis , rheumatism : for wash ing wounds . Antisepti c blood ; puri fier, diuretic . 45 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Allspice Dried berry In stock for poaching meat and f i sh . Ground , in beef and game casse roles . Crushed in sauer kraut and cabbage dishes . Whole,in frui ts . Ground , in cakes , buns , biscuits and in baked sponge pud ding .

Aniseed Who le dried seed Rich meat dishes , such as casseroles of hare or pigeon . In salad dressing . With stewed apples and fruit pies , cakes , bread .

Bilberry Berries B ilberry tea . Infusion o f Leaves leaves for diabetes ; berries for dys entery , urinary complaints . Poul tice of leaves for ulcers.

Caraway Whole dried seed In Hungarian goulash , rich game , meat and offal dishes to offset fattiness. Flavoring in some cheeses . With baked apples , caraway cakes ( said to aid diges tion) , in cakes , breads , as garnish . Eaten on bread and butter . 46 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Cardamon Dried seed in In curry powder. In capsules . pickling vegetables . In Ind ian rice dishes . With stewed frui ts . Added to black coffee . In Danish pastries , and in cakes and buns, especially

gingerbread •

. chamomil e Flowers Chamomi le tea . Infusion for toothache, digestion , toni c, constipation , steam bath for skin troubles . Inhalation for catarrh s and colds .

Chilis Who le dried pods In h i gh ly-spiced Mexican di shes , in beef casseroles , on meat for grilling or barbecue . With sea food , in pickling spices . Infused in oil and vinegar for salad dressings. As a garnish for eggs and cheese dishes .

Ch i ckweed Who le herb Young leaves as vegetable l ike spinach . Chopped, in salads . Ointment for skin diseases . Poultice for rheumatism, stiff joints . Decoction of fresh plant for constipation, diuretic . 47 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Cinnamon Dried inner bark C innamon sticks in pick and Cassia Cassia buds , l i ng . Groun� sprinkled dried leaves . on meats for grilli ng . Garnish to mashed potatoes and cream soups . With stewed frui ts , in wine and ale , with fruit salad , sprinkled on puddings and rice . In cakes , buns , cookies . Cassi a leaves in curries .

Cloves Dri ed unopened bud . Studded i n ham. To pickle meat such as pork or beef . In pickling vegetables , as garni sh to mashed potatoes and cream soups . Decora t ions for children 's confec tions , such as eyes and buttons on gi ngerbread men . Ground, in cakes and cooki es .

Comfrey Roots , Stalks , Roots cooked as asparagus . Leaves , Flowers Young leaves in salads , cooked as spinach . Dried leaves and flowers added to cooked vegetables . Infus ion made from leaves and root . Used fresh for bronchitic colds , pneumoni a, dysentery . Arrests internal bleeding . Poulti ces , l iquid decoction or oi ntment for sprains , bruises , swellings , arthritis , rheumatism . 48 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Coriander Dried seed In casseroles , stuffings , curries . Often in spiced sausages and meat loaf , in thick vegetab le soup , apple pie , cake, fruit breads . As garni sh on egg and cheese dishes .

Cumin Dried seed An i ngredient of curry powder and chi l i sea soning . With cream cheese in dips . Ground, in fruit pies and rye bread .

Dandelion Leaves , Root Leaves boiled as vegetables, raw for salads , wine . Roots roasted and ground as a cof fee substitute . Infusion of leaves for l iver com plaints , laxative, tonic , diabetes , rheumatism, arthriti s. Jui ce from leaves for skin disea ses , loss of appeti te.

Elder Berries , Flowers , Elderberry tea , wine . Wild Roots fruit substi tute for cur rents . Elderflower tea . Berries for neuralgia . Infusion of flowers for colds , influenza, tonic , toothache , bronchi al ail ments , sedative , diuretic . Roots as a laxative . 49 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Fenugreek Who le dried seed Whole, in stock for poaching fish . Ground, i n meat casse roles , curries and sauces . Seeds used to flavor imita tion maple syrup .

Ginger Fresh or dried In pickling . In curries rhizome and meat dishes . Who le root to make ginger beer . In jams and stewed fruits . In cakes and cookies , especially gingerbread and ginger snaps .

Hors etail Young shoots Cooked like asparagus or tossed in flour and fried . Infusion for anemia , sore throat , hemorrhoids , chest complaints , diuretic .

Mace Dried outer shell Whole, in soups and casse of nut roles , with pork , veal and sausage . In fruit preserves and stewed fruits . Ground, in frui t salads and on milk puddings , in cakes , cookies , and in rice, egg and cheese dishes and with root vege tables .

Mint Leaves Flavorings , sweet and savory foods , mint tea . Infusion for ind igestion , stimulant . 50 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Mustard seed Whole seeds of In pick ling meat and fish , black or white in fish dishes , casserole mustard of pork , veal , rabbit. In vegetables and sauces , and in egg and cheese dishes .

Nettle Young leaves As boiled vegetable, raw in s alads , flavoring . Nettle tea . Infus ion for l iver , gall bladder . Arrests bleedi ng . Blood purifier .

Nutmeg Dried kernel Grated into fish cakes , fish sauces , and white chicken dishes . Grated over lima beans , potatoes , cabbage , egg and cheese d ishes . On puddings , custards , ice cream . In stewed fruit, cakes , cookies .

Pepper, black Dried peppercorn Whole peppercorns for pickling and in boiling meat and fish and in marinades . Ground, in all "dark " meats , most vege tables , egg and cheese dishes , salads and salad dressings. 51 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Pepper , whi te Dried inner Whole, in pickled meats peppercorns and f i sh . Ground, in whi te f ish and poultry dishes, in cream soups , white sauces , egg and cheese dishes .

Poppy seed Who le dried seed I n some curries and ri ce dishes . Used to give nutty texture to cream cheese dips and spread s, egg and cheese dishes . To garni sh vegetable soups . Whole seed sprink led on bread , buns , biscui ts .

Ro sehips Fruits Rosehip tea , syrup , wild frui t. Source of Vitamin C, Infusion for tonic , soothing , dysentery , female disorders , diuretic , kidney ailments .

Saffron Who le dried A powerful coloring . Used strands in r ice dishes and with fish . Good i n cheese and egg dishes and in cream of vegetable soups . In saffron cakes and buns .

Sesame Whole dried seed In creamed fish dishes and chicken . In cheese d ips , cream soups and vegetables . As topping to frui t. Sprinkled on bread , buns and biscui ts. 52 NAME PART OF PLANT USES

Thyme Leaves Flavoring sweet and savory foods . Infusion for digestion , bronchial a i lments .

Turmeric Ground yellow In most curries and i n rhizome r i ce and f i sh d i shes . Adds color to egg and cheese d i shes . Essential in mustard pi ckles . Used very sparingly to color cakes and buns . Too much will give a bitter taste .

Vanilla Dried pod or In sauces, puddings , ice pure extract cream , custards . Who le dry pods are more subtle than extract. Vanilla sugar used in all baked goods , fillings , frostings , toppings and baked puddings , especial ly with chocolate .

PLANT NAMES

Scientific Name Common Name Family

Agrimonia agrimony Rosaceae eupatoria L.

All i um gar lic Lil iaceae sat1vum L.

Anethum dill Umbelliferae graveolens L.

Anthemis chamomi le Compositae nob1lis L. 53 PLANT NAMES - contin ued

Scientific Name Common Name Family

Anthriscus chervil Umbellif erae cerefolium ( L. ) Hoffm .

Armoracia horseradish Cruciferae rustic ana Gaertn . et. al.

Brassica White mustard Cruciferae alba ( L. ) Rabenh .

� nigra (L.) Koch black mustard Cruciferae

Capsi cum green pepper , Solanaceae frutescens L. chili, cayenne

Car um caraway Umbelliferae carvi L.

Cinnamornum cassia Lauraceae cassia Blume

� zeylanicum Nees cinnamon Lauraceae

Coriandrum coriander Umbe lliferae sativum L.

Crocus saffron Iridaceae sativus L.

Cumin um cumin Umbelliferae cyminum L.

Curcuma turmeric Z i ngiberaceae longa L.

Elettaria cardamon Z ingiberaceae cardamornurn (L. ) Maton .

Equiseturn spp . horsetails Equis etaceae

Eugenia c loves Myrtaceae caryophyllata Thunb .

Foeniculum spp . fennel Umbelliferae

Mentha spp . mint Labiatae

Myristica mace .Myr isticaceae fragrans Houtt . 54 PLANT NAME S- continued

Scienti fi c Name Common Name F amily

Myristica nu tmeg Myristicaceae fragran s Routt .

Oc imum bas il Labi atae basi li cum L.

Origanum mar j oram Labi atae ma Jorana L.

� vulgare L . oregano Labiatae

Pa paver poppy seed P apaveraceae somniferum L.

Petroseli num parsely Umbelliferae cri spum (.Mill. ) Mansf .

Pimenta allspice Myrtaceae officinalis Lindl .

P. racernosa ( Mi l l.) J. W. Moore allspice Myrtaceae

Pimpi nella anise Umbelliferae anisum L.

Piper black pepper Piperaceae n igrurn L.

P iper white pepper Piperaceae nigrum L.

rosehips Rosaceae

Rosmarinus rosemary Labia tae officinalis L.

Salvia s age Labiatae of ficinalis L.

Sambucus el_derberry Capr i fo liaceae canadens is L.

� pubens Michx . elderberry Caprifoliaceae

Sesamum sesame Pedaliaceae indicum L.

Stellaria chi ckweed Caryophyllaceae media (L.) Cyr . 55 PLAN'!' NAMES - continued

Scientific Name Common Name Fami ly

Symphytum comf rey Boraginaceae o fficinale L.

Syzygium cloves Myrtaceae aromati cum (L. ) Merr . & Perry

Taraxacum dandelion Compositae off1c1nale Weber .

Thymus thyme Labiatae vulgaris L.

Trigonella f enugreek Leguminosae foenum-graecum L .

Urtica spp. nettle Urticaceae

Vaccinium blueberry Ericaceae myrtillus L.

Vanilla vanilla Orchidaceae planifolia Andr .

Zingiber ginger Zingiberaceae officinale Rose . POISONOUS PLANTS

It is an accepted opinion that primitive man subsisted by hunting and gathering wild plants . As a consequence of this mode o f l iving , he learned , largely through trial and error , that some plants could nouri sh him, whi le others could kill him . Some plants could make h im ill, while others could cure him or relieve pain . Still others could produce altered states o f consciousness .

The remainder of this paper will deal with these latter aspects , namely poisonous, hallucinogenic, and medicina l p l ants .

Many plants may serve as all three depending on the amount or dosage and preparation invo lved . Also , many of the active principles o f the p lants are the same a s in other plants of the same and/or related families . In an attempt to eliminate repetition , a particular p lant will be discussed in only one section , and its other attributes will be briefly mentioned at that time .

The knowledge of poisonous p l ants dates back to primitive man , as has been stated. The first Westerners to study this aspect of life, as one mi ght guess , were the Greeks and Romans .

Th eir knowledge , in turn , was passed along to the northern

Europeans . Consequently , the recorded observations of the

Greeks and Romans are reflected in many o f the seventeenth century European herbals (Klein 1979) . Herbals were (are ) 56 57 books that were written about plants relating to medicine .

Toward the end o f that century , books concerning only poisonous plants were written . Most of t� e written works of

that time were done by a select few who were educated . Those who recall the history of the period know that the language

of an educated person was Latin . Consequently , all these works were wri tten i n the Lati n language . Major advances were made in the eighteenth century, when the effort was made to

convert these books from Latin into the language of common

use in an attempt to make information on poisonous plants

available to the public . The eighteenth century was also the

period wh en chemi stry as a science was born , and chance observation was replaced by experimental i nvestigation .

The introducti on of chemistry as a science in the United

States followed , and courses in chemistry , botany , and geology were almost immediately offered by the leading col leges . The

experimental approach , commonly referred to as the "scientific method ", did not gain momentum , however , until for thcoming

decades . Its primary impetus was ga ined in 1962 with the

establishment of the Department of Agriculture (Kingsbury 1964) .

The major concern at that time was with the e ffect of poisonous plants on animals . Since then , other problems , for example human poi sonings , have been given increasing attention .

The growing concern over plants that poison has involved much

experimentation , often requiring the work of botanists,

chemists , veterinarians , and many other specialists . For

this reason the determination of the particular poison i nvo lved

and the plant from which it came i s often a di fficult task . 58 It should be obvious that the appl ication of herbarium specimens and recorded folklore to this problem is very helpful.

At this point it will be beneficial to note exactly what a poison is, and s ome of the condi tions necessary in order to determine the toxicity and susceptibility of organisms to poisons . In general , a poison is any substance which , when introduced into a living system , chemically induces some form of indisposition wi th irritant , narcotic, or nervous symptoms that lead to i njury or death (Brooks and Jacobs 195 8). Poison- ous plants then, are those plants that, under normal conditions , produce or contain such poisons or toxic substances in suffic i ent quantity as to cause s uch indispositions in animals, including man .

The toxicity, i.e. the minimum amount of a substance required to produce these effects , of a plant may be dependent on factors such a s soi l, climate , and whether the plant is wild or cultivated . In general, wild plants have higher concentrations of alkaloids and glycosides than cultivated ones (Long

19 2 4) . Plant parts which have been wil ted or dried also have higher concentrations: of the toxic principle . The soil factor is interesting in that not only do hi gh concentrations of certain minerals in the soil cause the plant to be toxic, but deficiencies of soil minerals may also cause problems, because the deficiency is passed on to the consumer organism. The consumer organism ' s deficiency in turn may permit a previously nontoxic substance to become toxic . Furthermore , wi thi n a particular plant the toxic substance may be found throughout , or it may be localized in a speci fic part of the plant . For 59 example, the blade of a rhubarb plant (Rheum rhaponticum) is poisonous , while the stalk or petiole is edible .

The quantity of poison taken and the mode of poisoning are , of course , d irectl y related to the effects produced .

Admini stration of a poison intravenously or subcutaneously is mo re effective than oral administration (Brooks and Jacobs

19 58) . The latter i s indirect and influenced by the amount of food i n the stomach . The former is , of course , direct and results occur very rapidly . Susceptibility is often dependent on age and health . Obviously , a healthy adult will be less susceptible than a chi ld or a sickly person . It is possible to develop a tolerance to certain poi sons through repeated dosages . Such repetition , however , may be habit forming , and the type of tol erance acquired is not absolute . In most cases wh ere poi sons are concerned , a tolerance cannot be acquired

(Brooks and Jacobs 1958) .

There are many ways in which plant poisons may be described and/or classified. Those most frequently used are based on the families of plants , the chemical nature and properties of the toxic principle, the physiological action of the poison on the body , and the symptoms whi ch are produced .

The chemical nature of the poison probably provides the most useful information . This type of information is mo st helpful for the development of anti -toxins and other medicinal derivatives of poisons . Unfortunately , some toxins cannot be isolated . The physiological action of a poison on an organism may be of diagnostic importance because of the specifi c effect it produces . Whi le this i s true , some plants 60 may have complex e ffects due to more than one toxic substance ,

or poisons from different plants may overlap to produce

similar physiological effects . The symptoms produced are

also difficult to deal with as they may mimic the symptoms produced by various i llnesses . It is evident , then , that all �· .'·

of these methods must be considered .

The simplest and most convenient classi f i cation o f poisons is a considerati on of the physiological action the poison has on the individual . According to Brooks and Jacobs

(1958) , there are three ways in which a poison can affect the body : 1) corrosive poisons ; 2) irritant poisons ; and 3) systemic poisons . Corrosive poisons are those which , by their direct action, destroy the tissue with which they come in contact . Oxalic acid , for example, is a corrosive poison . There are two types of irritant poisons ; those which cause the inflammation of the mucous membranes , and those which cause dermati tis . Systemic poisons act on the nervous system or other organs of the body without having irritant or corrosive effects. This latter category may be further subdivided into : a) blood poisons , such as cas tor bean (Ri cinus communis) , black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) , and precatory bean

(Abrus precatorius) ; b) neural poisons such as the opium poppy

(Papaver somniferum) , jimson weed (Datura stramonium) , and henbane (Hyos cyamus niger) ; c) neuro-muscular poisons like

Digitalis purpurea ; and d) muscular poisons such as those

found in species of Veratrum (Muenscher 1943) .

Plants causing allergies , dermatitis , and photosensiti zation are examples of classification by symptoms . Allergies 61 such as hay fever or allergic rhinitis are most common and are caused by wind-borne po llen and/or the spores of fungi

(Tippo and Stern 1977) . In this case, proteins in the po llen or fungal spores damage the nasal membranes . The damaged membranes produce histamines which cause the glands of th�· nose to secrete fluids and relax the muscles of the blood vessels. Thi s allows more permeability and hence more secre- tion of fluids (Tippo and Stern 1977) . Wilson et . al . (1971), report that three hay fever seasons are recogni zed , and each has species who se pollination periods coincide with flare-ups of hay fever . The early part of spring is one of these seasons. During this time the usual causal agent is tree pollen . Among the trees concerned are the elms ( Ulmus spp.) , poplars (Populus spp . ), birches (Betula spp.) , oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), ashes (Fraxinus spp.) , and sycamores (Platanus spp . ). Grasses are the primary causal agents i n the late spring and early summer . Among the more important species are Kentucky bluegrass (Poa prate nsis) , timothy (Phleum pratense ), and Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) .

Late summer and fall is another time when hay fever victims are h it hard by pollen production . During this season the ragweeds . (Ambrosi a trifida and A. artemisiifoli� are the pollen producers . Antihistamines appear to be the only source of relief for the hay fever victim . Antihistamines effective ly counter the release of h i stamines , thus returning the membranes to their natural condition ( Tippo and Stern 1977) .

Caution must be regarded in the use of antihistami nes, however , since they often cause drowsiness and other side effects . 62 Mere contact with some plants may produce a s kin disease known as dermatitis . Dermati tis is an irritati on or inflammation of the skin which may last a few days , but can persi st for several weeks (Muenscher 1943) . Possibly the most common occurrence of this type of poisoning in the United States i s due to poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans). This plant yields the yellow volati le o i l, urushioLwhi ch causes dermatitis upon contact (Muenscher 1943) . Dermatitis i s almost enti rely l imited to man , i.e. contact poisoning is rare in animals other than man (Kingsbury 1964) .

Some plants cause a phenomenon termed "photosen sitivity" in animals. In the se instances certain substances in these plants sensiti zes the animals to light , so that they develop symptoms upon exposure to light (Kingsbury 1964) . This phenomenon has been rel atively well studi ed , and it i s known that the symptoms will occur only i f the fol lowing conditions are met ; 1) the animal mus t be white or unpigmented , 2) the animal must eat a suffi cient quantity of the plant in question , and 3) the animal must be exposed to sunlight . Anima ls thus afflicted suffer abnormally red patches of s k in accompanied by itching . This is usually fol lowed by necrosis of the skin in affected parts (Kingsbury 196 4) . The exact mechanism by whi ch photo sensi tization occurs is not yet known . However, the basic reaction is thought to be one o f oxidation , wh ich is enhanced by sunli ght . Furthermore, evidence suggests that the sensitivity to light is due to the presence of a pigment which is not normally found there . Apparently , proteins such as histidine , tryptophan , and tyrosine , form the substrate in 63 wh ich the oxidation reaction takes place (Kingsbury 1964) •

This results in cellular damage or alterations o f the cell membrane which i n turn allow the organism to become hyper- sensitive to l i ght . P l ants whi ch cause photosensiti zation include buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum), St . Johnswort

(Hypericum per£ora tum ), lechuguilla (Agave lecheguilla) , panic grass (Panicum spp.) , Oats (Avena sativa) , alfalfa (Medicago sativa) , smartweeds (Polygonum spp.) , and clovers (Trifolium spp.) .

The chemical nature and toxic principles of poi sonous plants are still poorly under stood . However, as previously stated, this system proposed by Kingsbury ( 1964) remains a useful system of classification . One of the most widely dis- tributed groups are the alkaloids. The major research interest in alkaloids is in their importance in medicine, which will be discussed later . Alkaloids are secondary plant products which comprise a group of non volatile poisons that are basic in reaction (Schultes and Hofmann 1980; Kings- bury 1964) . Some 5, 000 have been dis covered in plants , and though they are typically organic and n i t rogeno us , very little more is known about the chemical structure o f many alkaloids .

The mechani sm of alkaloidal poisoning, in spite of intensive research , is also poorly understood . Some alkaloids may be in the form of a stimulant , whi le others may cause constri ction of mus cles, and sti ll others are pain killers (Schultes 1976) .

Furthermore , some may cause a reaction in an organism while oth�rs may not (Ki ngsbury 196 4) . The same alkaloid may be toxic to one organism and non toxi c to another . At any rate , 64 mo st produce a strong physiological reaction wh ich is usua�ly

exerted on the central nervous system , and reflects alterations

in control of cellular functions of the brain and the peripheral

nerve network ( Kingsbury 1964) . Quite frequently , the name of

an alkaloid is deri ved from the generic or specific name of

the plant from which it has been extracted . Such names are

often useless as they tell l i ttle of the chemic al structure of

the compound . An attempt is presently being made to correct

thi s practice . Fol lowi ng is a list of some of the toxic

alkaloids , and the plants which contain them :

Alkaloid Scientific Name Common Name

Atropine * Atropa belladonna belladonna Hyoscyamine * Datura stramonium jimson weed Scopolomine * Hyoscyamus niger henbane

Pyridine Conium maculatum poison hemlock Lobelia spp . Ind ian tobacco Nicotiana tabacurn tobacco

Isoquinoline Corydali s spp . Di centra cucullaria Dutchman 's breeches Papaver somnifer um opium poppy Sanguinaria canadensis bloodroot

Indole Clavic eps purpurea ergot Peganum harmala African rue

Solanidine Lycopersicum esculentum tomato Solanum spp . potato , nightshades

Vera tr amine Veratrum spp . false hellebore Z i gadenus death camas *Tropane alkaloids 65 Alkaloid Scientific Name Common Name

Delphinine Aconi tum spp . monkshood Delphinum spp . larkspur

Another group of plant poisons distinguishable by thei r

toxic principles are the glycosides . Glycosides are chemical

compounds consisting of one or more sugar molecules attached

to one or more other compound s which are termed aglycones

( Kingsbury 1964) . They are much l ike alka loids in that they

are nonvolatile, bitter , have marked physiological effects

on animals and man , and are important in both toxico logy and medicine . They differ from alkaloids i n that they are non-

basic in reaction , and the amount accumulated in the plant is

dependent upon environmental factors and factors such as

genetics , age of the plant, and plant part. The term

glucoside is often used synonymously wi th glycoside, but

should be reserved for a particular type of glycoside in which the sugar compon ent is glucose (Kingsbury 1964) .

It has been determined that toxici ty is a functi on of

the aglycone component (Ki ngsbury l964) . A great vari ety of

compounds serve as aglycones in glycosides . Consequently ,

there are several kinds of glycosides whi ch i nclude cyanogenetic glycosides , goitrogenic substances , irritant oils, coumarin glycosid es , and steriod glycosides .

The cyanogenetic glycosi des are those which y i eld hydrocyanic acid (HCN) . The glycoside amygdalin is one of the most common , and is often found in members of the Rosaceae

(Bamford 1951) . The glycoside itself is not toxic . Poisoning 66 is due to the HCN component which is typically in higher concentration i n wi lted , frosted , or stunted plants { Kings- bury 196 4) . It may be noted that ruminant animals tend to be more susceptible to this type of poisoning than monogastric animals . Hydrocyanic acid acts by inhibiting the enzyme , cytochrome oxidase (Kingsbury 1964). Thi s enzyme is a terminal respiratory catalyst which l inks atmospheric oxygen with metabolic respiration . Its inhibi tion by HCN results in death due to asphyxiation . Following i s a l i st of plants with cyanogenetic potential :

Scientific Name Common Name

Hydrangea spp . hydrangea Linum spp . flax Manihot escu lenta cassava Phaseolus lunatus lima bean Prunus spp . cherri es Pyrus malus apple Sorghum spp . sorghum Trifolium repens white clover Triglochin spp . arrowgrass Vicia sativa vetch Zea mays maize, corn

Goi trogenic substances in plants are also classified as glycos ides . These substances , when present in suffici ent quantity , inhibi t the thyroid from accumu lating iodine and thus result in the formation of a goi ter . The goitrogenic factors are thiooxazolidone and thiocyanate , which are found in many species and varieties of Brassica oleracea . These factor s cause hyperplastic enlargement of the thyroid and 67 symptoms of hypothyroidism . In most cases, their effects can be count�red by adding appropri ate amounts of iodine to the

diet (Kingsbury 1964) . The fol lowing species and varieties

contain goitrogenic compounds :

Scientific Name Common Name

Beta vulgari s var. c i cla chard B. caulorapa kohlrabi B. alba whi te mustard seed B. nigra black mustard seed B. acephala kale B. rapa turnip B. oleracea var. botrytis broccoli var. capi tat a cabbage var. gemmifera brussel sprouts vaL napobrassica rutabaga

Other plants that contain goi trogenic substances include soy bean (Gycine max) and flax ( Linum usita ti ssimum) .

The irri tant oils are also found in greatest abundance in the seeds of various members of the Cruci ferae . They exist in the plant in glycosidic form and are released upon the enzymatic breakdown of the glycoside . The oil thus derived is capable of causi ng ser ious i njury if i nges ted in sufficient quanti ty . Chemical analysis shows that the active fraction of the oils are i sothiocyanates whi ch are very similar to the goi trogenic substances i n the Cruciferae (Kingsbury 1964) .

Among the species thought to be responsible for this type of poi soning are horseradi sh (Armoracia lapathifolia), white mustard (Brassica alba ) , Ind i an mustard (B. juncea) ,charlock 68 (� kaber) , wi ld radish (Raphanus raphanis trum) , and fanweed

(Thlaspi arvense) .

Several genera in the fami ly Ranunculaceae also have

irritant properties which are due to glycos ides . The glyco-

side ranunculin breaks down to yield an aglycone component called protoanemonin (Kingsbury 196 4) . Thi s component is a vo lati le oil whi ch tends to induce i rritant effects . Plants producing thi s substance include Actaea spp . (baneberry ) ,

Anemone spp . ( anemone), Caltha pa lustris (marsh mari gold) ,

and Ranunculus spp . (buttercup) .

There are several glycosides which are modifications of coumarin . However , only three of these produce poi soning .

Aescul in found i n the genus Aesculus (horsechestnut, buckeyes) and daphnin found in the genus Daphne are two of these. The toxicity of these g lycosides i s not yet clear . The sweet- clovers (Meli lotus alba and M. offi cinali s) on the other hand , contain a coumarin derivative whi ch , upon spoilage , is converted to dicoumarin. Thi s compound has been found to reduce the blood proth romb in level and cause the blood to become incapable of clotting (Kingsbury 196 4) . Hence , hemorrhaging occurs in victims who have ingested these plants .

The steriod glycosides are composed of ag lycones which are often toxi c by themselves . The sugar component in this case may be important in altering or determining the activity of the glycoside . On this basis , steroid glycosides may be divided into thos e which possess the abi l ity to stimulate the heart and those which do not . The former are referred to as cardiac glycos ides , and the latter are termed saponi c 69 glycos ides or sapogenins .

Some 400 cardiac glycosides have been i solated , mos t of

wh ich are limi ted to three p lant families , the Scrophulariaceae,

the Lil iaceae , and the Apocynaceae (Kingsbury 1964) . As yet ,

none of these have been synthesized , and their mechanism of

action is unknown . However , they have been used in medicine

for their ability to strengthen the action of a weakened heart ,

particularly Digitalis purpurea , the foxglove . Other plants

containing cardiac glycosides are Apocynum spp . {dogbane) ,

Nerium oleander {oleander) , and Convalari a majal is {lily-of

the-valley) •

Saponins are , as stated , the noncardioactive glycosides .

They are typically large mo lecules whi ch form a colloida l

solution and produce a nonalkaline , soapy froth when shaken

in water . The saponin content of a plant is dependent on the

part of the plant, the season , and the stage of growth of the plant . It is beli eved that the toxicity of saponins is due to

thei r destructive force upon erythrocytes . Alone , saponins are not readily absorbed into the bloods tream through the digestive tract. They must be accompanied by a substance with

irritant properties sufficient to cause injury to the intesti nal wall and permi t absorption {Kingsbury 1964) . Under these conditions saponins can cause severe gastroenteritis. Some plants containing saponins are beech {Fagus sylvatica) ,

Engl ish ivy {Hedera helix) , yel low pine flax {Linum neomexi canum) , alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ) , and pokeweed {Phytolacca americana) .

There are a number of plants which concentrate oxalic 70 acid. Thi s compound , if i ngested as a chemical , has corro-

sive affects on anima l tissue (Bamford 1951) • More often , however , the toxici ty of oxalic acid is dependent on the reaction of the oxalate ion . The activity of the ion is such that it causes a cationic imbalance in blood (Kingsbury 196 4) .

This results in nervous symptoms , reduced coagulab ili ty of the blood , and more importantly the eventual blockage of kidney tubules due to the build-up of calcium oxalate crysta ls . In other instances , the acid combi nes with calcium to form calcium oxalate crystals . Epithel i al cells which come in contact with calcium oxalate crysta ls are destroyed . This is accompanied by an intense burning sensation and irritation which i s brought about by the mechanical penetration of the crystals into the mucous membranes (Kingsbury 1964) . The fol lowing plants contain soluable oxalates that effect the blood :

Scienti fic Name Common Name

Beta vul gari s beet Oxalis spp . sorrel Portu laca oleracea purslane Rh eum rhaponticum rhubarb Rumex spp . dock Sarcobatus vermiculatus greasewood

These plants contain oxalate c rystals which produce burning and irritation :

Ari saema triphyl lum jack- in-the-pulpit Calla palustris calla Dieffenbachia spp . dumbcane Phi lodendron spp . philodendron Symplocarpus f oetidus skunk cabbage 71 Plants may be toxic secondari ly through surf ace deposi - tion of and accumulation of certain minerals ( Kingsbury 1964) .

Plants may obtain these minerals directly from the soi l.

More often , however, i t is the result of plants being in the vicini ty of industri al establishments . In the United States , i t is common for roadside plants to acc�mulate toxi c levels of lead , the source of which is tetraethyl lead used in modern gasolines . Another source of toxic mineral accumulation is the repeated use of fungi cides and ferti l i zers .

There are many minerals which can be poi sonous in this way . Some, such as arseni c and flourine deposi tions in industr ial areas, are usually obvious . Less obvious cases involve copper, manganese , and cadmium poisoning . Copper is taken up in vegetation in areas where the bordeaux mixture

( a fungicide) ha s been applied . Cadmium is simi larly taken up in plants that are grown where the soil i s heavily ferti - lized with commercial superphosphates in which i t is an impurity . Manganese deficiencies result due to mi neral deficiencies of the soil. Livestock foraging on such deficient plants have given b irth to deformed young (Kings- bury 1964) .

There are essentially three other mineral s whi ch are of major importance as poisons : ni trates-ni trites , selenium , and mo lybdenum . Nitrate poisoning can be produced by the i ngestion of nitrate fertilizers , machine oi ls , natural water of high nitrate content , and foods that are improperly pres erved in nitrate s (Kingsbury 1964) . In the process of digestion , nitrate s are reduced in steps to ammonia . One 7 2 of the intermedi ate compounds o f th is stepwi se reaction is

ni trite , which is ten times as toxic as ni trate . Within a

living organism, nitrite impairs the blood ' s abi l ity to

transport oxygen . When the blood is no longer able to

supply the oxygen demand of the body, death occurs due to

asphyxiation. Toxic levels of nitrates have been measured

in the following plants :

WEEDS

Scienti fic Name Common Name

Amaranthus spp . pigweeds Bidens f rondosa stick tights Bromus catharticus rescue grass Chenopodium spp . lamb 's quarter Conium maculatum poison hemlock Datura stramonium jimson weed Eupatorium perfoliatum joe-pye weed Euphorb ia maculata milk purslane Polygonum spp . smartweed Rumex spp . dock Sambucus pubens elder Solanum spp . nightshades Solidago spp . goldenrods

CROP PLANTS Apium graveolens celery Avena sativa oats Beta vulgaris beet Brassica napobrassica rutabaga B. oleracea broccoli , etc . B. rapa turnip Cucumi s sativa cucumber Cucurbita maxima squash 73 CROP PLANTS - con tinued

Scientific Name Common Name Daucus carota carrot Glycine max soybean Hordeum vulgare barley Ipomoea batatas sweet potato Lactuca sativa lettuce Linum usitatissimum flax Medicago sativa alfalfa Raphanus sativa s radish Secale cereale rye Sorghum vulgare sorghum Triticum aestivum wheat Zea mays corn

The accumulation of selenium i n plants exhibi ts a very unique relationship . They accumulate it or they do not .

Those that do accumulate selenium may be facultative or ob li gate accumulators . The obl i gate accumulators include such plants as loco weeds (Astragalus spp.) , woody asters

(Xylorrhiza spp.) , goldenwe eds (Oonopsis spp.) and prince 's plumes (Stanleya spp.) . These plants require selenium for proper growth , and will be found only where selenium is in the soil. Facultative selenium i ndicators include asters

(Aster spp . ), paint brushes (Castilleja spp.) , bastard toad

flax (Commandra pallida) , penstemons (Penstemon spp . ), and others . These plants do not requi re selenium , and will grow well in its absence, but will accumulate i t if it is pres ent in the soil. In general, the amount of selenium i n a given plant is determined by i ts selenium-accumulating power and the soils selenium-supplying power . The former 74 is determined , in turn , by the species of p lant , its stage of development, and its general vi gor . The latter is deter mined by the form of selenium , its concentration in the root

zone , and the presence of other elements which may act a s competi tors (Kingsbury 1964) .

Animal di sorders caused by the ingestion of selenium are determined by the amount and form of selenium ,ingested . Three basic syndromes are known . One is acute selenium poisoni ng produced by single massive doses . Obligate species , partic ularly of Astragalus , are re spons ible. Thi s is fairly un common , though, as animals will not consume these plants unless driven to it. "Blind staggers " i s another synd rome .

Its name is derived from the tendency o f poisoned animals to wander aimlessly, often bumping into fences and other immov ab le objects . Actual physiological blindness may or may not occur . In the end , there i s paralysi s, weakness, and death through respi ratory failure . The thi rd syndrome is termed

"alkal i disease'' , and should be distingui shed from the other syndromes of the same name that do not invo lve selenium.

The symptoms whi ch characterize this type of poisoning are dullnes s, emaciation , and pronounced lameness . The source of difference in the latter two syndromes is unknown .

Molybdenum i s another mineral element whi ch may cause vegetati on to be toxi c. The molybdenum content of soil may determine toxici ty i n two ways . If the content i s unusually low i t promotes the accumulation of copper and the subse quent poisoni ng by this mineral element . Unusually high concentrations of molybdenum , on the other hand , deplete the 75 copper reserves of anima ls and results in the development of symptoms of copper deficiency . Thi s syndrome is we ll recognized , however , and is acknowledged ·as being d i stinctly different from mere copper deficiencies. Symptoms of mo lyb denum poi soning appear one to seven months after the affected forage i s continuously grazed . The symptoms include emaciation , scours, anemi a, changes in coat color , sti ffness,

�productive di fficulty , and occasional ly death . It is interesting to note that molybdenum toxici ty can be prevented by the addi tion of copper to the diet ( Kingsbury 1964) .

There remai n only a few other toxic principles to be found in plants . These are classi f ied as res ins or resinoids , phytotoxins , and polypeptides and amines . The resins are a group of heterogeneous compounds whi ch share a few physical characteristics . As extracts they are solid or semi -solid at room temperature , they are brittle, and they are easily burned or melted . They are also i nsoluble in water and do not contain nitrogen . Thei r physiological effects involve the di rect i rritation of mus cle or nervous tissue .

Phytotoxins are protein mo lecules of high toxicity wh ich are produced by a smal l number o f plants . They are simi lar to bacterial toxins in that they act as antigens, produci ng an antibody response . They also cause the agglutination of erythrocytes , but this doe s not appear to be the toxic mechani sm . Instead, i t i s beli eved that their toxicity is due to proteolytic enzymes that break down critical natural proteins and accumulate ammonia (Kings- bury 1964) . Few poisoni ngs of thi s nature occur , and loss 76 of livestock i s rare . The major concern is that the seeds of some of these plants , particu larly the precatory bean

( Ab rus precatori us), are brilli antly colored and thus are an attraction to children who like to eat them .

Polypeptides and amines are organic. ni trogen containing mo lecules other than alkaloids , whi ch are formed in plants and can be toxic . Certain algae (Microcysti s spp.) , fungi

(Amanita spp.), and h igher plants contain toxi c peptides .

Phoradendron f lavescens (mistletoe) , Acacia berlandieri

( guaj illo), and species of Lathyrus (pea) contain amines whi ch are credited with toxic action , and ergot (Claviceps purpurea) alkaloids are associated wi th amines which may be responsible for the toxi city of the sclerotia.

It is easily seen that poi sonings may occur in a variety of ways , involving a variety of condi tions and poi sons . In the ma jority of cases , the poison must be ingested and so has reached the stomach . Should this occur , Brooks and

Jacobs (1958 ), suggest the fol lowing procedures which may be undertaken to help prevent s erious illness or death . The fi rst step, of course, i s to send for a physician . In doing so it will be hel pful to inform h im of the type of poisoning and/or the type of plant ingested , if this information is known . Secondly, administer an emetic. Emetics are sub stances which induce vomi ting , and thereby wash out the stomach . Repeat thi s several times . This should be avoided , however , if the poison is of a corrosive nature . Vomiting under these circumstances may rupture the walls of the diges tive tract which are already damaged . If poisoning is not 77 corrosive , and an emetic is admini stered , it should be

followed by further diluting the remaining poison wi th lukewarm li quids . Saltwater or soapy water is often used as both emetic and diluent . The admini stration of antidotes is also helpful . Antidotes neutral ize the poi son by altering its physical or chemical properties . The compounds thus produced are nearly as toxic as the orig inal poison .

Therefore , the antidote should be used in conj unction wi th the emetic. Fol lowing this, demulcents , or substances such as milk , which coat the irritated memb ranes , should be given for their soothing effect. F inally , keep the victim warm and quiet with feet elevated . Other speci al treatments include the use of c athartics , stimulants , analgesics , and sedatives. These should be taken only as prescribed by a physi cian, since d ifficulties may arise as a result of their use .

PLANT NAMES

Scientific Name Common Name Family

Abrus rosary pea Leguminosae precatorius L.

Acaci a guaji llo Leguminosae berlandieri Benth .

Aconi tum spp . monkshood Ranunculaceae

Actaea spp . baneberry Ranunculaceae

Aesculus spp . horsechestnut Hippocastanaceae

Agave lechugui l l a Agavaceae lecheg u i l l a Tor r .

Amani ta sp p. Agaricaceae

Amaranthus spp . pigweed s Ama ranthaceae 78 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientif ic Names Common Names Family

Ambrosia ragweed Compositae artemi s iifolia L.

A. trifida ragweed Compositae

Anemone spp . anemones Ranunculaceae

Apium graveolens L. celery U1nbelliferae

Apocynum �· dogbane s Apocynaceae

Ar isaema jack-in-the Araceae triphyllum (L. ) Torr . pulpi t

Armoracia horseradish Cruciferae lapathifolia Gilib .

Aster � · asters Compositae

Astragalus spp . locoweeds Leguminosae

Atropa belladonna L. belladonna Solanaceae

Avena sativa L. common oats Gramineae

Beta vulgaris L. beet Chenopodiaceae

�· vulgaris var . cicla L. chard Chenopodiaceae

Betula spp . birches Betulaceae

Bidens frondosa L . stick tights Compositae

Brassica kale Cruci f erae acephala DC . Borecole.

B . alba (L.) Rabenh . white mustard Cruciferae

B . caulorapa Pasq. kohlrabi Cruciferae

B. juncea (L. ) Cosson . Indian mustard Cruciferae

B . nigra (L. ) Koch . black mustard Cruciferae

B. oleracea var . botrytis L. broccoli Cruci ferae

B . oleracea var . capitata L . cabbage Cruciferae

B. oleracea brussel sprouts Cruciferae var . gemmi fera Zenk . 79 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientif ic Names Common Names Family

B . oleracea rutabaga Cruciferae - var . napobrassica (L. ) Mill.

B. rapa L. turnip Cruciferae

Bromus catharticus Vahl. rescue grass Gramineae

Calla palustr i s L . wild calla Araceae

Caltha palustris L. marsh marigold Ranunculaceae

Castilleja spp . paint brushes Scrophulariaceae

Carya spp . hickories Juglandaceae

Chenopodium spp. lamb ' s quarters Chenopodiaceae

Claviceps ergot Hypocreaceae purpurea (Fr.) Tull.

Corrnnandra pallida A. DC . bastard toad S antalaceae flax

Conium maculatum L . poison hemlock Umbe lliferae

Convalaria majalis L . lily-of-the Lili aceae valley

Corydalis spp . Fumariaceae

Cucumi s sativus L . cucumber Cucurbitaceae

Cucurbita max ima Duch . squash Cucurbitaceae

Cynodon dactylon (L. ) Pers . Bermuda grass Gramineae

Daphne spp . daphne Thyme lae aceae

Datura stramonium L. jimson weed Solanaceae

Daucus carota L. carrot Umbelli ferae

Delphinium spp . larkspurs Ranunculaceae

Dicentra Dutchman 's Fumariaceae cucullaria (L. ) Bernh . breeches

Dieffenbachia spp . dumbcanes Araceae

Digitalis purpurea L . foxglove , Scrophulariaceae digitalis 80 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientif ic Names Corrunon Names Family

Eupator iurn perfoliaturn L. j oe-pye weed , Compositae bone set

Euphorbia maculata L. milk purslane Euphorbiaceae

Fagopyrum sagittatum Gilib. buckwheat Polygonaceae

Fagus sylvatica L. beech Fagaceae

Fraxinus spp . ashes Oleaceae

Glycine max (L. ) Merr. soy bean Leguminosae

Hedera helix L. English ivy Araliaceae

Hordeum vulgare L . barley Gramineae

Hydrangea spp . hydrangeas Saxifragaceae

Hyocyarnu s niger L. henbane Solanaceae

Hypericum perforatum L. St. Johnswort Hypericaceae

Lactuca sativa L. lettuce Compositae

Lathyrus sp p . pea Leguminosae

Linum neomexicanum Greene pine flax Linaceae

L. usitatissimum L . flax Linaceae

Lobelia spp . Indian tobacco Campanulaceae

Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. tomato Solanaceae

Manihot esculenta Crantz . cassava Euphorbiaceae

Med icago sativa L . alfalfa Leguminosae

Me lilotu s alba Desr . white sweet Leguminosae clover

M . officinal i s (L.) Lam. yellow sweet Leguminosae clover

Microcystis spp . Chroococcaceae

Nerium oleander L. oleander Apocynaceae

Nicotiana tabacum L. tobacco Solanaceae 81 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scienti f i c Name s Common Names Family

Oonopsi s � · goldenweeds Compositae

Oxalis �· sorrels Oxalidaceae

Panicum spp . panic grass Gramineae

Papaver sornniferwn L. opiwn poppy Papaveraceae

Peganum harma la L. African rue , Zygophyl � aceae harmela

Penstemon �· penstemons Scrophulariaceae

Phaseolus lunatus L. lima bean Legwninosae

Phi lodendron �· phi lodendrons Araceae

Phleum pratense L. timothy Gramineae

Phoradendron mistletoe Loranthaceae flavescens (Pursh.) Nutt.

Phytolacca americana L. pokeweed Phytolaccaceae

Platanus spp . sycamores Platanaceae

Pea pratensis L . Kentucky blue Gramineae grass

Polygonum �· srnartweeds Polygonaceae

Populus spp . poplars Salicaceae

Portulaca oleracea L. purslane Portulacaceae

Prunus spp . cherries Rosaceae

Pyrus malus L. apple Rosaceae

Quercus spp . oaks Fagaceae

Ranunculus spp . buttercups Ranunculaceae

Raphanus wild rad i sh Cruciferae raphani strwn ( L.) Cosson .

R. sativus L. radish Crucif erae

Rheum rhaponticwn L. rhubarb Polygonaceae

Ricinus cornrnuni s L . castor bean Euphorbiaceae 82 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientif i c Names Common Names Family

Robinia pseudoacacia L. black locust Leguminosae

Rumex spp. Polygonaceae

Sambucus pubens Michx . elderberry Caprifoliaceae

Sanguinaria canadensis L. bloodroot Papaveraceae

Sarcobatus greasewood · chenopodiaceae vermiculatus Torr .

Secale cereale L. rye Gramineae

Solanum spp . potato , Solanaceae nightshades

Solidago �· goldenrod s Compositae

Sorghum vulgare Sudan grass Gramineae var . sudanense (Piper) Hitchc .

Stanleya spp . prince 's plumes Crucif erae

Symplocarpus skunk cabbage Araceae foetidus (L. ) Nutt.

Thlaspi arvense L . f anweed Cruciferae

Toxicodendron radicans L. poi son ivy Anacardiaceae

Trifolium repens L. clover Leguminosae

Triglochin spp . arrowgrass Juncaginaceae

Triticum aestivum L. wheat Gramineae

Ulrnu s spp . elms Ulmaceae

Veratrum �· false hellebores Liliaceae

Vicia sativa L. vetch Leguminosae

Xylorrhiza spp . woody asters Compositae

Zea mays L. corn , maize Gramineae

Zigadenus spp . death camas Liliaceae HALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS

Hal lucinogenic plants were particularly important in primi tive societies . Primitive people are known to have attributed sickness and health to the working of spirit forces . Consequently, any substance that would deliver man into the spir i t world was considered to be far better than merely phys i cal ones . These powers were attributed to plants which contain hallucinogeni c properties . Each society or tribe had a shaman , medicine man , or witch doctor who became a specialist in the use of hallucino- genie plants (de Rios 197 6) . It was h is duty to serve as a mediator between man and the spirit world . Aided by the use of hallucinogens , the shaman could use h is power to cure patients , foresee the future , bewitch an enemy , obtain the favors of a desirable woman , and manipulate supernatural entities . The shaman 's knowledge of such complex chemical substances is praised throughout l i terature .

As human cultures became more sophisticated , the position of shaman was gradually phased out of the l i fe style

(Ott 1976) . They evolved into priests who eventually ceased using hal lucinogens (Ott 19 7 6) . Coi ncidi ng with this were military conquests whi ch brought even more advanced and sophi sticated reli gion . It was not long unti l the old religion fell to persecution and was driven out of existence . 83 84 This may account for modern attit�des toward hal lucinogens wh ich regard them as "tabu" . Despite this rel ig ious evolu- tion , the use of hallucinogenic plants sti ll permeates nearly every present culture . Present use of halluc inogens has acquired particular attention in western cultures , where they have become more accessible . Today , in place of religious dogma and rituals, we have "medi cal opinions" and

"therapy ". In place of witches and shaman , we have "addicts " ,

"pushers ", and "junkies".

Modern use of halluci nogens , as with the primi tive cultures, is a means by which an altered state of consciousness is obtained . This altered state of mind , or departure from real i ty , may be referred to as an hallucination . Hal lucinations are produced by chemical compounds commonly called hallucinogens or narcotics ( Taylor 1963) . There are relatively few compounds whi ch produce such reactions , and nearly all _are found in members of the plant kingdom (Tippo and

Stern 1977) . Few other sources of hallucinogenic compounds are known . Furthermore, i t appears that even within the plant kingdom , the kinds o f plants that yield them are few . Schu'ltes

(1966) estimates that of the possible 800, 000 species of plants, only 60 species of angiosperms have been employed for their mind altering effects . Only twenty of these are considered to be of major importance . The only other members of the plant kingdom that contain hah lucinogens are the fungi . Many o f these are the mushrooms and puf fballs of the class , Basidiomycetes . One other group , the Ascomycetes , y ields ergot , the only hallucino- genie fungus o f that class . 85 The hallucinogenic compounds found wi thin these p lants may be divided i nto two broad groups : those that contain nitrogen in their structure , and those that do not ( Schultes and Hofmann 1980) . Among those that do are the alkaloids .

Most hallucinogens owe their effects .to the activities o f these compounds. Most narcotic alkaloids are derivatives of the amino acid tryptophan , and m�y also fall under the broad category of tryptami nes (Schultes and Hofmann 1980) •

The most important of those lacking ni trogen in their structure are the active principles of marihuana, Cannab i s sativa , which are called cannabinols . Most recent investi gations demonstrate that the euphoric effects derived from thi s plant are attributed to delta-1-tetrahydrocannabinol

(Farnsworth 1968) .

Other non nitrogenous compounds that may cause hallu cinations are termed pseudohallucinogens (Schultes and

Hofmann 1980) • These compounds are poisonous and cause what may be called a pseudohallucination , or secondary hallucination . True hallucinations act d irectly on the central nervous system , having both physical and psychic activity of typically short duration (Schultes and Hof man 1980: Ott 197 6) . Pseudohallucinogens , on the other hand , are characterized by affecting the autonomic nervous system (Schultes 1976) . The autonomi c nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis , or normal metabo lism , i.e. such things as blood pressure , body temperature , and breathi ng rhythm (Ott 1976) . Anything then , which alters homeostasis or normal metabolism to a sufficient 86 degree , will produce an hallucination . Consequently , it has been found that such things as fasting , fevers , and lack of water for long periods of time may also produce pseudohallucinations (Schultes 197 6) . In either case , the upsetting of the normal body functions induces a type of delerium which, for all practical purposes is an hal lucina tion . Plant components that are responsible for these effects appear to be the essenti al oi ls whi ch g ive certain aromatic plants their characteristic odor (Farnsworth 1968) . Such compounds inc lude safrole , myristi c i n, and elemicin, whi ch are components o f nutmeg (Myristi ca fragrans) and species of Virola (Schultes 1969) . Others are found in catnip

(Napeta catari a) and wisteria (Wisteri a sinensis) (Schultes

197 6) .

In the literature one may run across various terms that refer to substances or narcotics that i nduce halluci nations .

"Hallucinogen" is the most popular term among scientists, and comes closest to conveying the idea of a substance which induces an hallucination . Hal lucinogens are those substances which generate or evolve an hal lucination (Schultes 1976) .

Other terms attempt to describe the effect the narcotic induces. For example, psychotomimetics , are those narcotics in which the hallucination mimics a psychosis (Schultes and

Hofmann 1980) . Psychotaraxics , or "mi nd d i sturbers ", indicate that the narcoti c i nterferes with the normal proces ses of the mind (Schultes and Ho fmann 1980) . In the Uni ted States , the term psychedelic is widely used to refer to hallucinogens .

The scholarly synonym "psychotropic" has also been used by 87 many to refer to substanc es which cause psychological change or modifications in mental activity (de Rios 1976) . No one term satisfies the hallucinatory causal agent concept , although , as stated , the term hallucinogen is most widely used and accepted by scienti sts . It is interesting to note that , contrary to popular belief, not all narcotics are addictive . Classifi cation systems based on this criterion have been attempted . One such system propo sed by de Rios

(1976) includes the barbi turate s , tranqui l izers , and narcotics which are addi ctive, in a group termed "psychic sedatives ". A second group, the "psychic stimulants ", include amines which are responsible for mood changes.

Finally , those that do not cause physical addi ction , such as LSD, psi locyb in , mescali ne , and harmine , are categorized as "psychic deviators ". This last group has received a preponderance of notoriety throughout hi story .

The remainder of the discussion of hallucinogens will address itself to several of the more important and widely us ed species of plants which contain hallucinogenic compounds , and have been used for the purpose of mind alteration .

A phylogenetic approach to these plants necessi tates starti ng with the ascomycetes . The ascomycetes are a group o f fungi which are characterized by having s eptate myc elia

(Bold , et .al.1980) . The septations are referred to as transverse hyphal walls , and have single minute pores through which the protoplasm of adjacent cells is conti nuous . The sexual reproductive structure , the ascus , is also a di stin- guishing character . Many scientists place these organisms 88 in the class Ascomycetes , wh i le others elevate them to the divisional level , placing them i n the division Ascomycota .

For purposes o f thi s paper , these organisms will simply be referred to as ascomycetes , and their taxanomic position shall be left to the discretion of the reader . The only organism of hallucinogenic importance in thi s group is ergot , Claviceps purpurea . Ergot is a disease wh ich affects only the flowering parts of many wild and cultivated species o f the grass fami ly {Christensen 1961) .

According to Boewe {1960) , the economi c importance of the disease has two aspects . The first is that many of the grasses which are affected are of economic importance, particularly rye . The flowers that are affected produce sclerotia instead o f kernels and thus yi eld is reduced . The second aspect concerns the fact that the sclerotia , or the hard , dormant stage of the fungus , contain alkaloidal materials. These compounds have proven to be injuriou s to man and lives tock . The ergotized grains must be ingested to produce harmful effects . In the case of l ivestock poi soning , the sclerotia themselves are eaten along wi th normal grai ns .

Where man is concerned , however , it is ingested i n the form of bread and/or other baked goods which have been made from flour that , in turn , was made from grains that have been ergotized .

The effects may be expressed as two types of ergotism, gangrenous and convulsive or nervous ergotism. Gangrenous ergotism, as the name implies , is characterized by dry gangrene of the extremities . This is followed by the fall- 89 ing away of the affected parts of the body such as hoofs , ears , and tails . In the Mi ddle Age s, this occurred in epidemic proportions ; nowadays i t occurs rarely and then only in chronic cases .

Convulsive ergotism is characterized by many symptoms .

These inc lude crawling sensations on the skin, vertigo , headaches , tingli ng sensati ons , painful muscular contrac tions which lead to convulsions , vomiting , d i arrhea , and often hallucinations . The hallucinations are repu ted to involve f ire . For thi s reason , the common name, "St. Anthony 's fi re", was coined . There have been no serious outbreaks of ergoti sm for hundreds of years . Thi s i s due primarily to methods that have been developed by the Food and Drug Adminis- tration which eliminate sclerotia from normal grains .

Both types of ergoti sm are caused by a seri es of alkaloids termed "ergotoxins". One which is particu larly note- worthy is lysergic acid diethylamide , abbrevi ated LSD . A good deal of research has been done with this compound . I t has been found that when "normal" subjects are admi nistered

LSD , i t gives rise to di sturbances of perception and mental content , accompanied by a profound emot ional alteration .

Other symptoms include nausea, headache , d izziness, sweating , change in blood pressure , and dil ation of pupils . Hal lucinations , both visual and audi tory , are experienced , as well as disturbances of all the senses , particularly the sense of time . Emotional changes inc lude both euphoria and depres s ion , with varying degrees of anxiety (Holli ster 1968) .

Although the mechanism of LSD i s sti ll not established , it 90 is considered to be one of the most potent drugs known to man. Medi c inally , ergot has been found to be effective in

easing childbirth . Here again, this appl i cation was used

primarily in the eigh�eenth century . Modern drugs have made i t obsolete in the twentieth century .

The presence of toxic substances in many of the basid

iomycetes led to the early discovery of hal lucinogenic

compounds i n mushrooms (Schultes 196 9) . It is believed

that mushrooms were widely used by the ancients in primi tive

religions , and that their very concept of deity arose from

their effects . Perhaps the mos t widely used mushroom was the fly agaric , Arnanita muscaria . This fungus , whi ch is widely accepted as being toxic , gets its common name from the European custom of using it to poison flies ( Tippo and

Stern 197 7) . Recent use of the fly agaric as an inebriant has been known only in parts of Siberia (Schultes 1976) .

In Siberia, i t i s often an expens ive article o f trade .

It may be taken as an extract in cold or warm water or mi lk , or s imply held moi stened i n the mouth ( Schulte s 1969) . Just how the discovery that the intoxicating principles are excreted unchanged i n the urine i s unknown . However, the discovery was made, and has led to the custom of the inebr i ate ' s drinking h is own or another 's urine to repeatedly continue the i ntoxication (Furst 197 6) .

The effects of Arnanita muscaria, as wi th most intoxicants , vary wi th individuals , their environment, and their phycho logical frame of mind . In general , though , an hour after ingestion of the mushrooms , twitch ing and trembling of the 91 limbs is noticeable. Thi s is often accompanied by a sense of good humor and euphori a, characterized by macroscopia , vis ions of the supernatural , and illusions of grandeur .

Occasionally , the partaker becomes violent, dashing madly about until exhausted (Furst 1976; Schultes 1969) .

The active principle was once attributed solely to the alkaloid muscarine (Schultes 1969) . Studies have shown , however, that muscarine i s a minor constituent, and could not be responsible for the effects by i tself ( Schultes and Hofmann 1980) . Further studies have led to the discovery that the centra l nervous system is acted on primarily by muscimole, an unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid, to .the amino acid, ibotenic acid , and muscazone . There is evidence that still other principles , as yet unknown , play a role in the toxicity of this species (Schultes 196 9) .

More recent investigations have disclosed that other members of the Agaricaceae have been, and are, used i n Mexico for their hallucinatory effects . At least twenty species of the genera Conocybe , Paneolus , Stropharia, and Psi locybe are used (Schultes 1969; Farnsworth 1968) . The most important of these is Psilocybe mexicana . Mos t, if not all, contain psi locybin and psilocine which are the active alkaloidal principles .

It is interesting to note that ,. with respect to distribution in the plant kingdom, all the hal lucinogenic basidiomycetes are found in one family , the Agaricaceae .

Leaving the cryptogams behind , we turn now to the flowering plants or angiosperms , which contain hallucinogenic 92 principles .

Marihuana (Cannab is sativa) has already been menti oned as having a unique chemical structure devoi d of ni trogen .

This dioecious annual i s one of the most ancient of the cultivated plants , and is probably the most widely d issem inated hallucinogenic plant in today 's world . Consequently , its use as a narcotic has prol i ferated in the American and

European countries , sometimes to the poi nt of causi ng major legal , �oral, social , and heal th problems . As stated , the euphoric and psychotomimetic activity of rnarihuana is due

primar ily to delta - 1 - tetrahydrocannab inol . This com pound , for some unknown reason , tends to be concentrated in a resin whi ch is abundant in the unripened frui ts and adj acent leaves, and flowers of the female plant . The staminate plant has little or no concentration of the resin.

Although much is known about the effects of marihuana on man , little i s known about the biological activity of the cannabinols . The intoxication from use of Cannabi s i s usually characterized by an onset of a dreamy state wherein the thought processes are impaired, often leading to confusion .

Thi s is accompanied by euphori a and extreme happiness whi ch , in some cases , alternates with unusual states of depression .

Visual and auditory hallucinations are not uncommon . Time perception is almost always altered , and there may be nausea , dizziness , and delusi ons . Cannabis is not addictive , but may be habituating in a phychological sense (Schultes 1969) .

Methods of taking Cannabis vary widely . Most often , the dried , crushed flower tops are smoked . The active 93 ingredients may also be effective i f ingested . It may be

noted that the drug used in the United States consists of

crushed leaves , twi gs , and tops o f plants that are notab ly

low i n tetrahydrocannabinol, and is not the pure resin which

is used in other countries (Schultes 1969; Schultes and

Hofmann 19 80).

Some members of the Myr isticaceae are simil ar to mari huana in that they typically lack nitrogen in their chemical

structure . Thi s i s the only s imilarity. In this family there are essenti ally two genera , Virola and Myristi ca , which yield halluc inogenic effects . Schultes (1969) , reports that in northwestern Brazil, and parts of Colombia and

Venezuela, an hallucinogenic snuff is made from many species of Virola , including � calophylla , � calophyllo idea , and

V . theiodora . Recent studies have found that Virola contains high concentrations of tryptarnines which are thought to be the primary active principle involved in the hallucination .

Effects include initial exci tement, numbness of the limbs , twi tching of faci al muscles , nausea , hallucinations , and f inally , deep , di sturbed sleep . Macroscopia i s also frequent .

The nutmeg of commerce, Myristica fragrans , has also been employed as a narcotic in some o f the Asiatic countries.

In fact, it appears to be the Asiatic counterpart of Virola .

Nutmeg , contrary to Virola , i s taken orally , and the e ffects , which may vary from none to those s imi lar to LSD , may be delayed from two to f ive hours (Farnsworth 1968). Symptoms frequently i nclude distortion of time , space , and perception, and feel ings of unreality accompanied by visual hal lucinations . 94 Side effects such as headache , dry mouth , and dizziness may also be experienced (Furst 1976) .

The toxicology of nutmeg is not completely clear , but most authors agree that the effects are attributab le to the volatile oil fraction of the seeds. Safrole, myristicin, and elemic in are frequently thought to be the active agents in nutmeg (Farnsworth 196 8) . Fur thermore , it is suspected that the psychotomimetic effects are due to variations in the content of one or more of these three substances. Of the three, safrole is probably not an active psychotropic sub stance . It i s known that sassafras oil, which has never been accused of being hallucinogenic, has a safrole content of eighty percent . Pure rnyristicin has also been tested on humans with less than positive psychotropic results. Thus , i t appears that elemicin i s the primary active i ngredient in nutmeg (Farnsworth 1968) . As yet, however, elemicin i s not avai lable in pure form for testing and so , this hypothesis has not been , and cannot be tested .

It may be that all three are required for a synergistic effect .

One of the oldest hallucinogenic plants in America is a tall , columnar member of the cactus family (Cactaceae) ,

Trichocereus pachanoi , kno�m as the San Pedro Cactus . Thi s cactus contains the alkaloid mescaline , and was used by the

I ndi ans of coastal Peru a s a medi c inal (Schultes 1969) .

The mos t impor tant member of the cactus fami ly, however , is Lophophora willi amsii, better known as peyote . Thi s cactus was used by the ancient Aztecs as an hallucinogen in 95 many of their religious ceremonies . The Spanish conquerors endeavored to eliminate i ts usage , and the church went as

far as to equate its consump tion with cannibalism. Needless to say , these efforts were never fully reali zed . Peyote ia used today by the Tarahumara , Huichol, and Cora Indians of northern Mexico . It has also gained popularity in the Uni ted

Sta tes and Canada where i t is incorporated into the rituals of the Native American Church (Schultes 1969) .

The peyote plant was f i rst described in 1888 as a new species of the genus Anhalonium . Since then , i t has been thought to represent a species of Echinocactus , and , f i nally , it has been shown to deserve recogni tion as a distinct genus ,

Lophophora . It i s popularly identi f ied , as is the San Pedro

Cactus , wi th the alkaloid mescaline . In fact , mescaline i s only one of more than thirty different alkaloids which have been i solated from peyote (Schultes 1969) . Mos t of these constituents belong to two series of compounds , the pheny l ethylamines and the i soqui nal ines . Although nearly all are biologically active , i t has been establi�hed that the major hallucinogenic principle i s mescaline .

In order to induce the psychotomimet ic effects , the plant must be ingested . Several of the dried "mescal buttons " i.e. tops of the cactus , are chewed . I t may be mentioned that this term is derived from the alkaloid mescali ne , and has nothing to do with the potent liquors mescal and tequi la, which are derived from species of the genus Agave . The

''buttons" are extremely bitter tasti ng and may cause vomiting , accompanied by tremors, and perspiration . Thes e unpleasant 96 symptoms subside after about one or two hours, fol lowed by a dreamlike intoxicating phase . It is in thi s phase that the user experiences a kaleidoscopic play of visual hallucinations (Farnsworth 196 8) . Although the visual hallucinations are the most spectacular, auditory , olfactory , and tacti le halluci nations also occur as well as alterations of space and time perception (Schultes and Hofmann 198 0 ).

One of the ri chest alkaloidal families is the Solanaceae , wh ich contains a number of plants that have been used as hallucinogens . The most important genus is Datura . Many species , includ ing D. fastuosa, D. meteloides , and D. i nnoxia, have been involved in rel i g ious and magical r i tes , or valued in witchcraft and sorcerer 's potions . In North America, the

Indians have made l imited use o f jimson weed , Datura stramonium .

The preparation and use of datura d i ffer widely in the various areas whe re i t is used . Frequently, however , it i s taken in the form of pulve ri zed seeds wh ich have been dropped into a l iquid infusion (Schultes 1969) . The intoxication is characterized at the onset by violence. The user must be restrained unti l a deep , disturbed s leep ensues during which hallucinations are common .

The chemi cal constituents which cause this reaction include scopolamine and hyos cyami ne . Together with atropine they form the bel ladonna series of alkaloids , wh ich are common to the members of the Solanaceae . Other members inc lude mandrake (Mandragora of ficinarum) , bel ladonna (Atropa bel ladonna ), and henb ane (Hyoscyamus niger) ( Schul tes and 97 Hofmann 19 8 0) .

Another series of alkaloids are the harmala alkaloids

which are known in at least eight families . Chief in impor

tance of these families is the Malpighi aceae (Farnsworth

1968 ; Schultes 196 9) . In this fami ly is the genus Banisteri

opsis , several species of which produce bizarre hal lucinations ,

particularly � caapi and B. inebrians . The active constit

uents , harmine , harmaline , and tetrahydroharmi ne , are found

in the bark . Thes e constituents are also found in Peganum

harrnala o f the Zygophyllaceae . Thi s particular plant also

harbors narmalol and harman . The decoction prepared from the

bark of Banisteriopsis is often called ayahuasca, cappi, or

�- The decoction is ingested to indu ce intoxication . The

effects usually begin wi th- nervousness , nausea , and profuse

perspiration . Thi s i s followed by colorful , visual hallucina

tions . Muscular coordination is rarely altered . Although

normally taken as a beverage , Schultes (1968) reports that natives of northwestern Amazon exploi t Banisteriopsi s in the

form of a snuff.

Several other snuffs are prepared , many of which come

from leguminous trees . The best known is yopo or cohoba of

the Orinoco areas of Colombia and Venezuela . Thi s hal lucino

genic agent comes from the toasted beans of Anadenanthera

peregrina . When blown into the nostri ls , it causes an

intoxication characterized by a temporary fury and trance which is accompanied by vi sual hallucinations , and eventually ,

stupor (Schultes 1969) . Interestingly enough , the natives of

thi s area have found that the psy cho tomimetic effects are 98 more rapidly felt if the yopo i s blown into the rectum .

Sophora secundif lora i s another leguminous plant which yields hallucinogenic agents . The frui ts bear dark red beans called "mescal beans ", again , not to be confused with agave derivatives or peyote , which conta�n the toxic pyr i- dine,cytisine . This alkaloi d causes naus ea, convulsions , hallucinations and occasionally death from respiratory

failure . Indian groups of Mexico and Texas , in the past, have inges ted these seeds in ceremonial rituals .

Among the natives of Aztec Mexi co, in the uplands of

Oaxaca , ololiuqui was used for d ivinatory and hal lucinatory purposes (Schultes and Hofmann 1980) . Olol iuqui is derived

from the seeds of Rivea coryrnbosa. Very s imilar to this , and also in the same family is Ipomoea violacea , which the natives call "badoh negro" . Both Rivea and Ipomoea are in the morning glory fami ly and both are prepared in the same manner . The seeds must be ground to break the seed coat or testa. Following this , the seeds are soaked i n water or an alcohol ic drink and then filtered (Schultes 1969) .

The filtrate i s ingested to induce the hal lucination .

Re latively recent discoveries have found the active principles to be closely related ( i f not identical , in some

instances ), to those known from ergot (Claviceps purpurea)

(Farnsworth 1968) . The active alkaloids in these seeds are ergol ine, which is closely related to LSD , ergine , isoergine , ergometrine , chanoclavine , and elymoclavine . Further work in this area has indicated that seeds from other convolvu la- ceou s plants contain ergoline alkaloids . I t is of i nterest 99 to note tha t the lysergic acid alkaloids are known only from the lower fungi and th i s evolutionari ly advanced fami ly .

Finally , there are many species , even genera and fami li es , that are hallucinogenic, of which little is known . Some of these are worth mentioning brie fly.

Kwashi (Pancrati urn tri anthurn) i s a plant exploited by the Bushmen of Botswana ( Schultes 1976) . It is unique _ in that the bulb , a swollen , underground stern, is rubbed over incisions in the head to induce visual hal lucinations .

The crushed leaves of Salvia divinorurn yield an intoxicati ngly hallucinogenic drink used by the Mazatec Ind i ans of Oaxaca

(Farnsworth 1968; Schultes 1969) . As yet , chemists have been unable to fi nd a toxic constituent in Salvia. The Mazatecs likewise employ the leaves of Coleus purni la and C. blurnei, of which no chemical analyses have been made (Schultes 1969) .

Tabernanthe iboga i s employed by the natives of tropical

West Africa . The natives chew the root of this plant to offset hunger and fatigue . In large doses , i t causes exci tement , mental confusion , and a drunken sort of madness . Reports of visual hallucinations are rare and vague (Furst 1976 ; Schultes

1969) .

PLANT NAMES

Scientifi c Name Common Name Family

Agave rn..:_ agave Agavaceae

Arnanita fly agaric Agaricaceae rnuscaria (L.) Fr . 100 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientific Names Conunon Names Family

Anadenanthera cohoba Legurninosae peregrina (L.) Speg .

Anhaloniurn � Cactaceae

Atropa belladonna L . bel ladonna Solanaceae

Banisteriopsis caapi Malpighiaceae caapi ( Spru . ex Griseb. ) Mort.

B. inebrians Mort. yaje Malpighiaceae

Cannabis sativa L. marihuana , hemp , Cannabinaceae gra ss, pot

Claviceps purpurea (Fr .) Tul . ergot Hypocreaceae

Coleus blurnei Benth. coleus Labiatae

C. purnila Blanco coleus Labiatae

Conocybe spp . Agaricaceae

Datura fastuosa L. Solanaceae

D . innoxia Mill. sacred datura Solanaceae

D. meteloides DC . sacred datura Solanaceae

D. stramoniurn L . jimson weed Solanaceae

Echinocactu s spp . Cactaceae

Hyocyamus niger L . henbane Solanaceae

Ipomoea violacea L. badoh negro Convolvulaceae

Lophophora peyote Cactaceae williamsii (Lem.) Coulter

Mandragora offic inarum L . mandrake Solanaceae

Myristica fragrans Houtt . nutmeg , mace Myristicaceae

Pancratium kwashi Arnaryllidaceae tri anthum Herbert

Paneolus spp . Agaricaceae 101 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientific Names Common Name s Family

Peganum harmala L. African rue , Zygophyllaceae harmela

Psilocybe mexicana Heim. psilocybin Agaricaceae mushroom

Rivea corymbosa (L. ) Hallier ololiuqui Convolvulaceae

Salvia hierba de la Labiatae divinorum Epling and Jativa virgen

Sophora mescal bean Leguminosae secundiflora (Ort.) Lag . ex DC .

Stropharia spp . Agaricaceae

Tabernanthe iboga Baill. iboga Apocynaceae

Trichocereus pachanoi Fried . San Pedro cactus Cactaceae

Virola calophylla Warb . virola Myr isticaceae

v. calophylloidea Markgr . virola Myristicaceae v. virola Myristicaceae - theiodora (Spr . ex Bth. ) l\larb.

Wisteria wisteria Leguminosae s1nens1s (Sims ) Sweet MEDICINAL PLANTS

The h i stj ory of medicine is rooted in the myths and records of anci ent Egypt , India, China , and Greece .

Innumerab le volumes of literature have been written concerning this aspect of human development . Yet, the whole story will never be known, for i ts origin belongs to the prehistoric days before written records were kept .

Possibly the first person to s tudy plants for thei r medicinal value was the legendary Emperor of Chi na , Shen

Nung . Shen Nung is reputed to have known the medicinal use of some 360 species of plants (Tippo and Stern 19 77) . No written record of this exists , and, in fact, no records were written in China until centuries later . The first wri tten record known to man comes from Egypt. The Ebers Papyrus , thought to be one of the missing books of Hermes Trismagistus , the Father of Alchemy , dates from around 1500 B.C. (Wheel- right 19 74) . It contains 700 prescriptions , some of whi ch involve the use of vegetab le extracts that are sti ll i n use today . This testifies to a somewhat soph isticated knowledge of pharmacy at that early date.

As far as the Western world is concerned , medicine can be dated from ancient Greece . The most memorable figure i s

Hippocrates of Cos , born i n 460 B.C. (Wheelright 197 4) .

Hippocrates initiated the classi ca l per iod of Greek medicine. 102 103 As he traveled and studied he also insti tuted what we now know as the Hippocratic tradi tion (oath} . Under his influence , people were led away from spells and magic arid were

• taught the natural laws of the human body and healing . He also initiated the ethical principles of modesty , incorrupt- ibi l ity, and humani ty of being a physician . In 490 B.C. he organized a college of medicine , , The Temple of Aesculapius

( Klien 1979} . The col lege of medicine was continued after the death of Hippocrates by men such as Socrates , hi s pupi l,

Plato , Plato 's pupil, Aristotle, and Aristotle 's star pupil,

Theophrastus (372-287 B.C.) . Theophrastus was responsible for most of the written records of that time . Unfortunately , much of his work has been burned .

The next names to appear as early contributors to the medicinal uses of plants are Pliny , Dioscorides , and Galeniu s

(Galen} . Pliny began publ i shing in 77 A.D. , a massive work called Natural History . This eventually included 37 volumes , many of whi ch were dedicated to plants and their uses (Klein

197 9) . Dioscorides , an army surgeon , lived at approximately the same time . Tippo and Stern (1977) state that in h i s book ,

De Materia Medica, Dioscorides discussed several thousand medicinal and drug plants , their preparation, and use . This book formed the basi s of clinical medicine for the next 1500 years , and was supplemented only by the works of Galenius

(129 - 199 A.D.) . Galen was a Greek physician who maintained that di sease is contrary to nature and can be overcome by that which is contrary to desease (Klein 1 979} . During the

Dark Ages , Dioscorides and Galen were accepted as authorities , 104 and their writi ngs formed a dogma whi ch no others could di spute . Scribes copied their work , introducing no new information. From 200 to 1100 A.D. , no books on medicine or any science were wri tten .

Following the Dark Ages was a period which may be considered a botanical renaissance . During this time the herb garden , called Phy s ick Garden, became a part of every castle, court , hospital, and medical college . Throughout this time, l iterally hundreds of book s were published owing to the properties of each individual 's phys ick garden . This became the mode and lasted unti l the early parts of the seventeenth century . Indeed , many of the seventeenth century wri ters were influenced by the work of the herbalists of the previou s century . It was also during that time ( 16th century) that the "doctrine of signatures" became widely accepted in

Europe . Accordi ng to thi s theory , many medicinal plants exh ibi t clearly visible signs whi ch indicate their uses

(Weiner 1972) . Persons who ascr ibed to thi s idea held that the shape or color of a particular plant pointed the way to cures . For example , the l iverl eaf (Hepatica acutiloba) was once used to treat liver di sorders . The leaves of this plant look like the human liver , hence its common name and use according to this doctrine .

When the early settlers f i rst arrived in North America, many carried with them herbal remedies which were commonly employed i n Europe ; among them , the "doctrine of signatures ."

It is interesting to note , however, that thi s doctrine was already employed among the native Indians . Furthermore , it 105 is intriguing to note that the medicinal lore o f mos t primi - tive peoples has been founded on this doctrine .

By the middl e of the seventeenth century, many countries imported herbs from all over the world . Yet, there was no way to insure the purity or potency of the herbs . It was at thi s time that alchemy began to evolve into the separate sciences of phys ics and chemis try (Klein 1979) . Also at about this time , the apothecaries , who had been mere sellers of herbal remedies , began to develop crude methods of analyz ing the herbs, in an attempt to standardize their materials . It was also necessary to standardize the great variation in the formulas of prescriptions . The prescriptions had formerly been handed down from ancestors , and so each phys ic ian had learned a different "recipe ." The apothecaries made it their task to establish d i rections and/or guidelines for mixing herbal medicine . They recorded the d irections in written volumes called pharmacopoei as . Pharmacopoeias have gone through many changes throughout history . New remedi es have been added , while old ones , which have proven ineffective , have been removed . By the end of the eighteenth century , f i elds of pharmacogno sy , materia medica, and medic i nal chemi stry were set up in medical schools . The age of modern medicine had begun .

Since then , man has made remarkable str ides in the area of medicine . The area of medicine has met with ever increasing standards and an ever increasing number of prescriptions .

In fact, the number of available prescriptions may be well over 300 mi llion (Tippo and Stern 19 77). Many of these are , 106 of course, factory made or of synthetic origin . Sti ll, nearly

forty-seven percent of the prescriptions used today contain a drug from natural plant sources ( Weiner 1972) .

Obviously , the survival of man has been dependent on h is

curiosity and desire to examine all aspects of his environ ment , and to decide which materials are remedi al . Much of

thi s knowledge has already passed away wi th previous genera

tions , and some i s sti ll to be learned from primitive Indian

tribes . With forty-seven percent of medical prescriptions reliant on natural plant sources , we must ask i f our supply of botanical sources is endless. We should also be concerned with the rapid destruction of vegetation, which conti nues to deplete the d ivers ity of plant species . We mus t prevent the extinction of even a s ingle species that might prove invalu able to man 's health and welfare .

Assuming that invaluable speci es as yet undiscovered , do exist, how does one go about finding them? Tippo and Stern

(1977) , discuss three possibilities . First there is the old

stand-by , trial and error . The h i storical account of medici nals makes it evident that this method i s very time consuming, not to mention costly .

The second method invo lves the study of plants used in

folk medicine as reported in the l i terature . Chronicles , exploration accounts , mi ssionary reports , and anthropol igical papers are all excellent sources of thi s type of study . Many of our present medicinals, including antibiotics , could have been put into use hundreds of years earlier had we been receptive enough to heed the words of ancient sources . Often 107 herbarium specimens will include i nformation of this type on their labels , and so they too should be consulted .

The third method is perhaps the best approach . Thi s method involves extensive f i e ld work among aboriginal peoples.

For example , those in the Amazon region of South America .

Many new hal lucinogens and mus cle relaxants have been found thi s way .

There is, essentially , one widely accepted method of classifying medicinals, and that i s according to the disorders for which they are prescribed . This method can be very long , however , as there are an abundance of disorders . Therefore, the remaining por tion on medicinals wi ll be concerned with some representatives of medi c inally important plants .

Perhaps the most renowned botanical drug is opium , which is obtained from the opium poppy , Papaver somni ferum . There are several specie s of the genus Papaver , but this i s the only one wi th alkaloids of medi cal i nterest (Klein 1979) . Further- more , the alkaloids contained therein are numerous , but only three of these, morphine , codeine, and thebaine , are of medicinal value ( Schery 1972; Klein 1979) . Close to eleven percent of opium is the s ingle alkalo id morphine , nearly two percent is codeine , and thebaine comprises just under one percent of the opium gum (Klein 1979; Lewi s and Lewi s 1977) .

Although presently grown for commerci al use , the planting, cultivation , and harvest are sti ll done by the same method that has been used for ages, namely by hand . Consequently, the commercial growing of the poppy must take place in cheap labor areas . As a result, most commercial opium comes from 108 India , Chi na , the Near East, and the Medi terranean (Schery

1972; Klein 1979 ; Morton 1 977) .

The alkaloids are produced by incisi ng the mature capsule ,

taking care not to cut too deeply . A thick exudate oozes out

and coagulates as a gum on the s ide of the capsule . The gum

i s then scraped off and kneaded into dark yellow balls of

opium which are shipped to buying centers (Schery 1972) .

As a medicine , opiates are invaluable . They are usually

taken orally , rectally , or by means of a hypodermic. Their major effects are on the central nervous system , and i nvolve

a general decrease i n arousal to painful stimul i (Lewis and

Lewi s 19 77) . Hence , they are usually used as anesthetics .

Opiates are especially useful in burn cases , and have been used extensively in all wars as pain killers . The chief alka

loid used is morphine . Codeine , known also as methylmorphi ne ,

i s mo st often used , as is morphine , in cough mixtures to

relieve distressing coughs (Lewi s and Lewis 1977) .

The opia.tes are not without drawbacks. The addi cting character of these drugs i s well known . Morphine i tself is

addictive . When this was discovered i n the late 1800 's

experiments were made to f ind nonaddi cting drugs of a similar nature . The answer to this problem came in 1989 with the dis covery and subsequent introduction of heroine . Heroi ne , a diacety lmorphi ne, i s a semi -synthetic , i.e. artifi c i al alka

loid made by heating morphine with acetic acid (Tippo and

Stern 1977) . Heroin was soon placed on the market as a harm

less, nonaddicting substitute for morphine and codeine .

Approximately seven years later , in 1905, it was discovered 109 that heroin is, in fact , addicting ; and furthermore , it appears to be three times as potent as morphine ( Lewis and

Lewis 197 7) .

Coca , or cocaine, is another alkaloidal sedative. It

.is derived from Erythroxylon coca , and , like opium , affects the central nervous system ( Morton 1977) . Shortly after it was found to possess loc al anesthetic properties it became wi dely used in dentistry and surgery where a m ere local anesthetic was needed . Also , similar to opium, cocaine cou ld be mi sused . Again, research was begun to find substitutes .

In this instance, however , the research paid off with the discovery and subsequen t substitution of synthesi zed nova caine and procaine (Lewis and Lewis 1977 ; Schery 197 2) . Today there is little use of cocaine in modern medicine .

Besides its use a s an anesthetic , coca is most famous as a stimulant and hunger depressant of Andean laborers . The conditions of the Indians of Ecuador , Peru , and Boliv i a are so poor as to make necessary the chewing of coca leaves . For economic reasons , the natives of these countries must work long , hard hours . The coca leaves, when chewed with lime or leaf ash to release the alkaloids , frees them from fatigue and hunger , and allows them to continue working under deplor able conditions (Hill 1952) .

Whether or not cocaine is addictive is surrounded by controversy . Richard E. Schultes , noted ethnobotanist of

Harvard Univers ity , testifies that, duri ng e ight years of study in the Ande s, he too found it necessary to chew coca leaves to ward off fatigue . Upon returni ng to the States , 110 he claims to have no desi re to use cocaine again (Tippo and

Stern 19 77) . Others disagree , however, and maintain that

wi thdrawing users characteris tically have a strong compulsion

to return to using cocai ne (Lewis and Lewis 1977) .

One of the more dangerou s drugs i s colchicine, also

alkaloidal in nature . The reason for its potential danger is

that it has long been recognized as a poi son (Ei gsti and

Dustin 1955) . Nevertheless, early experimentation found that ,

in correct doses, the drug could be useful in treating gout

(Schery 1972) . Furthermore , the use of Colchicum autumnale,

one species of the genus Colchicum (autumn crocus) whi ch

yields colch icine , in treating tumors has been recommended

as early as Dioscorides time (Krieg 1964) .

The disease whi ch i s called gout i s associated with high blood levels of uric acid . In individua ls who suffer from

this disease , uri c acid is deposi ted in the form of urate

crystals. An i nflammation of the affected parts fol lows which

is due to the accumulation of lysosomes that are formed when

the crystals are phagocytized . Colchicine breaks the reaction

that leads to inflammation by inh ibiting the phagocytic

activity of leucocysts for the urate cry stals (Lewis and Lewis

197 7) . It has been well established that the activity taken by the alkaloid disrupts the spindle mechanism during mitosis preventing the metaphase stage and thus blocking cell divi

sion (Eigsti and Dustin 1955) . The immediate ramifications of

this include the possible use of colchici ne as a tool for

cancer chemotherapy . Clinical studies i n this area have been made , but have proven fruitless . Surpri singly though , 111 compounds from another plant, periwinkle (Vinca rosea) , exhibit similar anti-tumor properties and have met with

considerable success (Kreig 1964) • It may be noted that the periwinkle extracts were discovered quite by chance while searching for oral insulin substi tutes . The plant had been cited in folk medicine as an aid in treat ing diabetes (Lewi s and Lewis 1977).

Another old but sti ll important drug of alkaloidal nature is belladonna . The chi ef sou rce of belladonna i s

Atropa belladonna , the deadly ni ghtsh�de , but related plants such as Mandragora officinarum, (mandrake), species of Datura , and Hyos cyamus niger ,(henbane), also y i eld similar alkaloids

(Schery 1972) . There are three major alkaloids taken from these plants , atropine , scopolomine , and hyoscyamine , which together form what is referred to as the "belladonna series"

of alkaloids (Tippo and Stern 1 977) • Of all the alkaloids derived from belladonna , these three are mo st used in medicine .

In general, they serve as stimulants o f the sympathetic nervous system, and hence, can be used as antidotes for opium a lkaloids , as diuretics , in di lating pupils , and in treat- rnent of palsy (Schery 1972; Morton 1977) .

Hyoscyarnine is important because it is easi ly converted into atropine . Atropine may be used to stimulate circulation, decrease mus cle spasms , and relieve pain locally . Scopolomine , on the other hand , acts primarily on the parasympathetic nervous system and results in a narcotic or tranquilizing effect . It has formerly been used in combination with morphine to produce an analgesic or anesthesia effect called "twi light 112 sleep" . This has been widely used during childbirth (Lewis and Lewis 1977) . Until the nineteenth century , collecti on of these plants was chiefly from wild sources . Since that

time , however , significant cultivation has been practiced •

• One of the outstand ing developments of more recent times has been the discovery of the medi cinal properties of snakeroot . Snakeroot belongs to the genus Rauvolfia, which is a member of the Apocynaceae family. Several species of the genus , particularly R. serpentina and R. vomitoria, are the source of reserpine , an alkaloid used in treating hyperten- s ion (Lewis and Lewis 1977) . Reserpine is chemically similar to a substance found in the brain called serotonin. It acts on the sympathetic nervous system by depleting neurotrans- mitter substances . Thi s blockage o f nerve tissue substances results in the relaxation o f blood vessels and output of the heart (Lewis and Lewis 1977) . Ultimately , reserpine can be used in the treatment of schizophrenia and similar symptoms , other mental illnesses , hypertension , and simply for lowering blood pressure . It may be noted that the roots are the chi e f source of the drug (Schery 1972) . Synthetic reserpine is available, but, as with many syntheti cs , i t i s more expensive than natural materials (Kreig 1964) .

The properties of reserpine have long been known and employed in India and other Asiatic countries . Its use i n the Western world , however , was not prominent until the early

1950 's (Klein 1979) . This i s another case in which the search for medicinal plants via folklore has led to a boon for science . 113 Among the i lls that humans are susceptible to is

• cardiac insuff ici ency . This affli ction i s characterized by

a weakened , irregular heartbeat which fails to pump enough

blood through the body (Lewis and Lewis 1977) . Cons equently ,

fluids collect in the arms , legs , and abdomen because the

kidneys cannot perform their normal function. This swelling

is known as dropsy or edema . The cure for thi s disease is

digita lis , a powerful and dangerous heart stimulant derived

from foxglove ,(Digi talis purpurea) . It has been found that

digitalis is not a single compound , but rather, a mixture of

four or - five cardiac glycosides that interact wi th one another

(Klein 197 9) . Digitali s has been used as a medical herb for

centuries. In fact, the discoverer of its application to

dropsy, Dr . William Withering, purchased it from a villager

near hi s home town who was believed to be a witch . Mr s . Hutton ,

the witch , had been using it along with many other herbs and

incantations in curing dropsy . It was Wi ther� ng , however , who

noted that the d iuretic properties were due to d ig italis . He

also noted that it had "power over the motion of the heart "

(Klein 1977) . The cure for dropsy is, in fact, due more to the

actions of the drug on the heart, than to its diuretic effects .

If taken in proper doses , digitali s essenti ally lengthens the

interval between heart contractions . This, in effect , improves

the tone of the heart muscle by making it slower , but much

stronger (Schery 197 2) . Because of the improved action of the

heart, c i rculation and renal secretions are improved and edema

is relieved (Lewi s and Lewis 197 7) . It should be obvious that

digitali s i s effective in its appl i cation to other cardio- 114 vascular prob lems , especially those caused by mechanical and/ or structural defects of the heart . Other uses include treatments for glaucoma , neuralgia, and other physiological disea ses

(Klein 1979) .

Another d isease which has played a tragic role in the hi story of man is malaria . It has killed more people than any of the plagues , wars, and automobile accidents . This disease

i s caused by species of the genus Plasmodium , a protozoan .

Those species that are particularly infectious inc lude

!::._ vivax , � ovale, P . falciparum , and � malariae (Lewis and

Lewis 1977) . These organisms possess an alternation of genera-

tions , i .e. in thei r life cycle there are two stages , the

sporophyte or asexual stage , and the gametophyte or sexual

stage . Pla smodium is a parasi tic genus and, as such, requires a

l iving host, in thi s case living hosts . The host of the

sexual stage is the Anopheles mosquito, and the host of the asexual stage is man . Hence, malaria is transferred to man

from the "bite" of an i nfec ted Anopheles mosqui to . If left untreated , malaria may kill as many as one percent of those

infected . The survivors are prone to relapse , and may suffer anemia , weakness, sexual impotence , chronic abortion , or

secondary i nfections . The initial symptoms inc lude fever , chills, and sweating (Lewis and Lewi s 1977) .

Again , through hi storical accounts and folklore , a cure

for malaria was found . By the end of the seventeenth century , quinine powder was the standard treatment for malaria .

Quinine is one of four major alkalo ids found in the bark of

species of Cinchona , especi a lly C. ledgeriana, commonly called 115 the fever bark tree {Lewis and Lewis 197 7) . The other alkaloids are cinchonine , cinchonidine , and quinidine . They are collective ly used to make totaquine , and all are anti- ma larial, although quini ne is the most active component

{Schery 1972) . It appears that these alkaloids attack the asexual stage of the parasite and thus effect the cure .

However, it was not unti l the middle of the nineteenth century tha t these and other fundamental facts were known {Klein 1979) .

Growth requirements were also learned and there appeared to be no barrier to the cultivation of Cinchona and the subsequent freedom from malaria .

The only probl ems since these developments have concerned monopol ies and war . The second world war was fought, in part , in areas where malari a was prevalent . Supplies of quinine became worth their wei ght i n gold and it became necessary to search for substi tutes . A syntheti c called atabrine was developed , and qui nine i tself was synthesized (Klein 1979) .

These method s proved very costly , and the synthetics often only mask the symptoms rather than effect a complete cure

{ Schery 1972 ). These synthetics are sti ll used , however , and together with natural quini ne , and mosqui to control, provide man with nearly complete freedom from malaria .

Wi thout a doubt, the most successful synthetic drug i n the realm of pharmacy is aspirin . For more than 2000 years extracts from species of Salix {wil low) have been used to treat pain , f ight fever and gout, and other illnesses . The effect of wil low i s largely due to the activity of the glyco- s ide salicin {Morton 19 7 7) . Salicin has been isolated from 116 many species of Salix, but the main commerci al sources today are � fragil is and S. purpurea (Lewis and Lewi s 1977) . It is readily hydrolyzed to saligenin, which has shown some promise as an analgesic in medicine . Fol lowing ingestion , salicin i s converted to salicylic acid which is an active d i sinfectant and antiseptic . Salicylic acid has been synthesized and used as an antirheumatic , effective in the quick relief of pai n. It is also unsurpassed as an antipyretic (Tippo and Stern 1977) . Unfortunately , this drug has caused severe gastric discomfort to some users . Con- sequently, a search was made for a salicylic acid substitute .

In 1899 , the Bayer Company rediscovered acetylsalicy l ic acid .

This drug was formerly synthesized , along with salicyl ic acid , from carbolic acid in 1853, but no attention was given it until the decl ine of use of salicylic acid (Lewis and

Lewis 197 7) .

Acetylsalicylic acid , which has come to be called aspirin, is seemingly the perfect drug . It is widely used medicinally as an antipyretic , an analgesic , and an anti- inflammatory agent for the treatment of rheumatic fever , acute inflammation , lumbago , arthritis , and a host of other condi tions , and is relatively free from unpleasant side effects (Lewis and Lewis 1977) . Nevertheless , it is not completely without adverse effects , as many people have been killed by i t.

In conclusion, there are many other plants and plant products that are used medi cinally . Some are worth mentioning briefly , not only because of their importance , but a lso 117 because they have become, or are becoming, very widely accepted .

Cortisone - Cortisone is a hormone produced

by the adrenal glands . It is used in the treat-

ment of rheumatoid arthritis, bursitis , asthma ,

gout , Add ison 's disease, rheumatic heart disea se,

and over ninety other diseases ( Morton 1977) .

Cortisone can be made from the bile acids in the

urine of oxen ( Tippo and Stern 1977) . This

process has proven to be very costly. The

search for alternate sources has resulted in the

discovery of several plants which yield this

product. The most important is the African vine

Strophanthus. Other sources include species of

Dioscorea , the true yams , and more recent dis-

coveries show that the yuccas of the south-

wes tern United States are sources from which

cortisone can be obtained . Cortisone itself

is not found in the plants , rather , steroids

which are the precursors of cortisone are the

actual plant compounds (Kreig 1 964) . Steroids

are also useful in the manufacture of sex

hormones and consequently oral contraceptives .

Aloe - The fresh leaves of several species

(A. vera , A. ferox , � barbadensi s) of this

plant yields a juice that is abundant in glyco-

sides ( Schery 1972; Hill 1952) . The juice has

been used primarily to heal burns . Recently ,

it has gained popularity . Some claim i t is a 118 veritable panacea curing everything "from sinus

problems , burns , cuts , and digestive problems to baldness, skin cancer, and ,arthritis (Lewi s and Lewis 19 77) .

Chaulmoogr a oil - The disease known as leprosy has been treated very effectively with this o il. The oil is actually a variety of organic acids which are derived from the fruits of Taraktogenos kurzii and Hydnocarpus anthelmintica ( Krieg 196 4) .

Ephedrine - Ephedrine is an alkaloid which is extracted from the stems of species of

Ephedra . It has found popular use as an ingre- dient in inhal ators , used to give relief to nasal and bronchial congestion and in treating low blood pressure (Schery 197 2) .

Ginseng - Pharmacologists credi t this plant' with little medicinal value . Yet , i t has long been used as a general tonic and s timulant for the digestive tract, and is assumed to be a panacea for all ills . There are two species of ginseng that are utilized , Panax ginseng and

� quinquefolium . Both contain the glycoside panaquilin (Millspaugh 1974 ; Schery 1972) .

Podophyllin - The root and rhizome of mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) yields this alkaloid which has recently been used in the treatment of paralysis, and has also been used 119 as an emetic and cathartic, and treatment for

constipation , gonorrhea , syphi lis, and venereal

warts (Morton 1977) .

Pomegranate - A decoction from the bark

of both the stem and the root of this plant

(Punica granatum) has long been used as a

vermifuge ( Schery 1972) .

Valerian - Very little work has been done

with this plant , but it is thought that the

rhizomes and roots of Valeriana officinalis

yield a nervine , a carminative , and an anti-

spasmodic (Schery 1972) .

Literally thousands o f drug plants are recognized .

Obviously , it is impossible to list all of them here . There- fore the author would like to suggest that , for further reference in the field of medicinal plants , the reader turn to either American Medicinal Plants by Charles F. Millspaugh , or Medical Botany by Walter Lewis and Memory Elvin- Lewi s.

Both books can be considered no les s than excellent works in this field . The book by Mil lspaugh gives botanical illustra- tions and descriptions of plants discussed , and in that sense is more botanically oriented . The book by Lewis and Lewis is more related to the systems affected by the drugs , i.e. it gives a cytological and physiological viewpoint .

PLANT NAMES

Scientific Name Common Name Family

Aloe Aloe Lilaceae barbadensis Mil l. 120

PLANT NAME S - continued

Scientific Names Common Names Fami ly

A. ferox Mill. aloe Liliaceae

A. vera L. aloe Liliaceae

Atropa belladonna L. belladonna Solanaceae

Cinchona ledgeriana Moens . fever-bark tree Rubiaceae

Colchicum autumnale L. autumn crocus Liliaceae

Digitalis purpurea L . foxglove , Scrophulariaceae digitalis

Dioscorea �· true yams Dioscoreaceae

Ephedra �· Ma huang Gnetaceae

Erythroxylon coca Lam . coca Erythroxylaceae

Hepatica acutiloba DC . l iver leaf Ranunculaceae

Hydnocareus chaulmoogra Flacourtiaceae anthelmintica Pierre

Hyocyamus niger L. henbane Solanaceae

Mandragora officinarum L. mandrake Solanaceae

Panax ginseng C.A. Mey . ginseng Araliaceae

P. quinquefolium L. ginseng Araliaceae

Papaver somniferum L. opium poppy Papaveraceae

Podophyllum peltatum L. may apple Berberidaceae

Punica granatum L. pomegranate Punicaceae

Rauvolf ia snakeroot Apocynaceae serpentina (L. ) Benth . ex Kur z .

R. vomitoria Benth . swizzlestick Apocynaceae

Salix fragilis L. brittle wil low Salicaceae

S. purpurea L. purple wil low Salicaceae

Strophanthus �· Apocynaceae 121 PLANT NAMES - continued

Scientific Names Common Names Fami ly

Taraktogenos kurzii King chaulrnoogra Flacourtiaceae

Valeriana officinalis L . valerian Valerianaceae

Vinca rosea L . Madagascar Apocynaceae periwinkle LITERATURE CITED

Bamford , Frank . 1951. Poisons : Their Isolation and · Identification . The Blakiston Company , Philadelphia.

Boewe , G.H. 1960. Diseases of Wheat , Oats , Barley , and Rye . Illinois Natural History Survey , Circular 48, Urbana.

Bold , Harold c. , C.J. Alexopoulos , and T. Delevoryas . 1980. Morphology of Plants and Fungi . Harper and Row , Pub lishers, New York .

Brookes, Vincent J •. and M.B. Jacobs . 1958. Poisons . D. van Nostrand Company , Inc. , Princeton .

Brooks, Jerome E. 1952. The Mighty Leaf . Little , Brown , and Company , Boston .

Burnette , G.W. and G.S. Schuster . 1973. Pathogenic Micro biology . The c.v. Mosby Company , St. Louis.

Caporael , Linda R. 1976. Ergotism : the Satan loosed in Salem? Science 192: 21-26.

Chapman , V.J. 1964 . The Algae. Macmillan and Company Ltd. , New York .

1970. Seaweeds and Their Uses . Metheun and Co . Ltd. , London .

Chartwell Books. 1979. The Encyclopedia of Spices . Chartwell Books, Inc. , Secaucus.

Christensen, Clyde M. 1961. The Molds and Man . University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis .

Delaat, Adrian N.C. 1979. Microbiology . Lea and Febiger , Philadelphia. de Rios, Marlene Dobkin . 1976. The wilderness of mind : sacred plants in cross-cultural perspective . Sage Research Papers 5:1 -79.

Doyle, W.T. 1970. The Biology of Higher Cryptogams . The Macmillan Co . , Collier and Ma�millan Ltd. , London .

Eigsti , O.J. and Pierre Dustin. 1955. Colchisine in Agri culture , Medicine , Bio logy , and Chemistry . The Iowa State College Press, Ames .

122 123 Encyclopaedia Brittanica , 1979 ed . "Antibiotics." Helen Hemingway Benton Publ ishers, Chicago .

Farnsworth , Norman R. 1968. Hallucinogenic plants . Science 162: 1086-1092.

Furst, Peter T. 1976. Hallucinogens and Culture . Chandler and Sharp Publishers , Inc. , San Francisco .

Gebhardt, L.P. and D . A . Anderson . 1964. Microbiology . The c.v. Mosby Company , St . Louis.

Gray , William D . 1 959. The Relation of Fungi to Human Affairs . Henry Holt and Co ., Inc. , New York .

Hale , Mason . 1961. Lichen Handbook . Smithsonian Institution , Washington D.C.

1974. The Biology of Lichens . Edward Arnold , London .

Hard , M . E . 1908. The Mu shroom . The New Franklin Printing Co ., Columbus .

Hendrickson , Robert. 1976 . The Great American Chewing Gum . Chilton Book Company , Radnor .

Hill, Albert F. 1952. Economic Botany . McGraw-Hill Book Co . , Inc. , New York .

Hollister , Leo E . 1968. Chemi cal Psychoses : LSD and Related Drugs. Charles C. Thomas Publishers , Spr ingfield .

1973. Clinical Use of Psychotheraputic Drugs . Charles C. Thomas Publishers , Spr ingfield .

Kingsbury , John M. 1964. Poisonous Plants of the Uni ted States and Canada . Prentice-Hall Inc. , Englewood Cliffs .

Klein , Richard M. 1979. The Green World. Harper and Row Publishers, New York .

Kreig , Margaret B. 1964. Green Medicine . Rand McNally and Company , Chicago .

Lehner , Ernst and Johanna. 1962. Folklore and Odysseys of Food and Medicinal Plants . Tudor Publishing Co . , New York .

Lewis , W. H. and M. P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany . John Wiley and Sons , New York .

Lowenfeld , c. and P. Back . 1974 . The Complete Book of Herbs and Spices. G.P . Putnam ' s Sons , New York. 124 Long , Harold C. 1924 . Plants Poisonous to Livestock . The University Press, Cambridge .

Mi llspaugh , Charles F. 1974. American Medicinal Plants . Dover Publications, Inc. , New York .

Morton , J.F. 1977. Major Medicinal Plants. Char les c. Thomas Publishers, Springfield .

Muenscher , Walter Conrad . 1943. Poisonous Plants of the United States. The Macmillan Company , New York .

Ott , Jonathan . 1976. Hallucinogenic Plants of North America . Wingbow Press, Berkeley .

Palmer , C. Mervin. 1964. Algae in the water supplies of the United States . In Daniel Jackson 's Algae and Man 239- 261. Plenum Pres s, New York .

Parry , J.W. 1945. The Spice Handbook . Chemical Publishing Co. , Inc. , Brooklyn.

1953. The Story of Spices. Chemical Publishing Co ., Inc. , New York .

Robert, Joseph C. 1949. The Story of Tobacco in Amer ica. Alfred A. Knopf , New York .

Rolfe, R.T. and F.W. 1926. The Romance of the Fungus World . J.B. Lippincott Co . , Philadelphia.

Ro sengarten , Frederic Jr . 1969. The Book of Spices. Livings ton Publishing Company , Wynnewood .

Schenk , Gustav . 1956 . The Book of Poisons . Weidenfield and Nicolson , London .

Schery , Robert W. 1972. Plants for Man . Prentice-Hall, Inc. , Englewood Cliffs.

Schultes , Richard Evan . 1966. The search for new natural hallucinogens. Lloydia 29: 293-308.

1969. Hallucinogens of plant origin . Science 1 63: 245-254.

1976. Hallucinogenic Plants . Golden Press , New York .

, and Albert Hofmann . 1980. The Botany and Chemi stry ��-= of Hallucinogens. Charles C. Thomas Publishers , Spring field . 125 Smith, G.M. 1955. Cryptogamic Botany . Vo l. 1: Algae and Fungi . McGraw-Hill Book Company , Inc. , New York .

Taylor , Norman . 1963. Narcotics : Nature 's Dangerous Gifts. Dell Publishing Co . , New York .

Tippo , Oswald and W.L. Stern . 1977. Humanistic Botany . W.W. Norton and Company , Inc. , New York .

Touster , Oscar . 1957 . The ergot alkaloids. Research Today 13: 3-20.

Tso , T.C. 1972. Physio logy and Biochemistry of Tobacco Plants . Dowdwen , Hutchinson , and Ross Inc. , Stroudsburg .

U.S. Department of Agriculture . 1965. Agriculture Handbook No . 291 . Agriculture Research Divis ion , Washington D.C.

Walker , J.C. 1969. Plant Pathology . McGraw-Hill Book Company , New York .

Walter , W.G. and R.H. McBee . 1962. General Microbiology . D. van Nostrand Company , Inc. , New York .

Watson , E.V. 1974. The Structure and Life of Bryophytes . Hutchinson and Co. Ltd. , London .

Weiner , Michael A. 1972. Earth Medicine - Earth Foods . Col lier Books , New York .

Wheelwright , Edith G. 1974 . Medical Plants and their History . Dover publications, Inc. , New York .

Wil son , Carl L. , Walter E. Loomis, and Taylor A. Steeves . 1971. Botany . Holt, Rinehart , and Winston , Chicago .