AMAP Human Health

Home , Eastern Lapland, Karesuvanto, Kemijoki, Keminmaa, Pelkosenniemi, Pello

Regional Environmental Publications Regional Environmental Publications

389 389 AMAP Human Health. Biomonitoring and Studying the Nutrition of Mothers and Newborn in the Finnish Lapland AMAP Human Health. Biomonitoring and Studying Leena Soininen, Helena Mussalo-Rauhamaa and Sari Hyvönen the Nutrition of Mothers and Newborn in the Finnish Lapland

The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP is one of the Arctic Council’s four environmental programmes. The task of AMAP is to monitor and assess the levels and effects of anthropogenic pollutants in all components of AMAP Human Health the Arctic environment, including the human population. Biomonitoring and Studying the Nutrition of Mothers The population living in the Arctic areas is in many areas dependent on the and Newborn in the Finnish Lapland ecosystem of their environment and its food chains.

Developing offspring either in the foetal state, as newborns, or in the growing phase are the most sensitive to environmental pollutants. As a result, the targeted group in the AMAP human health project is expecting mothers and their newborn. A newborn infant is the final destination for fat-soluble environmental toxins.

In this publication the studies of mothers´ blood and cord blood of the newborn in Northern- and Eastern Lapland are reported. The exposure to environmental pollutants was calculated by assessing the use of food stuffs of mothers.

The levels of mercury, lead, cadmium, selenium, zinc, copper, 15 different polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PCB congeners), 11 pesticides or persistent organic pollutants (POP), arsenic, and nickel were low and no health risk was found. Some deficiencies in nourishment of mothers were found.

The publication is also available in the Internet: http://www.environment.fi/publications

ISBN 952-11-2000-2 ISBN 952-11-2001-0 (PDF) ISSN 1238-8610

...... LAPLAND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT CENTRE P.O.BOX 8060, 96101 ROVANIEMI LAPLAND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT CENTRE MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT P.O.BOX 35, FIN-00023 VALTIONEUVOSTO MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT Regional Environmental Publications

389

Leena Soininen, Helena Mussalo-Rauhamaa and Sari Hyvönen AMAP Human Health

Biomonitoring and Studying the Nutrition of Mothers and Newborn in the Finnish Lapland

ROVANIEMI 2005 ...... LAPLAND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT CENTRE MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT The publication is also available in the Internet: http://www.environment.fi/publications

ISBN 952-11-2000-2 ISBN 952-11-2001-0 (PDF) ISSN 1238-8610

Translation: Satu Sevón-Nielsen Cover Photo: Leena Soininen Graphics processing: Hannu Lehtomaa Layout: Kyllikki Koskela

Printing house: Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy,

Saarijärvi 2005 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 2 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Foreword

The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP, is one of the programmes originally included in the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, AEPS, which is realized in cooperation with the eight Arctic countries of Finland, Sweden, Nor- way, Denmark/Greenland, Iceland, Canada, the United States, and Russia. In 1997 AEPS and its groups were subsumed under the Arctic Council and now AMAP is one of five Working Groups of the Arctic Council. AMAP has been an international political decision of cooperation, the realization of which was divided between different ministries in Finland. The section on human health was assigned to the Finnish Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. Internationally the Human Health Subprogramme has been chaired by Denmark and later on by Canada. Before the start of the AMAP many of the Arctic countries had already initiated studies on the factors affecting human health. The goal of the programme was to unify the monitoring in each of the Arctic countries in order to establish a uniform view on what the state of the Arctic environment. This was considered necessary due to the conference between the Arctic countries in 1991 in Rovaniemi, Finland, where it was reported that the Arctic areas are not as free from pollution as it had been previously perceived. At the beginning of the 1990s, especially the area of Murmansk, neighbouring Lapland behind the eastern Finnish border, attracted attention and raised concerns among the Lappish peoples with its trans-boundary pollution. A project on the forest damages in the Finnish Lapland had already been started, but otherwise there were only minor projects on the health risks for the population. The Finnish research institutions were not interested in studying the people of Lapland, due to that no funding had been allocated to the project at the time. Due to the State Provincial Office of Lapland being considered legally responsible for it s people’s state and requirements, it was considered that the pollution of the environment was such an important health risk in the future, that its quantity and quality needs to be worked out. Thus, the State Provincial Office of Lapland has been responsible for the Finnish part of the health project. The realization of the project has received external funding, from the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health and from the Finnish Ministry of the Environment. Before that, the Finnish Ministry of Labour funded the workforce for the project. As Phase I of AMAP ended in 1997, the study in Lapland was only at the sample collecting phase. Some of the results from the analyses had already been received, however, they did not make the first international report, which was released at the end of Phase I. The ministers of the eight arctic countries in the meeting in Alta endorsed the continuation of activities under AMAP and agreed that special emphasis was required on the human health. In addition, the conference decided that during the following five years, a separate report on the human health would be made. It was launched in the October of 2002 in Rovaniemi, Finland, in connection to an AMAP symposium. This report is the English translation of the

Finnish National Human Health Report. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 3 The Finnish results show that the Lappish people ingest less of the harmful contaminants in their nutrition than the populations of other Arctic regions. This is mainly due to the Lappish people not including as much marine fish nor marine mammals in their nutrition as the people in other Arctic regions. The research also showed that the trans-boundary pollution originating from the Kola region was not significant enough to cause a health risk for the Lappish people. This study also collected material on the Lappish diet, its contaminants and benefits. From the health aspect, the Arctic diet is excellent. Therefore, it is regrettable that certain regions have had to issue recommendations on restrictions concerning some animals at the top of the food chain and their use as nutrition. On the realization of this AMAP project, we would like to thank numerous instances, from those who funded our research to those executing the health care at the different posts in the communes of Lapland as well as in other areas, within the health administration and in other instances. A special thanks goes out to the

mothers and their children who participated in this research. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 4 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Contents

Foreword ...... 3 Summary ...... 7

1 Introduction...... 9 1.1 Environmental Protection of the Arctic ...... 9 1.2 The Arctic Council...... 10 1.3 AMAP...... 11 1.4 The Purpose of the Study and AMAP in Finland ...... 11 1.5 The Arctic Areas and Their Population ...... 13 1.6 The Finnish Lapland and Its Population ...... 14 1.7 Environmental Pollutants and Children ...... 16 1.8 The Contaminants and Health Targeted in the Study ...... 17 1.8.1 Mercury ...... 17 1.8.2 Cadmium ...... 18 1.8.3 Lead ...... 19 1.8.4 Arsenic and Nickel...... 19 1.8.5 Other Metals, Trace Elements...... 19 1.8.6 Persistent Organic Pollutants ...... 20

2 Biomonitoring...... 22 2.1 Data and Methods...... 22 2.1.1 The Population Targeted in the Study ...... 22 2.1.2 Collecting the Background Information ...... 23 2.1.3 The Collected Samples and the Collecting Methods ...... 24 2.1.4 Analysing the Samples ...... 26 2.1.5 Dietary Survey ...... 28 2.2 The Results ...... 28 2.2.1 Background Information ...... 28 2.2.2 The Samples Studied, Biomonitoring...... 31 2.2.3 The Results of the Chemical Analyses (Biomonitoring) ...... 32 2.2.4 Discussion ...... 48 2.2.5 Summary ...... 49

3 Nutrient and Contaminant Levels in Lapland...... 50 3.1 Pollutant Levels in Lappish Foodstuffs and Drinking Water ...... 50 3.1.1 Vegetables ...... 50 3.1.2 Berries and Mushrooms ...... 50 3.1.3 Reindeer ...... 51 3.1.4 Game ...... 52 3.1.5 Fish ...... 53 3.1.6 Beef and Mutton ...... 54 3.1.7 Milk and Milk Products ...... 54 3.1.8 Water ...... 55 3.2 Studies on the Use of Foodstuffs and on the Nutritional Values Foodstuffs

in Lapland ...... 55 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 5 3.3 Goals and Research Methods ...... 57 3.3.1 Goals ...... 57 3.3.2 Food Diary ...... 57 3.3.3 Dietary Questionnaire ...... 58 3.3.4 Analysing the Food Diaries and Dietary Questionnaires ...... 58 3.4 The Results of the Food Diaries and the Dietary Questionnaires...... 59 3.4.1 Mercury ...... 59 3.4.2 Lead ...... 60 3.4.3 Cadmium ...... 61 3.4.4 Arsenic ...... 63 3.4.5 Nickel...... 63 3.4.6 Zinc ...... 63 3.4.7 Copper ...... 63 3.4.8 Selenium ...... 64 3.4.9 Persistent Organochlorine Compounds, POP Compounds ...... 65 3.4.10 The Quality of the Diet ...... 65 3.5 The Use of Foodstuffs...... 71 3.6 The Use of Vitamin and Mineral Supplements...... 72 3.7 Discussion ...... 72 3.8 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 74

References ...... 77 Appendices ...... 83 Appendix 1: Background Information and Food Questionnaire ...... 83 Appendix 2: Blood samples from the mother ...... 92 Appendix 3: The urine sampling of the mother ...... 93 Appendix 4: How to take the urine sample from the newborn ...... 94 Appendix 5: Contaminant levels in Lappish food ...... 95

Documentation pages ...... 106 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 6 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Summary

In connection to the international Arctic study the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Project, Human Health (AMAP/HH), 150 mothers and their newborn infants were studied. The following studies were conducted: maternal blood mercury, lead, and cadmium concentrations, and newborn cord blood mercury, lead, and cadmium concentration. From both the maternal plasma and cord plasma the levels of selenium, zinc, copper, 15 different polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PCB congeners), and 11 pesticides or Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) were measured. Arsenic and nickel were analysed from maternal and newborn urine. The exposure to environmental pollutants was calculated by using the frequency method and diary method. Furthermore, the concentrations of pollutants and nutrients in the Lap- pish diet were discussed. The geometric mean of the maternal whole blood mercury concentration was 1.4 μg/l and the cord blood mercury concentration 1.9 μg/l. The mean maternal blood lead concentration was 11.3 μg/l. The mean maternal and cord blood cadmium concentration was below detection level. The maternal urine creatinine adjusted nickel concentration was 0.68 μg/l and in the newborn urine 1.16 μg/l. The cor- responding arsenic concentrations were 8.71 μg/l for the mothers and 8.27 μg/l for the newborn. Organic chlorinated compounds and PCB compounds were measured from several combined specimen pools. The concentrations were low. In addition, the calculated supply of pollutants was low. Furthermore, some nutritional deficiencies were found, as usually expected. There were no significant differences between the frequency method and the diary method concerning the food calculation results. A few differences were found between the results of, for example, fats, sugar, fibres, and certain vitamins. The local produce in Lapland is non-polluted and recommended to the population. The

pregnant women need advise on a healthy and diverse diet. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 7 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 8 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389

Introduction ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 1 The Arctic areas have been generally considered as clean, non-polluted areas. However, pollutants originating from industrial areas and densely populated areas do transport to the Arctic areas, where they biomagnify in the food chains. In the north, due to the long periods of darkness and low temperatures, the biological and chemical reactions are slower and accumulation in nature can occur easier, as the reactions through which substances decompose in nature are slower or do not occur at all. The population living in the Arctic areas is in many areas dependent on the ecosystem of their environment and its food chains. The population still uses a lot of fish, birds, different kinds of plants and marine mammals in their diet even though the nutritional habits of the industrialized society are continuously spreading and commercial transportation has reached also the farthest areas on Earth. The population of the Arctic areas is exposed to many non-degradable substances that biomagnify in the food chains. These substances include certain types of metals and non-degradable fat-soluble organochlorine compounds. The compounds accumulate in the fat tissue of animals and humans. Developing offspring either in the foetal state, as newborns, or in the growing phase are the most sensitive to environmental pollutants. During the mother’s pregnancy, the toxins may transfer into the foetus, or through breastfeeding into the newborn. As a result, the targeted group in the AMAP human health project is expecting mothers and their newborn. A newborn infant is the final destination for fat-soluble environmental toxins, when these toxins transfer into the breast milk from the mother’s fat tissue. A child’s health can be threatened by different environmental toxins, but it has been estimated that the benefits of breast milk are significant enough not to limit breastfeeding due to environmental toxins. In some areas, the mothers have been given dietary recommendations. The goal of the AMAP programme on human health is to clarify and follow the exposure of the people living in the Arctic areas to environmental pollutants and the human role at the top of the food chain. In addition, the programme aims to foodstuff data with which preventive measures against health hazards can be developed and which can be used for support in making decisions on reducing global pollution. In the Finnish Lapland, the main purpose is to give information to the population on whether the pollution originating from the Kola Peninsula has had an effect on the population of Lapland or not. The purpose has been to develop and give guidelines on a regional and local level so that the population is exposed to the pollutants as little as possible and still able to maintain their traditional and healthy diet.

1.1 Environmental Protection of the Arctic In the spring of 1989, Finland proposed a conference on the protection of the Arctic environment. The first preparatory meetings were held in Rovaniemi, Finland, in the September of the same year. The initiative was named the Rovaniemi process. In

the June of 1991, all of the Arctic countries – all five of the Nordic countries as well ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 9 as Canada, the United States and Russia, signed a political declaration on the protection of the Arctic environment and adopted the Artic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS). The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy comprises of five working groups: Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), Energency Prevention, Preparedness and Response (EPPR), Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), Sustainable Development and Utilization (SDU) and Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP).

1.2 The Arctic Council The Arctic Council was established with a political declaration signed by the Arctic countries in the September of 1996 in Ottawa, Canada. The Council is a forum for cooperation between the governments of the Arctic countries, which handles and facilitates the cooperation between the Arctic countries. The main focal points of the Council’s functions are environmental protection (AEPS) and sustainable development. The Arctic Ministerial Conference is held in every two years and during the period in between, the responsibility is on the Senior Arctic Officials (SAO) meeting. The five working groups report to the SAO meeting on their progress, which provides the concrete contents for the Council’s work. Finland chaired the Arctic Council in 2000–2002.

Aleutian-Pribilof

Bethel Lavrentiya Yupik Inuit/Yupik Kanchalan USA Uelen Indigenous Alaska Inuit/Yupik

Barrow Dene/Métis Iñupiat Other Inuuvik Inuit Caucasian

Canada Russia

Kitikmeot Taymir Kivalliq Inuit Indigenous Inuit Norilsk Non-indigenous Qaanaq Baffin Dudinka Island Yamal Non-indigenous Inuit Indigenous Salekhard Nunavik Upernavik Inuit Non-indigenous Disko Bay Ilulissat Greenland Nuuk Ittoqqortoormiit Finnish Tassiilaq Lapland Arkhangelsk Nanortalik Vestvågøy Non-indigenous Isafjördur Saudarkrokur Kiruna Olafsvik region Reykjavik Akureyri Finland Vestmannaeyjar Iceland Faeroe Islands Norway Sweden

Figure 1. The Arctic areas and the locations of the collected maternal blood samples (AMAP). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 10 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 1.3 AMAP The purpose of the AMAP programme is to monitor the levels of pollutants and assess the effects of pollution originating from human actions in all compartments of the Arctic environment, in the atmosphere, terrain, in freshwater and marine environments, as well as in human populations. The chairmanship of the programme changes between the member countries. AMAP is supported by a permanent Secretariat located in Oslo, Norway, which is also mainly funded by Norway. In Finland the Ministry of the Environment’s unit for international affairs has allocated annually 11,900 eur to the AMAP secretariat, especially for the involvement of the Saami in the programme. In Finland, the person responsible is Senior Advisor Outi Mähönen from the Finnish Ministry of the Environment’s unit for international affairs supported by a national AMAP group assigned by the Ministry of the Environment. In 1997 and 1998 extensive reports on the assessment of the Arctic environment were published. The new reports were published according to themes during the Finnish chairmanship in the Ministerial Conference in the October of 2002. The issues on human health attracted significant attention already at an early stage due to the considerable amounts of environmental pollutants discovered in the populations of Greenland and Canada. The report on human health is thorough as well as extensive and it includes significant amounts of new data. In addition, the lifestyle and cultural issues associated with human health are discussed more extensively in the 2002 report than, for example, in the 1997 report. Some of the Arctic countries have released their own national reports. This particular report is the Finnish national report on human health. A national collective AMAP report will also be published in Finland. The focus in the AMAP programme is on the monitoring of organochlorine compounds, that is, persistent organic contaminants (POPs) and on heavy metals, and radionuclides. The programme is a continuous research, that is, a monitoring programme, which is ratified and assessed annually at the expert meetings of Arctic countries held around the world. Each of the participating countries have established a suitable monitoring programme for themselves, for the costs of which the countries are mainly responsible for. However, each of the countries follow a so-called core programme, which means that certain predetermined pollutants and trace elements are analyzed from the target group. Subprogrammes can be added accordinly into the main programme either recommended by AMAP according to the national and regional needs or according to the participating country’s own needs.

1.4 The Purpose of the Study and AMAP in Finland The purpose of this study is to be a part of broader Arctic monitoring, to assess the current situation from the point of view of the Lappish people, and compare the results to the state of the environment in the other Arctic regions. In addition, the purpose of this study is to compare the relationship of the calculated levels of environmental toxins to the results obtained through biomonitoring. The calculated levels are also compared between the countries. In Finland, the calculated levels of the environmental toxins can be compared to the biomonitoring only concerning those substances on which environmental toxin levels were available in 1998. The section on the use of nutrition is intended to serve both the toxicological and

nutritional assessment. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 11 The coordinator for the Finnish AMAP programme is the Finnish Ministry of the Environment. The instances included in the AMAP cooperation are Finnish Environment Institute, Finnish Meteorological Institute, Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Geological Survey of Finland, and the State Provincial Office of Lapland. Each of the institutions are responsible for providing the collected data in their field of specialty for the international report. The State Provincial Office of Lapland has provided the data on the human health concerning heavy metals and POP compounds to the report on human health. The Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority is responsible for the radiation data also on the human health. Graphic 1 illustrates the instances included in the section on human health.

AMAP Canada, Greenland, Island, Norway Sweden, Finland, USA, Russia

Human Health

Ministry of Social Ministry of Environment Affairs and Health

State Provincial Office of Lapland

Canada Municipalities/Health Centre de Toxicologie Centres or Clinics Du Quebec Deliveryhospitals Inari Ivalo Health Centre Ivalo Health Centre Inari Health Clinic Sevettijärvi Health Clinic Central Hospital of Lapland Nellim Health Clinic The Hospital of Kuusamo Muonio - Enontekiö Central Hospital of Lapland Federation of Municipalities Clinical laboratory Enontekiö Health Clinic Storage of Samples Kaaresuvanto Health Clinic

Utsjoki Utsjoki Health Clinic Karigasniemi Health Clinic

Kemijärvi Kemijärvi Health Clinics

Pelkosenniemi - Savukoski Federation of Municipalities Pelkosenniemi Health Centre Health Centre = The centre of health services in the municipality, Savukoski Healh Clinic hospital, general physicians, versatile stuff.

Salla Health Clinic = Working place of the District Public Health Nurse. Salla Healh Clinics General practitioner visits1-4times per month.

Graphic 1. The project organization of the instances involved in the AMAP study on human

health and the route of the samples. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 12 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 1.5 The Arctic Areas and Their Population The center for the Arctic area is undoubtedly the North Pole, however, the definition of the southern boundary of the Arctic area varies according to the subject studied. The meteorologists consider the 10 °C isotherm as the southern boundary, the geologists consider permafrost, and the botanists consider the treeline. The southern boundary for the Finnish AMAP programme follows the Arctic Circle.

80°N

70°N

60°N Boundaries of the Arctic Arctic Circle 10°C July isotherm Treeline Marine AMAP Southern boundaries of the High Arctic and the subarctic delineated on a basis of vegetation High Arctic subarctic

Figure 2. The Arctic areas. Different definitions of the southern border (AMAP).

The indigenous peoples of the Arctic areas have formerly been the majority in the Arctic areas in all of the Arctic countries. However, in the course of the years, population from other regions have moved into the Arctic regions and have assimilated into the indigenous population, as well as vice versa at the stage where the number of immigrants into the area has exceeded the number of the indigenous population. For example, in Alaska, the indigenous peoples made up 26 % of the whole population in 1950 (Middaugh 1991). By 1998, the percentage had decreased to 16 % as more immigration had occurred (Alaska Bureau of Vital Statistics, Annual Report 2000). The Alaskan Natives are the Inuit, Indians, and the Aleuts. The indigenous groups are assimilating with each other as well as to the immigrants at such a rate that it is increasingly difficult to determine the differences between the different indigenous groups (Middaugh 2002). In the annual report by the Alaska Bureau of Vital Statistics, the Alaskan Natives are considered as one population group

(Crondahl et al. 2000). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 13 The Russian Arctic areas have numerous indigenous minorities of various sizes. For example, the Nenets, who belong to the population of the Barents area, numbered approximately 34 665 in the census of 1989 (IWGIA 1990), whereas, for example, the Oroks numbered only approximately 190 at the same time. In 1989, the Soviet Union constituted 183 700 indigenous minorities which was 0.06 % of the then population of the now former Soviet Union. The population of Canada includes numerous different nationalities. The indigenous minorities are the Indians and Inuit. The offspring of the Inuit originating from other areas are known as Métis. The socio-cultural change has been extensive and rather rapid in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. In Russia, the change is taking place in different areas at different rates depending upon the use of natural resources in the area by immigrants. Also destruction has been caused, for example, in connection to drilling for oil and gas (Tuisku 1999). The influx to the Arctic regions has both benefitted the indigenous minorities, as well as been detrimental to them. In addition to the new culture arriving with the immigration, tuberculosis and other infectious diseases, alcohol, tobacco, narcotics, and a different way of life have ensued as well. The arrival of health care has since decreased the prevalence of infectious diseases, the worst of which have been tuberculosis and the high infant mortality rate from infectious diseases. On the other hand, health care has not succeeded in preventing diseases caused by lifestyle, which include the health problems cause by stimulants as well as cancer, obesity, diabetes, unintentional injuries, and cardiovascular diseases. The life expectancy in the Arctic areas has traditionally been lower than the average of the entire country. Infant mortality rate has been considered as an indicator for the general state of health and health care. The infant mortality rate has been high in the Arctic areas, however, in many areas, it is beginning to reach the low levels of the southern regions. In Finland, the infant mortality rate of the Saami communes reached the low levels of the rest of the country in the mid-1970s (Soininen et al. 1981).

1.6 The Finnish Lapland and Its Population At the end of 2001, less than 189 000 people, the equivalent of 3.6 % of the Finnish population, lived in the region of the Finnish commune of Lapland. 87 % of the population in Lapland lives in the area of the cities Kemi, Tornio and Rovaniemi (Lapin liitto 2001). Living in the countryside generally requires combining various ways of acquiring a livelihood, thus, a great deal of the population combine forestry, fishing, and services to earn a living. Reindeer husbandry is one of the oldest trades in Lapland. In 2002, 570 households were still dependent on full-time reindeer husbandry. 245 households were dependent on part-time reindeer husbandry (Filppa 2002). Tourism increasingly provides households with extra earnings. People living in Lapland have always used natural resources such as berries for their own use. During the last few years, the commercial use of berries, mushrooms, potatoes (the Lappish variety of ‘puikula’), different herbs, meat and fish has increased and people have been educating themselves to be able to market their products better. 27 % of all the natural berries in Finland are collected in Lapland (Lapin liitto 2001). As a result, environmental pollution is a danger which affects both the health of the local population as well as their livelihood. Lapland occupies 29 % of the entire area of Finland. The average population density in Lapland is only two people per square kilometre, thus, Lapland is a very sparsely populated area. Characteristic to the Finnish Lapland is the large share of

lakes and marshes (34 %) of the total area. Treeless areas constitute approximately ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 14 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 16 % (15 500 km²) of the total area and coniferous forest proximately 50 000 km². The population in Lapland is usually highly educated, however, the unemployment rate is high. Services, education, and health care are available to the whole population.

The Saami in Finland

The Finnish Lapland is inhabited by three linguistically different Saami populations: the Inari Saami, the Skolt Saami, and North Saami, the latter being the most numerous group. Based on culture and livelihood, the Finnish Saami can be divided into four different groups: the Inari Saami, the Skolt Saami, the Saami of the Tenojoki region, and the reindeer hearding Saami. The traditional area of habitation for the Inari Saami is the surroundings of the Inari lake. Their livelihoods include lake fishing, hunting, small scale farming, and reindeer husbandry. The Inari Saami is the smallest group of the Saamis with only 237 people (Saamelaiskäräjät 1999). The Skolt Saami are the indigenous population of Petsamo and the western part of the Kola Peninsula. The Russo-Carelian regional government and religion has had an effect on the Skolt Saami culture. The Skolt Saami are Orthodox. Part of the Skolt Saami areas were left on the Russian side as a result of the Treaties of Tartu in 1920, however, Petsamo was inlcuded as a part of Finland. After the Second World War, Petsamo was handed over to the Soviet Union and a majority of the Skolt Saami were situated in Finland north of the Sevettijärvi lake and Nellimi (Aikio-Puoskari 2001). According to the Saami Council, the Skolt Saami number 264. In Russia, only some tens of Skolt Saami are in the Ylä-Tuloma area. Other Saami of the Kola Peninsula are Kildin or Akkala Saami (Rantala 2002). The reindeer hearding Saami have focused solely on their livelihood since the mid 19th century. They hearded their reindeer using the entire mountain area crossing national borders. When the borders were closed in mid 19th century, the reindeer hearding Saami settled in the mountain areas of Enontekiö, Utsjoki, Inari, and north of Sodankylä (Aikio-Puoskari 2001).

Table 1: The Saami in Finland according to areas and language groups in 1999.

The first language -> Northern Inari Skolt Finnish Not known* Total Home commune Saami Saami Saami

Enontekiö 208 0 0 133 88 429 Inari 334 228 255 1 139 287 2 243 Utsjoki 648 8 2 164 165 987 Sodankylä 83 1 7 239 94 424 Total Saami home 1 273 237 264 1 675 634 4 083 territory *Mostly children below school age Source: The Saami Parliament 1999

In Finland in 1999, the Saami numbered 7 500. 4 083 of which lived in the indigenous areas of Enontekiö, Inari, Utsjoki, and Sodankylä. The rest lived elsewhere in the country or abroad. The table 1 illustrates the communes of the Saami indigenous areas as well as the population numbers. The most Saami live in the commune of Inari, whereas the commune of Utsjoki has the biggest concentration of Saami. The traditional areas of habitation for the different Saami groups can be seen in the map of

the figure 3. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 15 Northern saami

Inari Saami

Skolt Saami The Saami area

The Arctic Circle

Source: Nickul E. 1968

Figure 3. A map on the traditional areas of habitation for the different Saami groups.

The Saami people have been healthier than the Finnish population, at least concerning such chronic diseases as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes. Unfortunately the situation is changing rapidly. Especially the health of the Skolt Saami has worsened during the last few decades. It is now worse than compared with the rest of the Saami population as well as to the Finnish population (Kirjarin- ta et al. 1976, Soininen et al. 2002).

1.7 Environmental Pollutants and Children Environmental pollutants can pass into a child already at foetal state. Expecting mothers are exposed to various substances including the most common and the most hazardous, tobacco and alcohol. In addition, mothers use more prescription drugs during the pregnancy than before. Therefore, it is important to know how the metabolism of a foetus and a newborn functions. The nutrients necessary for foetal development are passed through the active transport from the maternal vascular system to the foetal vascular system. Most medicines and chemical substances pass the placenta easier through simple diffusion. The amount of contaminants passing into the foetus depends on the contaminant’s fat-solubility, level of ionization, and molecular weight. Fat-soluble contaminants pass through the placenta easier than significantly ionized contaminants or contaminants with a large molecular size. The effect of the contaminant on the foetus depends on the foetal development stage. An exposure during the first week of pregnancy results easily in a spontaneous abortion. An exposure at a later development stage can result in anything from a spontaneous abortion to a slight neurological learning disability. After the birth, the possibility of contaminant transfer is significantly greater through breast milk as many contaminants, especially fat-soluble, concentrate in the milk. Therefore, losing weight is not recommended during nursing, because

due to the loss of fat tissue also the toxins in the fat tissue are released and will ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 16 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 predominantly transfer into the milk. The penetration of the mammary gland ephitel by the contaminant, that is, how much of the contaminants transfer into the milk, depends on the physio-chemical properties of the contaminants, much like absorption does (Kacew et al. 1988). The effects of hazardous environmental chemicals have been studied predominately in adults. However, it has been documented that the contaminants pass easier through, for example, the lungs and intestine into the body of a newborn than into an adult. The acidity of a newborn’s stomach increases rapidly during the first 24 hours and is followed by the increase of alkalinity during the following 4 to 6 weeks (Roberts 1986). The previous affects the ionization of substances in the stomach and, thus, absorption. Absorption through the intestine is easier. The peristaltics of the intestine (the movements of the intestine) are still irregular and do not transport matter like an adult’s intestine. In addition, the area of the intestine is proportionally larger to the rest of the organs than in an adult. Moreover, there are differences in how the contaminants transfer in the body. An infant’s body contains proportionally less water, so the external state of the cell is proportionally larger. Thus, the transfer of contaminants to their targets occurs more efficiently in infants than in adults. In addition, the plasma of a newborn cannot bind contaminants in the same way as adult plasma, so more effective contaminants remain free. Moreover, there are differences in the amount of metabolic enzymes, thus, the pollutants exit the newborn body slower than an adult body. The kidneys are less effective then an adult’s. The transfer of many contaminants such as PCB occurs predominantly as glucuronides. A foetus or a newborn have a low glucuronide formation capability up to 2–3 months of age. Due to this, an antibiotic called chloramphenicol caused the death of 30 prematurely born babies in 1966. Additionally, it can be noted that cats have a particularly poor capability of removing phenols through glucuronization. Therefore, illness and death in cats can be a sign of a PCB poisoning. Due to the abovementioned situation, precise instructions have been issued on which medications can be prescribed to a newborn or to a nursing mother and in which quantities, because the effects of the drugs cannot be established through adult tests (Kacew et al. 1988).

1.8 The Contaminants and Health Targeted in the Study The contaminants targeted in the international part of this study on human health were merucry (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), 15 different polychlorinated biphenyl compounds or PCB congeners, and 11 different pesticides.

1.8.1 Mercury Mercury is a heavy metal, which can be found as elemental mercury, and as organic and inorganic compounds. Mercury is transported from the soil into the food chains as a result of terraforming, for example, due to draining and constructing reservoirs. The main sources for mercury are the metal industry, energy production, chemical industry, and products containing mercury. Mercury has also been used in farming for grain treatment purposes. It has been estimated that five grams of mercury is used annually per field hectare (Mäkelä-Kurtto 1987, Penttinen et al. 2002). Efficient separation and burning techniques have decreased mercury emissions in the environment. It has been estimated that the emissions have decreased by 45 %

between 1990 and 1997 (Penttinen et al. 2002). Metallic mercury evaporates and, ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 17 thus, transports everywhere via air currents – also to the Arctic regions. The concentration of mercury in the ice in Greenland has been noted to have increased since the 20th century, mainly due to the global mercury load introduced by human means. The evaporated metallic mercury absorbs poorly in the intestine, but due to its fat-solubility it can absorb through the lungs. This caused an occupational health hazard for dentists when amalgam fillings were in use and mixed at the dentist’s practice. Also organic mercury compounds absorb well into the body. Concerning the inorganic mercury compounds, the mercuric compounds are soluble, however, mercury salts are weakly soluble and, thus, absorb poorly into the body from nutrition. In the natural cycle, mercury is converted into organic methyl mercury by microorganisms in the sediments of bodies of water, and at the same time bio- magnifying in the food chains of said waters. In the Artic areas, the highest concentrations of mercury are found in sea mammals and predatory fish and, thus, also in humans who have these animals in their diet. Methyl mercury passes through the intestine and, as a result, blood values represent the daily intake well. Mercury accumulates in hair and, therefore, hair analysis has been used to measure exposure to mercury. Methyl mercury is hazardous to health, because it is fat-soluble and can easily pass into the brain. It can also pass into the foetus. A growing foetus is more susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of mercury than a grown adult. However, the effects can only be detected once the nervous system has reached a certain stage of maturity. A long term exposure to mercury can initially lead to the weakening of mental capabilities and eventually to different kinds of paralyses. After being discovered to have been exposed to mercury from whales, a large number of children were recently studied in the Faeroe Islands concerning their ability to learn and other mental capabilities. The study proved that an exposure at the foetal stage decreases the child’s aptitude in neurological tests. The effects were visible mainly in the areas of language, attentiveness, and memory. (Grandjean et al.1997). The most significant source of mercury in the human diet is fish. Especially in the freshwater predatory fish the mercury concentrations can be significant. During the construction of the large reservoirs in Finland, the mercury reserves in the reservoirs’ sediment were dissolved into the water and the fish in the reservoirs could contain exceptionally high concentrations of mercury. Restrictions of ten years were set for reservoir fish in Lapland in the 1970s (Penttinen et al. 2002). The concentration of mercury in the reservoir fish has been monitored and the concentrations had decreased already in the early 1990s. (Eyssen et al. 1983, Kjell- ström et al. 1986, Foldspang et al. 1990). However, it is well known that mercury fallout has increased due to pollution caused by industrial processes and energy production.

1.8.2 Cadmium Cadmium is used in, for example, pigments, as a stabilizer in plastics, in alloys, and in batteries. Significant sources of cadmium emissions into the environment are mining, refining zinc and copper, and the iron and steel industries. Especially in Finland the cadmium emissions from the metal industry have decreased. Between 1993 and 1997 the decrease in emissions has been estimated to be 80 % (Melanen et al. 1999). A considerable share of the cadmium in the Finnish nature originates from central Europe as long-range transport. Cadmium biomagnifies in the food chain and accumulates in humans. As a result, nutrition as well as smoking are the most

significant sources of cadmium. Cadmium does not pass the placenta, but can cause ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 18 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 teratogenicity by preventing zinc from passing through the placenta. The half-life of cadmium in the human body is estimated to be 7 to 30 years. Cadmium mainly accumulates in the liver and kidneys, due to which the damages caused by exposure to cadmium manifest as, for example, liver damage. (Johansen 1982, Vuori et al. 1979, Tarp et al. 1991). The liver and kidneys of aged animals have accumulated cadmium and, thus, not suitable for consumption.

1.8.3 Lead Lead has been used in batteries, in zinc and copper enrichments, and in gasoline as an anti-knock additive. Since lead is toxic to the envinronment and hazardous to health, it is no longer used and has been replaced by other compounds. In 1993 Finns began to use non-leaded gasoline and, as a result, the lead emission total into the air has decreased from the 1987 level of 460 tonnes to 286 tonnes in 1990. By 1997 lead emissions decreased further by 95 %. (Melanen et al. 1999). In addition, the process emissions of the industry have decreased by 90 % during the same period. As with cadmium, a significant amount of lead originates from elsewhere in Europe as long-range transport. Lead transfers with the aerosols in the air to the Arctic region. Lead passes through the placenta and it has been found in the maternal and newborn blood in relatively high concentrations, even in areas with no local source for the pollution. As a result, the exposure to lead by the population in the Arctic areas can be considered as an indicator of global pollution (Hansen et al. 1990). Lead was known to be toxic already in ancient times. Toxicologically important is tetraethyl lead, which has been used in gasoline as an anti-knock additive. In adults lead absorbs poorly through the mouth, but the absorption in children is significantly more efficient. Lead absorbs well through the respiratory tracts. During a long- term exposure, 90 % of the lead will accumulate in the skeleton. Lead will affect the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, kidneys, and the formation of red blood cells.

1.8.4 Arsenic and Nickel Arsenic and nickel spread to the Finnish Lapland mainly from the emissions of Kola Peninsula metalsmelters and powerplants using coal that contains arsenic. Due to this, it has been decided that emissions of these metals are measured in Finland (Laurila et al. 1991, Ruhling et al. 1992, Revich 1992). An increased proness to lung and nasal cavity cancer has been found among workers at nickel factories (International Committee 1990). In large doses, arsenic causes changes in the skin and mucous membranes as well as diseases of the nervous systems (Valkonen et al. 1983, Bencko 1987). It can also cause skin and lung cancer. The health effects of slight continuous exposure to heavy metals is not really known. However, a growth in the concentrations of heavy metals has been detected (Hansen et al. 1991).

1.8.5 Other Metals, Trace Elements The functions of minerals and trace elements in the human body are often rather complex and their functions are connected. Minerals are an important part of the skeleton. In addition to this they regulate the liquid balance and acid-alkaline balance in the body. They function as parts of enzymes in metabolism. Trace elements

are substances which the human body needs, but only a few micro- or milligrams ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 19 per day. Some trace elements have the ability to affect biologically the metabolism of heavy metals and, thus, decrease their toxicity (Mussalo-Rauhamaa et al. 1992). Concerning the trace elements, the AMAP program studies the concentrations of zinc, selenium, and copper in Lappish mothers and newborn. In larger amounts, selenium is toxic. In small amounts it functions as an antioxidant in the human body converting harmful compounds born during normal cell activity or during the metabolism of toxic compounds into less dangerous forms. Selenium has been found to decrease the neurotoxic effects of mercury. In addition, selenium can decrease the toxicity of cadmium, lead, arsenic, and copper. Selenium participates in regulating the thyroid gland hormones and has a preventive effect on various cancers. Selenium can also be used to prevent the hazards of mercury originating from amalgam fillings (Marjanen 1998). In China the poor availability of selenium has caused cases of the so-called Keshan disease to expecting mothers and children. Zinc is a necessary trace element for enzymes that participate in carbohydrate and energy metabolisms. It is needed for forming and dissolving proteins. Zinc is essential to the normal formation of bone, the condition of the skin, in healing wounds, and in the sense of taste. A deficiency of zinc in children may cause delays in normal development. Zinc deficiency is rare in Finland, because the normal Finnish diet usually provides sufficient zinc. The elderly may experience zinc deficiency due to a monotonous diet, or due to the use of laxatives or diuretics. Zinc is less toxic than the other heavy metals. A significant overdose of zinc (150 mg per day) will lead to a copper deficiency, anemia, and the weakening of the immune system. Copper is an essential element to many plants, animals and to humans. Many important enzymes, such as those involved with iron metabolism and the cell formation in the bone marrow, require copper in order to function. Copper is needed for growing, for the development of the skeleton, maintaining the immune system, and preventing the hazards of mercury (Marjanen 1998).

1.8.6 Persistent Organic Pollutants Persistent organic pollutants or POPs include such pesticides as DDT, mirex, and chlordane, industrial chemicals such as PCBs, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and industrial byproducts such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and furans (PCDD/ Fs). Neutral organochlorine compounds comprise of a large group of compounds, which have one thing in common: as fat-soluble substances they accumulate into lipids in nature and then through the food chains accumulate in humans. The best known of these compounds is DDT taken into use in the 1940s. It quickly became a widely used pesticide in farming used globally. It has also been used in, for example, controlling malaria and preventing typhoid fever. DDT was introduced in the Finnish market in 1946. Due to scientific publications reporting on the health hazards of DDT and due to the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson published in 1962, the use of DDT was first banned in Sweden in 1970 and soon afterwards in other countries. In Finland, the use of DDT was limited in 1969 and the use of DDT was completely banned in 1977. An estimated 304 tonnes of DDT was sold in Finland. The ban on DDT led to finding replacement insecticides. Other chlorine containing insecticides include lindane, dieldrin, aldrin, endrin, mirex, endosulfan, chordanes, and toxaphenes. The most important of the DDT replacements has been toxaphene, which is also known as camphechlor. The equivalent Russian product is known as strobane. Toxaphene and strobane are mixtures of chlorinated terpenes, which contain hundreds of compounds that are often isomeric. The production volume of toxaphene in the United States in 1980 was 105 million kilograms, more

than the production of DDT at its hight in 1968, which was 68 million kilograms. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 20 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Hexchlorocyclohexane has been used in Finland in the 1940s under the same technical name. In the 1950s its gamma isomer, which is also called lindane, was a very popular pesticide in Finland. Lindane (used in for example lice shampoos) and endosulfan, both of which have been used long in Finland, are not very durable compounds in the nature. Mirex has not been used in Finland, but in other countries it has been used since the 1950s, for example, against ants and as an anti-flammable agent. Neither has the use of toxaphene been allowed in Finland. The manufacturing of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) began in the 1930s. It was used in many countries as an insecticide until the 1970s. HCB is born as a byproduct from the manufacturing of many insecticides. Currently, the most important source of HCB is the incineration processes of organic compounds. Organochlorines transfer around the globe via air currents. The hazards of toxaphene have been estimated to be quadruple compared with the hazards of DDT. Toxaphenes are very hard to analyse. (Pyysalo et al. 1984). The pesticide DDT dissolves in nature becoming DDE. The number of DDT compounds decreased in the 1970s and 1980s, but in the 1990s the decrease has slowed down (Korhonen et al. 2001). Polychlorinated biphenyls or PCB compounds were taken into use in the 1920s. The PCB molecules comprise of two biphenyl rings to which a varying number of chlorine atoms are attached. All in all, there are 209 different PCB compounds. PCB compounds have been used in, for example, as insulation in electric appliances, as an anti-flammable agent, and in the plastic industry due to its poor water-solubility and high heat stability. In addition, it has been used in, for example, paints. Only in the late 1960 it was discovered that PCB compounds transfer and accumulate in the nature in breast milk. In Finland, the use of PCBs was limited in the 1970s and they have not been allowed in electric appliances since 1987. It has been estimated that two million kilograms of PCBs have been used in electric appliances in Finland. For example, already the Helsinki Kyläsaari waste incineration plant released 98 kilograms of PCBs annually. PCBs have been allowed in other member countries of the European Economic Community. The European Union use to have regulations according to which a mixture of PCBs could not contain more than ten percent of PCB compounds with more than four chlorine atoms. Typically PCBs accumulate into such foodstuffs as fish, milk and milk products, meat and meat products, and eggs. The most significant source of PCBs among fish is the fatty fish from the Baltic Sea, such as baltic herring or salmon. Many of the POP compounds have been proven to be carcinogenic in animal tests, but their possible carcinogenic nature in humans is not known. (Fein et al.1984, Dewailly et al. 1989, Taylor et al. 1989, Mussalo-Rauhamaa 1991, Dewailly et al. 1992). The possible health hazards of PCBs are weakening of the immune system

and a decrease in mental capabilities as a result of exposure in foetal state. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 21

Biomonitoring ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 2 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 2.1 Data and Methods

2.1.1 The Population Targeted in the Study The section of the study on human health targeted mothers and their newborn infants born in 1996–1998 in the Finnish commune of Lapland and more precicely in the Saami communes of Inari, Enontekiö, and Utsjoki, and towards the eastern border to Russia communes Pelkosenniemi, Savukoski, Salla, and Kemijärvi. The Saami communities were chosen as the target of the study, because the indigenous populations of the Arctic areas are targeted in the AMAP project. The communities near the eastern border were chosen to evaluate the possible effect of the pollution originating from the Murmansk area in Russia. The city of Kemijärvi was included in the study once it became apparent that the birth rate in the AMAP communities was decreasing. Without Kemijärvi, including 150 mothers in the study could have lengthened the schedule by a year. In total, 151 mothers participated in this study.

Utsjoki Karigasniemi Sevettijärvi Inari ENONTEKIÖ Nellim Karesuvanto Ivalo Hetta

Savukoski Pelkosenniemi Kemijärvi Salla Arctic Circle Rovaniemi

Kuusamo

c Genimap OY, Lupa L4659/02

Hospital / Delivery department Health center / health care clinic AMAP municipalities

Figure 4. The communes of Lapland that participated in the study. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 22 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Table 2. The birth rate in the communes targeted in the study between 1992 and 1998 and the number of mothers participating in the AMAP study.

The birth rate during years 1992–1998 The number of mothers in the study during Commune 1992 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 the years 1996–1998

111111 1 Enontekiö 34 30 29 13 25 32 13 Inari 138 105 108 96 55 69 55 Utsjoki 21 15 24 13 13 9 11 Salla 64 50 53 59 55 36 35 Savukoski 23 22 8 15 7 10 16 altogether in Savukoski Pelkosenniemi 15 10 11 8 8 8 and Pelkosenniemi Kemijärvi 142 138 98 105 103 87 21 Total 437 370 331 309 266 251 151

The study began in the fall of 1996 and the collection of samples was finished in the summer of 1998. The mothers participating the study gave a written concession on the behalf of themselves and their child. The communal social and health board or the equivalent in each of the communes targeted in the study were requested a permission for conducting the study and for using the working time of the public health nurses, laboratory technicians, and midwives. All of the communes requested to join the study gave their permission for the study.

2.1.2 Collecting the Background Information In connection to the dietary questionnaire, the mothers were asked as background information their date and place of birth, address, birth background concerning their ethnicity and other details (for example Saami or other), duration of habitation in the community, and previous locations of habitation. In addition, they were asked about their profession and workplace, and about the type of work they performed and their hobbies to determine exposure. Furthermore, the estimated date of birth of the child and previous pregnancies or spontaneous abortions were registered. Concerning their state of health, the mothers were asked about possible diseases and the use of prescribed or over the counter medication. Information on smoking and exposure to ambient tobacco smoke was also collected (Appendix 1). The mothers were given written feedback on the laboratory tests and the dietary analysis. In the same feedback, the mothers were asked for their newborn’s information: the time of birth, birth weight and height, the circumference of the head at the time of birth, and the Apgar score. Included in the information was how long the child was breastfed, how long did the child receive only breast milk and to

list all the diseases after the birth with their symptoms as well. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 23 2.1.3 The Collected Samples and the Collecting Methods The purpose of the population health programme was to collect blood, urine, hair and placenta samples and through them measure the levels of the most typical global and regional environmental pollutants. Based on the international core programme, the study analysed from the 150 maternal blood and cord blood samples mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), zink (Zn), and organochlorine compounds. The Finnish study also included urine nickel and arsenic levels. A common informational meeting was arranged for the public health nurses, midwives, and laboratory technicians in Rovaniemi in the spring of 1996 where all of the participants were given background information on the project, guidance for their tasks, and instructions for collecting the samples.

Samples Collected in the Communities

The maternal blood samples were collected by the public health nurses of the targeted communes at the prenatal care. The nurses also conducted the dietary interview and distributed the food diaries. The mothers followed their diet during the pregnancy with the help of a food diary and a dietary questionnaire. If necessary, the local public health nurses helped the mothers to fill in the dietary questionnaire with the help of a picture book. This phase was time-consuming and both the mothers and the nurses experienced it as very labourous. However, for example the diaries have been very useful sources of information concerning the diets of the expecting mothers occasionally prompting the nurses to intervene. In order to consult the expecting mothers in greater detail for instance concerning the dietary needs during pregnancy, the nurses would need more time. The nurses collected the maternal blood, urine, and hair samples towards the end of the pregnancy. Three blood samples were taken from the participating mothers. The first sample consisted of seven to ten millilitres of blood collected in a 10 milli- litre vacuum tube, which was then centrifuged. The separated plasma was transferred into two small plastic tubes (two and six millilitres). These two samples were intended to determine the copper, zinc, and selenium concentrations in the blood as well as the lipids in the blood. The second sample of approximately seven millilitres of blood was taken into another vacuum tube containing EDTA to prevent coagulation. After the sample was mixed, it was poured into a smaller plastic tube. This whole blood sample was used for determining the mercury, cadmium, and lead concentrations. The third sample was a centrifuged plasma sample, which was either poured or transferred with a pipette into a small glass bottle. This sample was intended to determine the PCB and other organochlorine concentrations. The guideline for taking the samples was that the order the samples were collected in was also their order of importance. If there was insufficient blood, the third sample could be omitted. (Appendix 2). The maternal urine samples were collected at the prenatal care into a plastic bottle. The urine samples were meant for determining the arsenic and nickel levels, and for determining the creatinine (Krea) levels in Finland. Instructions for taking the samples are included as (Appendices 3 and 4). All of the laboratory equipment used were acid washed. The POP shipment tubes were from Canada. Other plastic and glass tubes were bought from Tamro Oy. The samples were sent to Rovaniemi by the prenatal care nurse, or an assisting laboratory delivered the samples directly to the freezer reserved for the AMAP at

the Lapland Central Hospital. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 24 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 For the newborn samples, the mothers were given a kit of necessary sample equipment, which the delivery hospital needed for taking the cord blood, placenta, and urine samples. The maternal and newborn hair samples were taken later by a nurse during the first house call. The public health nurses were being informed on the AMAP study via phone and mail throughout the study. They received a folder of instructions and additional supplies were sent according to the need. All of the tubes and bottles needed for the samples were delivered to the prenatal care units in readily arranged bags for collecting the samples. Each of the bags contained detailed instructions on how to collect the sample. In some of the communes targeted in the AMAP study, the public health nurses had substitutes due to holidays and other arrangements and, thus, background information on the project was urgently needed as the substitutes began their work. Informing the substitutes on the AMAP study has been intended to be as quick as possible so that the research and collecting the samples has been able to continue without interruption.

Samples Collected at the Delivery Hospitals

The deliveries of the population targeted in the AMAP program were handled at the following hospitals: the Lapland Central Hospital in Rovaniemi, the Inari Health Centre in Ivalo and the Kuusamo Health Centre Hospital in Kuusamo.

Figure 5. During the study the Inari Health Care Centre Hospital was the most northern location in Finland handling deliveries. (Photo Leena Soininen)

The nurses at the delivering hospitals could see from the mother’s maternity card whether she was included in the AMAP study or not. In case the mother did not have with her the kit for taking the newborn samples, each of the maternity wards of the hospitals had spare kits reserved. At the hospitals, the midwives took three cord blood samples, which were handled similar to the maternal blood samples. In addition, the same tests were conducted both on the cord blood and the maternal blood. The order of importance was consistent with the maternal blood samples. The newborn urine sample was taken immediately after birth with a Uridom bag and was poured into a plastic tube. The urine samples were for determining

arsenic, nickel and creatinine levels (Appendix 4). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 25 A 20 cm³ biopsy of the placenta was taken from near the umbilical cord into a plastic tube. The placenta sample was taken with a plastic knife in order to prevent metal contamination. Samples could not be collected from all of the newborn participating in the study. Generally, the cause for this was a complication at birth. In addition, the samples may have been insufficient to perform all the analyses. The blood, urine, and placenta samples were collected in the freezer reserved for the AMAP at the clinical laboratory of the Lapland Central Hospital. The placenta samples are preserved in deep-freeze at the Lapland Regional Environmental Centre.

The State Provincial Office of Lapland and AMAP

The research plan was made at the State Provincial Office of Lapland by two study physicians. The plan was initiated in Oulu in the spring of 1996, at the now former Nordic Secretariat of Arctic Medicine, functioning under the Nordic Council of Ministers, which was where the Provincial Medical Officer (then on a leave of absence) and AMAP project secretary were stationed at the time. The laboratory supplies were acquired then and the practical instructions were written. The acid wash for the laboratory supplies was bought from the Oulu Regional Institute of Occupational Health. The project returned to Rovaniemi in the fall of 1996 to the Social and Health Department at the State Provincial Office of Lapland where the project has continued ever since and has belonged to the goals of the department. An experienced public health nurse has been the project secretary. A nutritional specialist was included in the project in the spring of 1998 who analyzed the section of the study on nutrition and calculated the nutrient and contaminant levels.

2.1.4 Analysing the Samples Before the study was started, different laboratories were contacted for an offer on the sample analysis. Based on the offers made, all of the Finnish analyses have been made at the Laboratoire de toxicologie, Centre de toxicologie du Quebec, in Canada, which has fuctioned as a reference laboratory for the other AMAP laboratories. Element analyses were conducted from each of the maternal and newborn samples. Due to costs, the organochlorine componds and PCBs were analysed in combined pools of 20–30 samples. Only a few individual analyses were made. The mothers and the newborn were grouped in different pools either according to the location of habitation or dietary habits, and the pools were subsequently analysed. The samples were sent in five shipments to the laboratory in Quebec packed with either cooling elements or in dry ice in polystyrene boxes. An international transportation company handled the last few shipments. Regrettably, some samples were destroyed during transportation or the samples were unanalysable due to some other cause (insufficient sample, the sample had coagulated). Furthermore, the delays in transportation were partially caused by the slowness at the customs or the samples were misplaced at the airport. However, a majority of the samples were analysed.

Methods of Analysis

The analyses were made by a certified Canadian laboratory Laboratoire de Toxicology, Centre de Toxicology du Quebec/INSPQ. The analyses on copper, selenium, lead, and cadmium were conducted with atomic absorption spectrometer equipment with graphite furnace technique (Perkin-Elmer PE-5100: As, Cu, and Se), (ZL-4100: Pb and Cd). The mercury concentrations were determined with

cold vapour atomic absorption using a UV-detector by Pharmacia. The nickel levels ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 26 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 were measured with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (Elan- 6000) and the zinc with spectrometer with flame ionisation (Analyst 100). Organo- chlorines such as the PCB compounds were measured with a gas chromatographer, which had an attached EC-detector (GC-ECD Hewlett Packard 5890).

Table 3. The limits of the definitions and the reliability definitions defined by the research laboratory. Element/medium Limit of detection Repeatability Accuracy μg/l % μg/l % μg/l

Zink/plasma 65 2.1 745 95.6 1 490 Copper/plasma 50 3.2 745 98.9 1 588 Selenium/plasma 10 1.7 70 95.7 120 Lead/whole blood 10 4 165 99.5 165 Cadmium/whole blood 0.2 6.4 1.2 86.7 2.6 Mercury/whole blood 0.2 2.1 7.6 97.9 8 Arsenic/urine 7 5 29 93 45 Nickel/urine 0.3 - 107 5.5 Organochlorine Limit of detection Determination level compounds μg/l μg/l 11 Aroclor 1260 0.2 0.5 PCB congeners 0.02 0.05 Heptachlor Epoxide and Aldrin 0.08 0.2 ß-BHC ja pp’-DDT 0.04 0.1 Organochlorine pesticides 0.02 0.05

The Reliability of the Analyses Compound/Congener Number Target value Mean N C.V. % Aroclor 1260 8.9 9.0 20 3.5 IUPAC #101 0.33 0.34 20 3.8 IUPAC #105 0.25 0.25 20 4.4 IUPAC #118 0.046 0.041 20 7.5 IUPAC #128 0.053 0.048 20 3.8 IUPAC #138 0.76 0.76 20 3.7 IUPAC #153 0.95 0.97 20 3.6 IUPAC #156 0.15 0.15 20 3.3 IUPAC #170 0.41 0.42 10 2.1 IUPAC #180 0.91 0.91 20 2.6 IUPAC #183 0.26 0.27 20 3.7 IUPAC #187 0.56 0.56 20 4.6 Aldrin 0.39 0.39 20 5.9 ß-HCH 0.38 0.37 20 4.1 a-chlordane 0.37 0.37 20 4.6 gamma-chlordane 0.36 0.36 20 5.6 cis-nonachlor 0.36 0.36 20 2.8 p,p’-DDE 0.40 0.40 20 4.3 Dieldrine 0.40 0.37 20 7.1 Heptachlor Epokside 0.40 0.37 20 4.9 HCB 0.35 0.34 20 9.1 Mirex 0.38 0.35 20 6.0 Oxychlordane 0.37 0.36 20 6.1

trans-nonachlor 0.38 0.37 20 2.7 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 27 2.1.5 Dietary Survey The diet carries a great significance when estimating the exposure to different environmental pollutants. The survey collected information especially on the use of local foodstuffs, how the foodstuffs were used and how widely they were used, as well as on possible pollutant levels. Also the aspect of a healthy diet was included in the survey. The role of the diet in a possible exposure was examined in two ways. The mothers filled in a food diary for one week during their second or third trimester. During the last trimester they filled in a questionnaire on their diet. In the diary the mothers listed all the foods and fluids they consumed during one week. Possible vitamins and supplements were also listed. Towards the end of the pregnancy, the mothers filled in a dietary questionnaire through which the share of local foodstuffs in proportion to prefabricated or bought foodstuffs could be determined. The dietary questionnaire included the background information mentioned previously in this report. The dietary questionnaire was drafted in each of the AMAP countries according to the country’s own requirements. The questionnaires and the population’s ability to fill in the questionnaire varied greatly and, consequently, the results are incomparable and comparing the foodstuffs in these areas cannot be performed as a part of the survey. The use of foodstuffs in the AMAP area’s families is affected by different cultural backgrounds and traditions. In addition, the availability of certain foodstuffs varies according to the location of habitation. Furthermore, the seasons affect dietary habits.

Comparing the Methods

The levels of nutrients and pollutants received with the diary and the frequency method were compared with one another. This could not be done with the persistent organic pollutants (POPs), because all of the POP contents for all of the nutrients were not known.

2.2 The Results

2.2.1 Background Information 151 mothers and their newborn infants participated in the study. 150 mothers participated in the dietary survey. One mother only contributed donoring the samples.

The Age of the Mothers

The mothers participating in the survey were between 19 and 42 years-of-age. The average age was 29.8, which is the equivalent of the average age of 29.9 of the mothers who gave birth in Finland in 2000. The average age for mothers has remained the Saame in Finland since 1998. Since 1995 the average age for first-time

mothers has been 27.6 years-of-age (Gissler et al. 2002). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 28 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Number of mothers 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 Age years

The Birthplace of the Mothers

96 (64 %) of the mothers were born in Lapland and 49 (33 %) of the mothers were born elsewhere. The question on the place of birth was left empty by five of the participants (3 %). 21 of the mothers (14 %) reported their ethnic origin as Saami. 125 were Finnish. The information was not disclosed for five mothers.

The Number of the Pregnancy for the Mother

48 (32 %) of the women were expecting their first child, 38 (25 %) were expecting their second child, thirtytwo of the mothers (21 %) were expecting their third child, 20 (13 %) were expecting their fourth child, nine (6 %) were expecting their fifth child, two (1 %) were expecting their sixth, one her seventh, and one her eighth child.

Number of mothers 50

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The number of the pregnancy

Reported Spontaneous Abortions

33 (22 %) of the mothers reported miscarriages or spontaneous abortions. Two of the mothers (16 %) reported one spontaneous abortion. Two of the mothers (5 %) reported two, three mothers reported three, and one mother reported four

spontaneous abortions. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 29 Reported Diseases

The mothers reported numerous diseases: asthma, psoriasis, gestational diabetes, migraines, various allergies, blood pressure, Crohn’s disease (inflammation of the intestine), glutein intolerance, epilepsy, Colitis ulcerosa (inflammation of the colon), APC-resistence (blood clotting disorder), hypothyreosis (thyroid gland deficiency), and PCO-syndrome. Nine of the mothers (6 %) reported asthma and an equal number of mothers were allergic. 77 % of the mothers were completely healthy.

The Use of Medication

18 of the mothers (12 %) used medication prescribed by a physician. Seven of the mothers were using two or more types of medication. The mothers used various kinds of preparations from vitamins to homeopathic remedies. 87 of the preparations were found in the list of Pharmaca Fennica (2000). 17 were not listed there.

Smoking

18 of the mothers (12 %) reported that they were smokers and 17 (11 %) had smoked previously. 27 of the mothers reported that they had quit smoking due to the pregnancy. 45 (30 %) of the mothers smoked before the pregnancy. No difference was detected between the smoking habits of the Saami mothers and the non-Saami mothers. Young mothers smoked more than older mothers, the relationship of the

age and the smoking being rs=-0.192, p<0.05. Compared with mothers from other reagions, mothers in Lapland smoked the most. In 2000, 18 % of the mothers in Lapland were smokers, whereas the percentage in the whole country was 12.6 %. The percentage of those who had quit smoking was 0.3 % in Lapland and in the whole country 1.7 % (Gissler et al. 2002). The children born to smoking mothers usually weigh less than those who are born to non-smokers. The weight of the child decreases according to how much the mother smokes (Pulkkinen 1989). On average, smoking during the pregnancy by the mother decreases the weight of the newborn by 200 grams. The effect of smoking is not dependent on the age of the mother, the number of pregnancies, on the socioeconomic status, or the race of the mother (Meyer et al. 1976). This study did not find a significant connection between the birth weight of the newborn and the smoking habits of the mother.

Passive Smoking

19 of the mothers (13 %) reported that they were exposed to ambient tobacco smoke at home during the pregnancy.

The Questionnaire on the Newborn

The questionnaire on the newborn was returned by 98 mothers and fathers. They had several additional questions, which have already been answered. The mothers breastfed their newborn for 18 months on average, the median being 12 months. The duration of breastfeeding varied from half a month to 30 months. Other

information concerning the child has not been analysed yet. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 30 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 2.2.2 The Samples Studied, Biomonitoring The samples collected between 1996 and 1998 comprised of 148 maternal blood samples and 146 cord blood samples. Pair samples concerning different substances exist in different amounts depending upon sample volume.

Table 4. A summary of the collected and analysed samples: the number of samples (the upper number is the number of samples sent, the lower is the number of the samples analysed). The explanation for the difference of collected and analysed samples is on the pages 48–49. Element or compund Maternal blood Cord blood Urine Placenta Hair to be analysed Wholeblood Plasma Wholeblood Plasma Mother Child Mother Child

Mercury 146 146 100 50 130 113 Cadmium 146 146 130 93 Lead 146 146 130 113 Arsenic 148 148 145 112 Nickel 100 100 79 71 Creatinine 146 146 79 70 Zink 148 146 133 146 122 25 Selenium 148 146 133 146 122 25 Copper 148 146 133 146 122 25 Lipids 13* 6** Organochlorine compounds 13* 6** Not yet analysed 108 100 50 * Includes 9 pools and 4 separate samples ** Includes 2 pools and 4 separate samples

Lipids and organic pesticides as well as PCB compounds were studied in nine maternal blood pools and in two cord blood pools. There were four individual maternal blood samples and four individual cord blood samples. When analysing the results, the mothers were divided into two or three groups based on their location of habitation. In the east-west division, the mothers living in Enontekiö belonged to the western group and the rest of the mothers in the eastern group. When divided into three groups, the western group consisted of the mothers in Enontekiö (13), the northern group consisted of the mothers in Utsjoki and Inari region (66), and the central Lapland group included the rest of the mothers

in the study (72). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 31 2.2.3 The Results of the Chemical Analyses (Biomonitoring) Mercury

The mercury concentrations in the maternal whole blood samples and in the cord blood samples are listed in Table 5.

Table 5. The mercury levels in the maternal and cord blood. Mercury Number of Arithmetic Median Geometric SD Range Hg μg/l samples mean mean Maternal blood 130 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.0 0.2–6.0 Cord blood 113 2.3** 1.8 1.9 1.6 0.4–8.2 Mann-Whitney -test, comparing the concentration of maternal and cord blood *p<0.05, **p<0.01

The arithmetic mean of the maternal whole blood mercury concentration was 1.6 μg/l, range of variation was 0.2–6 μg/l.

The mercury concentration depended on the age of the mother (rs=0.406,

p<0.01) and on the consumption of fish (rs=0.179, p <0.05). Smoking habits or ethnicity (whether Saami or not) did not have an effect on the maternal whole blood mercury concentrations. The reliability of the results is weakened by the comparatively small proportion of Saami mothers. A few individual Saami mothers had a higher mercury concentration than mothers in southern Finland. The mercury concentrations were significantly higher in mothers living in western Lapland (geometric mean 1.92 μg/l) than in mothers living in eastern Lap- land (geometric mean 1.32 μg/l). The mothers in western Lapland did not differ from the mothers in eastern Lapland concerning their use of fish in the diet and concerning their age. Compared on the east-west axis using the linear regression model with age, ethnicity (Saami), smoking habits, number of pregnancies, duration of habitation in the area, and consumption of fish, the difference in the mercury concentrations remained almost significant (p<0.06). The generalization of the result is weakened by the fact that the western group comprised of only 11 mothers. The maternal blood mercury concentrations were higher among the mothers in western Lapland when compared to the groups of eastern Lapland and central Lapland (p<0.05). Proving a regional difference would require a far larger number of subjects to study. The cord blood mercury concentrations were dependent on the maternal whole

blood mercury concentrations (rs=0.827, p<0.01) and on the mother’s age (rs=0.261, p<0.01). The average cord blood mercury concentration was higher than the maternal whole blood concentration (p<0.01). The average cord blood mercury concentration was 2.3 (geometric mean 1.9 μg/l, maternal whole blood 1.4 μg/l, p <0.01). This indicates that mercury passes through the placenta well into the foetus and can accumulate in the foetus during the pregnancy.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

In Finland the most significant source of mercury is fish. The role of fish as a source among different professions is around 50 % (Louekari 1990). Among farmers and those who include a lot of fish in their diet, the percentage is 75 %. In northern Finland freshwater fish is a significant source of mercury (Lodenius et al. 1982, 1983, and 1988). When the great reservoirs were constructed in Finland, the mercury reserves from the soil were transferred into the water and the fish in the reservoirs could

contain exceptionally high mercury concentrations. A ten year ban was imposed ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 32 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Mercury, µg/liter 50,0

35,0

30,0

25,0

20,0

X 15,0

10,0 7,5 5,0 2,5 1,0 0,5 X = not available

Figure 6. The maternal blood mercury levels of the Arctic mothers (AMAP).

on the reservoirs in the 1970s. The defined mercury concentrations in the maternal blood of the Lappish mothers were very low. For example, the maternal whole blood concentrations in northern Canada and in Greenland have been up to 30 times higher in the late 1990s than among northern Finnish mothers (AMAP 1998, Soininen et al. 2000). The Alfthan research team for the Finnish Institute of Public Health has studied the mercury exposure of Finns through hair samples in the 1980s and 1990s (Alfthan 1995). The highest concentrations were found among those living near the city of Porvoo. In the 1990s, people with mercury concentrations above six milligrams per kilogram constituted approximately 19 % of the population on average, when in the 1980s the percentage was 25–75 %. The WHO has suggested a hair mercury threshold concentration of 10–20 mg/kg (WHO 1990). In a previous study on the population in Lapland it was noted the hair mercury levels among Finns in northern Finland were only one fourth of the hair mercury levels of Finns living in southern Finland (Mussalo-Rauhamaa et al. 1996). Between 1982 and 1992 the hair mercury levels among the studied Finns in northern Finland decreased slightly (Mussalo-Rauhamaa et al. 1996), as Alfthan also reported. In addition, the hair mercury levels have slightly decreased between 1967 and 1990 among Finns living in southern Finland. This may be the result of a decrease in the use of freshwater fish in the diet and due to the fact that the paper industry stopped using mercury for preventing mould in 1968 (Louekari et al. 1994). The half-life of

mercury in the human body is only approximately 70 days (WHO 1990). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 33 In a study that targeted reindeer husbandry in the Finnish Lapland, indications of regional differences in mercury levels were found. The highest mercury levels were found in the north-eastern and the lowest in south-western Lapland (Luoma et al. 1994). According to an estimate by the WHO, the blood mercury concentration of those who are not occupationally exposed to mercury nor exposed to the methyl mercury in fish is 5–10 μg/l on average. According to the Oulu Regional Institute of Occupational Health, the blood inorganic mercury concentration among Finns who are not occupationally exposed to mercury is very rarely over 5 μg/l (Aitio et al. 1995). The maternal blood mercury concentration of two mothers was over 5 μg/l.

Lead

Table 6. Lead levels in the maternal and cord blood Lead Number of Arithmetic Median Geometric SD Range Pb μg/l samples mean mean Maternal blood 130 13.7 ** 12.0 11.3 9.5 5•–58 Cord blood 113 9.7 5.0 8.2 6.9 5•–52 Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of maternal and cord blood *p<0.05, **p<0.01 • In calculations has been used 50 % of the detection limit (10 μg/l)

The maternal whole blood lead concentrations showed great differences, upto ten times as high as the lowest concentration. The average maternal blood lead concentration was 11.3 μg/l (geometric mean) and the average cord blood lead concentration was 8.2 μg/l which are under the threshold level on average. The difference is significant (p<0.01). The mother’s age or smoking habits did not affect on the lead concentration. In the east-west division, a suggestive difference was found: the lead concentrations of those living in eastern Finland were lower (geometric mean was 10.9 in the east, and 15.8 μg/l in the west (p=0.075)). By standardizing age, smoking habits, number of pregnancies, the duration of habitation in the area, and ethnic background, significant differences in concentrations could not be proven.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The maternal blood lead concentrations among the pregnant women in the Finnish Lapland were 58 μg/l at their highest, which is the same as the average among the Inuit mothers in northern Canada (AMAP 2002). The average maternal lead concentration among the mothers in Lapland (geometric mean 11 μg/l) is the equivalent of levels among Caucasian Canadian mothers (AMAP 2002). In Finland the lead concentrations in the communal air and, thus, also the lead fallout in the environment has rapidly decreased during the last ten years. The reason for this is that Finland has rapidly begun using non-leaded gasoline. In northern Finland the Saami mothers had higher lead levels than non-Saami mothers (p=0.03). An explanation to this has not been found and requires further studies. In the follow-up studies, lead concentrations among elementary school children have continuously decreased to 0.5 μg/l on average at the end of the 1990s (Pönkä 1997). The blood lead concentrations of Finnish adults who are not occupationally exposed to lead are usually under 0.3 mmol/l (62 μg/l) (Aitio et al. 1995). During a pregnancy the maternal blood lead concentration should not exceed 0.3 mmol/l (Työterveyslaitos 1991). Generally, the blood lead content should not exceed 100 μg/l (Pönkä 1997). Among the mothers in Lapland, the threshold value was not

exceeded by anyone. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 34 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Cadmium

The maternal and cord blood cadmium levels are illustrated in Table 7.

Table 7. Cadmium levels in the maternal and cord blood. Cadmium Number of Arithmetic Median Geometric SD Range Cd μg/l samples mean mean Maternal blood 130 0.19** 0.10 0.13 0.30 0.1•–2.2 Cord blood 93 0.14 0.10 0.11 0.21 0.1•–1.8 Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of maternal and cord blood *p<0.05, **p<0.01 • In calculations it has been used 50 % of the detection limit (0,2 μg/l) in those cases when the result has been below the detection limit.

The maternal whole blood cadmium concentrations did not show recognisable differences between Saami, Skoltsaami, and northern Finnish mothers. The location of habitation did not affect the maternal blood cadmium concentrations either. However, the role of smoking as a source of cadmium is indisputable. The whole blood cadmium concentrations of smokers were three times as high on average as the maternal whole blood levels of non-smokers (p<0.01). In addition, the cadmium concentrations were significantly higher among mothers who had previously smoked (p<0.04), but lower than among those who continued to smoke. A mother who continues smoking during the pregnancy may smoke more than a mother who quits smoking at the beginning of the pregnancy. 25 % of the mothers in the age group of 19 to 25 years-of-age smoked. This proves that the health education for young mothers has not succeeded in this age group. However, in the age group of over 26 years-of-age only 11 % smoked. The maternal blood cadmium concentrations correlated inversely to the number of pregnancies (rs=-0.197, p<0.05). In a linear regression model smoking was confirmed to be the only differentiating factor when age, duration of habitation in the area, the number of pregnancies, ethnic background, and place of habitation (east-west division) were included in the model.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

Smoking tripled the maternal blood cadmium concentrations among mothers in Kuopio, central Finland (Kantola 2000). In the Kantola study, non-smoking mothers had cadmium concentrations of 0.27 μg/l on average towards the end of their pregnancy and smoking mothers had cadmium concentrations of 0.4 μg/l (Kantola 2000), which corresponds to the concentrations found among Lappish mothers (Kuo- pio cord blood 0.03 among the newborn of non-smokers and 0.11 μg/l of smokers). The doctorate thesis of Pekka Pulkkinen (1989) studied the maternal blood cadmium concentrations of Tampere mothers in the 1980s. The whole maternal blood cadmium concentrations among smoking mothers were 18.5 nmol/l during the first trimester, 19.4 nmol/l during the second trimester, and 15.6 nmol/l during the third trimester. Among non-smokers the equivalents were 5.8, 5.8 and 6.9 nmol/l. Many studies have shown that the cord blood cadmium concentrations are significantly lower than the maternal blood cadmium concentrations statistically. Furthermore, it was found among the Lappish mothers that the placenta prevents cadmium from passing into the foetus. On average the Lappish maternal blood cadmium concentrations were 0.13 μg/l and the cord blood cadmium concentrations

were 0.11 μg/l (p<0.01). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 35 The WHO has recommended a threshold level of 45 nmol/l (5.4 μg/l) for blood cadmium concentrations for health reasons; 90 nmol/l (10.1 μg/l) is a threshold level for the risk of kidney damage (WHO 1980).

Nickel

The maternal and newborn urine nickel and arsenic concentrations are presented in Table 8 and the creatinine adjusted nickel and arsenic concentrations are presented in Table 9.

Table 8. Nickel and arsenic levels in the maternal and newborn urine. Element Number of Mean Median Geometric SD Range samples mean Nickel Ni μg/l Mother 79 0.61 0.50 0.56 0.39 0.5–3.0 Newborn 71 0.56 0.50 0.53 0.31 0.5–3.0

Arsenic As μg/l Mother 145 14.63** 3.50 7.14 28.4 3.5–275 Newborn 112 3.98 3.50 3.75 2.1 3.5–18 Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of the concentration of mother and child *p<0.05, **p<0.01

Table 9. Nickel and arsenic levels in the maternal and newborn urine, standardised for creatinine levels. Element Number of Mean Median Geometric SD Range samples mean Nickel Ni μg/l Mother 79 0.85 0.68 0.68 0.66 0.2–3.6 Newborn 71 1.47 ** 1.14 1.16 0.31 0.5–3.0

Arseeni As μg/l Mother 78 13.93 7.75 8.71 16.1 1.3–76.3 Newborn 70 10.33 7.96 8.27 0.01 2.4–70.0 Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of mother and newborn *p<0.05, **p<0.01

The age of the mother, location of habitation, or smoking habits did not have an effect on the urine nickel concentrations. The maternal urine nickel concentrations

decreased when the number of children increased (rs=-0.266, p<0.05). The urine nickel concentrations between mothers and newborn did not differ (geometric mean 0.5 μg/l). The urine nickel concentrations of the newborn correlated with the

maternal urine nickel concentrations (rs=0.538, p<0.01). When standardised to the creatinine levels, the higher nickel concentrations in the newborn urine in comparison with the maternal urine refers to the fact that nickel can accumulate in the foetus. The maternal urine samples were taken during the last trimester of the pregnancy

and not after the delivery, due to which the results are only referential. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 36 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The exposure to nickel by women in reproductive age has been studied very little in Finland. The publications found on the subject have been studying occupational exposure to nickel (Kiilunen 1997). The other countries belonging to the AMAP projects have not studied exposure to nickel.

Arsenic

The maternal urine arsenic concentrations were significantly higher than the newborn urine concentrations. When adjusting the urine arsenic concentrations with the creatinine concentrations, no difference in the concentrations could be found. The maternal urine concentrations correlated with the newborn urine concentrations (rs=0.538, p<0.01). As with the nickel results, this may be a coincidence, for the maternal and the newborn samples were taken at different times. The mother’s age, smoking habits, location of habitation, or ethnic background could not be proven to have a connection to the arsenic concentrations. Neither did the use of well water have a connection to the high arsenic concentrations. There was no information on the arsenic levels in the water the mothers used. The officials in the targeted communities did not report elevated arsenic levels in the communities’ well water. Approximately 10 % of the Lappish mothers had extremely high urine arsenic concentrations of over 41 μg/l (0.5 mmol/l).

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

It is known that arsenic compounds pass through the human body quickly. Päivi Kurttio (1999) has studied the presence of arsenic in Finnish drinking water and its effects on human health. Those who used well water with a high arsenic level had a urine arsenic concentration median of 51 μg/l and hair arsenic median of 1.0 μg/g (Kurttio 1999). Others had a urine arsenic concentration median of 8.9 μg/l and hair median of 0.05 μg/g. Those who had stopped using water from an arsenic- contaminated well as their drinking water 2–4 months before had a urine arsenic concentration median of 16 μg/l and hair arsenic median of 5.3 μg/g. Thus, the urine arsenic concentrations are affected by an exposure right before the sample is taken. A long term accumulation of arsenic in the body does not affect the results (Aitio et al. 1995). A biomonitoring threshold level for taking action has been 0.07 mmol/l (5.2 μg/l) of arsenic in the urine. Usually for Finns who are not occupationally exposed to arsenic, the inorganic arsenic compound concentration is under 0.03

mmol/l (2.3 μg/l) (Aitio et al. 1995). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 37 Table 10. Zinc, copper, and selenium levels in the maternal and newborn plasma. Element/ Number of Mean Median Geometric SD Range plasma samples mean Zink Zn μg/l Mothers plasma 148 1 036 545 702 1 273 260–6 810 Cord blood 122 1 486** 930 1 117 1 527 520–7 365

Copper Cu μg/l Mothers plasma 148 2 086** 2 055 2 057 351 1 360–3 615 Cord blood 122 356 335 321 166 30–1 108

Selen Se μg/l Mothers plasma 148 75** 75 74 14 51–122 Cord blood 122 55 52 54 14 34–111 Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of maternal and cord blood *p<0,05, **p<0,01

Zinc

The maternal plasma zinc concentrations were higher for mothers living in eastern Lapland than for mothers living in western Lapland (p<0.01). In the division of east, central Lapland and north the result was the same (p<0.01). In the model which recognized the mother’s age, smoking habits, the number of pregnancies, duration of habitation in the area and the location of habitation, the duration of habitation in the area had an effect on the zinc concentrations in the maternal plasma (p<0.01). The maternal plasma zinc concentrations and the newborn plasma

zinc concentrations correlated (rs=0.414, p<0.01). The cord blood contained more zinc on average than the maternal plasma (p<0.01).

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The Kantola research team (2000) has proven that the placenta zinc concentrations are approximately 50 % higher during the first trimester than before birth. The high placenta zinc concentrations manifest as low maternal zinc concentrations. Therefore, the maternal blood zinc concentrations cannot be increased with zinc supplements. The accumulation of zinc into the placenta especially with smokers may be a protective reaction by the body to prevent the damaging side-effects of smoking. Kantola (2000) and Kuhnert et al. (1987) have proven that smoking increases the accumulation of zinc in the placenta during a pregnancy. High maternal blood zinc concentrations have been suggested to be a sign of slow development of the foetus. 80 % of the blood zinc concentration is in the red blood cells and 3 % is in the white blood cells. Because red blood cells live long, the changes in the blood zinc concentrations are very slow. The changes in plasma are faster, however, they do not indicate a zinc deficiency reliably in a severe case of zinc deficiency. The short life of the white blood cells would provide a better opportunity to follow the zinc concentrations than the red blood cells (Pulkkinen 1989, Kay 1981). During a pregnancy both the zinc concentration and the number of white blood cells decrease, which is caused by various different factors such as the increase of blood volume during a pregnancy. Among Finnish mothers the average serum zinc concentrations have been 0.87 mg/l among non-pregnant women and among pregnant women 0.61 mg/l

during the first trimester, 0.51 mg/l during the second trimester, and 0.46 mg/l ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 38 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 during the third trimester (Kiilholma et al. 1984). The cord blood zinc concentrations have been proven in many studies to be higher than the maternal plasma concentrations before and after the delivery (Kiilholma et al. 1984, Hyvönen-Dabek et al. 1984), which was also noted in the study on Lapland.

Copper

The mother’s age, location of habitation, smoking habits, or the number of pregnancies did not have a connection to the maternal plasma copper concentrations. The maternal plasma copper concentrations were significantly higher than the cord blood copper concentrations (p<0.01). The maternal copper and selenium concentrations correlated (rs=0.255, p<0.01) just like the copper and lead concentrations (rs=0.207, p<0.05).

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

In the studies by Kantola et al. (2000) the maternal blood copper concentrations were noted to be 30 % lower during the first trimester than compared with the concentrations at the time the birth. In this study the mothers who had low placenta copper concentrations generally had large children. During the pregnancy, the plasma copper concentrations increase and are two to three times higher towards the end of the pregnancy than copper concentrations in non-pregnant women (Kiilholma et al. 1984). Non-pregnant Finnish women’s serum copper concentrations were 0.91 mg/l and for pregnant women the concentration was 2.25 mg/l during the last trimester (Kiilholma et al. 1984).

Selenium

The average maternal plasma selenium concentration was 74 μg/l and the cord blood selenium concentration was 54 μg/l, p<0.01. The mother’s age, smoking habits, number of pregnancies, duration of habitation in the area, ethnic group, or location of habitation in the east-west comparison did not have a significant effect on the selenium concentrations.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The selenium concentrations among Finns from northern Finland have usually been higher than among Finns living in southern Finland. Those who in the 1970s included larger amounts of reindeer tissue in their diet had exceptionally high blood selenium concentrations, the same concentrations as, for example, in the United States (Wes- termarck et al. 1977). The addition of selenium to fertilizers was started in 1984 as a result of which already within a year the Finnish blood selenium concentrations had detectably increased (Mussalo-Rauhamaa et al. 1989). The additional selenium has had a minor effect in northern Finland, because fertilizers were already little used in the area, mainly for fertilizing forest land. Fertilizing with selenium has evened the differences in population selenium concentrations around the country. In Lapland the newborn cord blood selenium concentrations were on average 75 % of the maternal plasma concentrations. Selenium has been proven to accumulate in the placenta. The placenta selenium concentrations have been proven to be four times higher than the cord blood selenium concentrations (Lee et al. 1995). Among the pregnant Finnish women studied, the maternal blood selenium concentrations decreased towards the end of the pregnancy. The cord blood selenium concentrations were significantly lower than the maternal plasma selenium concentrations at the time of birth and during the last trimester (Hyvönen-Dabek et al. 1984, Alfthan

1995). The Kantola team (2000) could not find a difference in the maternal and cord ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 39 whole blood and serum selenium concentrations. The effects of smoking on the selenium concentrations are conflicting. Smoking did not have an effect on the maternal plasma or serum among the Lappish mothers or mothers in Kuopio (Kan- tola et al. 2000).

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP)

Neutral Organochlorine Compounds

Pesticides

Of the data, the maternal plasma of six individual mothers and seven pooled samples containing 138 maternal plasma samples were analysed for neutral organochlorine compounds. For comparison, the cord blood of four newborn infants and two cord plasma pools of 33 newborns were analysed as well. When calculating the averages, the concentrations under the detectable level were considered as half the detectable value, that is ”indeterminable”: for DDT and beta-HCH 0.015, and for other organochlorine compounds 0.01 μg/l. In addition, the effect of the pooled samples has been considered in the averages. The concentrations were also calculated in respect to the blood lipids. The maternal plasma lipids arithmetic mean was 9.31 μg/l and the cord blood 2.50 μg/l. The results are presented in Tables 11 to 14. The lipids were defined only for standardising and cannot be evaluated as such, because the samples were not taken after overnicht fasting. No maternal or cord blood sample contained measurable concentrations of aldrin, α-chlordane, γ-chlordane, Cis-nonachlor or Mirex. To those no cord blood sample contained β-HCH, Oxychlordane or trans-nonachlor compounds. Many of the cord blood organochlorine compound concentrations were lower than in the maternal plasma when the concentrations were compared. When the concentrations of organochlorine compounds were calculated against the blood lipids, the differences were no longer detectable. The concentration of DDE or DDT compounds in the maternal plasma varied between 13 and 48, and the geometric mean was 26. The concentration of DDE or DDT compounds in the cord blood varied between 4 and 14, the mean concentration being 8.

X ß-HCH, µg/liter 3,00

2,50

2,00

1,50

1,00 0,75 Figure 7. The beta-HCH 0,50 levels of the Arctic maternal 0,25 0,10 plasma. As the figure 0,05 illustrates, beta-HCH is X = not available

used in Russia (AMAP). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 40 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Table 11. Organochlorine compound levels in the maternal plasma and cord blood (μg/l) (the average values consider the effect of pooled samples, adjusted mean). Compound Number of Arithmetic Geometric Range samples/pools mean mean Aldrin Mother 13 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01

β-HCH Mother 13 0.07** 0.07 0.02–0.09 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01

α-chlordane Mother 13 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01

γ-chlordane Mother 13 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01

Cis-nonachlor Mother 13 0.01 0.01 0.01–0.02 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 p,p´-DDE Mother 13 0.59** 0.58 0.19–0.79 Cord blood 6 0.13 0.12 0.06–0.21 p,p´-DDT Mother 13 0.02 0.02 0.02-0.04 Cord blood 6 0.02 0.02 0.02

HCB Mother 13 0.19** 0.19 0.12–0.31 Cord blood 6 0.05 0.04 0.01–0.07

Mirex Mother 12 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01

Oxychlordane Mother 13 0.03** 0.03 0.01–0.04 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 trans-nonachlor Mother 13 0.05** 0.05 0.03–0.08 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of maternal and cord blood *p<0.05, **p<0.01

The result has been below the detection limit = 0.01 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 41 Table 12. Organochlorine compound levels in the maternal plasma and cord blood (μg/kg) per lipids (emphasized averages which consider the effect of pooled samples, adjusted mean). Compound Number of Arithmetic mean Geometric mean Range samples/pools Aldrin Mother 13 1.1 1.1 1.0–1.4 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0

β-HCH Mother 13 7.3** 7.2 1.6–8.5 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0

α-chlordane Mother 13 1.0 1.0 1.0–1.4 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0

γ-chlordane Mother 13 1.0 1.0 1.0–1.4 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0

Cis-nonachlor Mother 13 1.0 1.0 1.0–2.0 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0

p,p´-DDE Mother 13 62** 60 21–79 Cord blood 6 13 12 6–21

p,p´-DDT Mother 13 2.5 2.4 1.6–4.4 Cord blood 6 2.0 2.0 2.0

HCB Mother 13 20** 20 16–32 Cord blood 6 5 4 1–7

Mirex Mother 12 1.0 1.0 1.0–1.4 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0

Oxychlordane Mother 13 3** 3 1–4 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0

trans-nonachlor Mother 13 5** 5 3–7 Cord blood 6 1.0 1.0 1.0 Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of maternal and cord blood *p<0.05, **p<0.01

The result has been below the detection limit = 1.0 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 42 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

A majority of the DDT compounds in the blood are in the form of DDE, as the relation between DDE and DDT indicates. The maternal plasma DDE concentrations among the northern Finnish women were only slightly lower than among other Nordic pregnant women. The p, p-DDT concentrations were low among all Nordic mothers, which indicates that exposure to DDT does occur, but in small quantities. In addition, the other organochlorine compound concentrations were lower among northern Finnish women than among other Nordic women. Aldrin, alpha- and gammachlordan, or mirex were not found in any of the Finnish maternal plasma. In a study conducted in 1985, the serum of adults contained measurable amounts of the previously mentioned compounds except for mirex (Mussalo-Rauhamaa et al. 1991). Mirex has not been found in the fat tissue of Finns, which proves that it does not transport to Finland in foodstuffs or via air currents.

DDE, µg/liter 7,50

5,00 3,75 2,50 1,25 0,50 0,25

Figure 8. DDE levels of the Arctic maternal plasma (AMAP).

PCB Compounds

The concentrations of the different PCB compound congeners are presented in Table 14 per wet weight and in Table 15 per plasma lipids. When calculating the average concentrations of the PCB compounds, an indeterminable result was

noted as 0.1 μg/l for arochlor and for other PCB compounds as 0.01 μg/l. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 43 Table 13. PCB congener levels in the maternal plasma and cord blood (μg/l) (the averages consider the effect of pooled samples, adjusted mean). Compound/ Number of Arithmetic Geometric Range Number of congener samples/pools mean mean Aroclor 1260 Mother 13 3.81** 3.76 1.87–5.29 Cord blood 6 0.63 0.60 0.36–0.93 28 Mother 13 0.02 0.02 0.01–0.02 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 52 Mother 13 0.01 0.01 0.01–0.02 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 99 Mother 13 0.04** 0.04 0.02–0.06 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 101 Mother 13 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 105 Mother 13 0.03** 0.02 0.01–0.02 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 118 Mother 13 0.07** 0.07 0.04–0.11 Cord blood 6 0.02 0.01 0.01–0.02 128 Mother 13 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 138 Mother 13 0.30** 0.30 0.15–0.40 Cord blood 6 0.05 0.05 0.03–0.08 153 Mother 13 0.43** 0.43 0.21–0.61 Cord blood 6 0.07 0.065 0.04–0.1 156 Mother 13 0.05** 0.05 0.02–0.07 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 170 Mother 13 0.13** 0.13 0.06–0.18 Cord blood 6 0.02 0.01 0.01–0.02 180 Mother 13 0.24** 0.24 0.15–0.33 Cord blood 6 0.04 0.035 0.02–0.05 183 Mother 13 0.04** 0.04 0.02–0.05 Cord blood 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 187 Mother 13 0.08** 0.07 0.05–0.12 Cord blood 6 0.02 0.02 0.01–0.03

Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of maternal and cord blood *p<0.05, **p<0.01 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 44 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Table 14. PCB levels in the maternal plasma and cord blood per lipids (μg/kg) (the averages consider the effect of pooled samples, adjusted mean). Compound/ Number of Arithmetic Geometric Range Number of congener samples/pools mean mean Aroclor 1260 Mother 13 399* 395 193–543 Cord blood 6 260 250 170–360 28 Mother 13 1.8 1.7 1.0–2.7 Cord blood 6 4.2 4.1 2.9–5.3 52 Mother 13 1.1 1.1 1.1–2.0 Cord blood 6 4.2 4.1 2.9–5.3 99 Mother 13 4.1 4.1 2.0–5.8 Cord blood 6 4.2 0 101 Mother 13 1.1 1.1 1.1–1.4 Cord blood 6 4.2 4.1 2.9–5.3 105 Mother 13 2.7 2.6 1.0–4.5 Cord blood 6 4.2 4.1 2.9–5.3 118 Mother 13 7.5 7.4 4.6–10.8 Cord blood 6 5.9 5.8 4.0–8.0 128 Mother 13 1.1 1.1 1.0–1.4 Cord blood 6 2.2 2.1 1.0–3.1 138 Mother 13 31** 31 16–41 Cord blood 6 22 21 11–31 153 Mother 13 45** 45 21–63 Cord blood 6 30 27 20–38 156 Mother 13 5.5 5.5 2.5–7.5 Cord blood 6 4.0 4.1 2.9–5.3 170 Mother 13 14** 14 6.2–18.7 Cord blood 6 5.9 5.8 4.3–7.7 180 Mother 13 26** 25 15–34 Cord blood 6 15 14 10–20 183 Mother 13 3.8 3.8 1.7–5.2 Cord blood 6 4.2 4.1 2.9–5.3 187 Mother 13 8.6 8.5 5.1–12.5 Cord blood 6 6.5 6.2 4.3–12.0

Mann-Whitney -test, comparison of concentrations of maternal and cord blood *p<0.05, **p<0.01 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 45 When the mothers were divided into groups based on their location of habitation, their PCB concentrations did not show differences between areas. Furthermore, those individuals who reported they had large amounts of meat or reindeer included in their diet, did not have abnormal concentrations of PCB compounds in their blood. The PCB and DDE concentrations correlated, which indicates that these substances have the same sources in the diet.

Table 15. The sum of the 14 PCB congeners in the maternal plasma and cord blood. Number of Arithmetic Geometric Range samples/pools mean mean

The level in plasma per fresh weight (μg/l) Mother 13 1.47** 1.45 0.8–2.0 Newborn 6 0.3 0.3 0.2–0.4

The level in plasma per lipids (μg/kg) Mother 13 154 152 82–207 Newborn 6 120 110 80–150

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The maternal plasma of the Lappish women and the sum concentrations of the 14 different congeners in the cord blood were on the same level as in, for example, Norway, Iceland and Canada as reported in the AMAP studies. The main source of PCBs in Finland is fish. At the beginning of 1980s the serum PCB congener concentrations of 191 non-occupationally exposed people was 0.7 μg/l (arithmetic mean) (Luotamo et al. 1985). In this study, the PCB concentrations found among the Lappish mothers was on the same level (arithmetic mean 1.5 μg/l). PCB compounds can be classified into more and less stable compounds. More stable are compounds with 2,4,5-chlorines substituted in the first ring and 2 or 2 and 4 substituted in the second ring. Stable congeners are, for example, numbers 77, 126 and 169. They have not been targeted in this study. The half-life of PCB congeners in blood varies. The half-life of congener number 138 has been estimated as 321 days, congener number 153 as 338 days, and number 180 as 124 days. The whole body half-life of occupationally exposed Japanese women to congener 138 was estimated as 16.3 years and to congener 158 as 27.5 years (Yakushiji et al. 1984). Different PCB congeners pass differently through the placenta. The cord blood PCB concentrations have been 55–69 % of the maternal serum concentrations (Bush et al. 1984, Roncevic et al. 1987). The cord blood and maternal PCB concentrations

have been noted to correlate linearly (Ando et al. 1985). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 46 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 X

PCB (Aroclor 1260), µg/liter 35,0

30,0

25,0

20,0

15,0

10,0 7,5 5,0 2,5 1,0 0,5 X = not available

Figure 9. Arochlor levels of Artic maternal plasma (a combination of PCB compounds) (AMAP).

The harmfulness of PCB compounds is determined by their structure. Those compounds estimated to be the most hazardous to health are compounds with a structure similar to dioxin 2,3,7,8-TCDD. These are non-orto structured congeners: 3,3,4,4'-tetraCB (number 77), 3,3',4,4',5-pentaCB (number 126), and 3,3',4,4',5,5'-hexaCB (number 169). Congener number 126 is considered as the most hazardous. The least hazardous are mono-orto substituted complanary PCB compounds 2,3',4,4'-tetraCB (number 66), 2,3,4,4'-tetraCB (number 60), 2',3,4,4',5-pentaCB (number 123), 2,3,4',5- pentaCB (number 114), 2,3,3',4,4'-pentaCB (number 105), 2,3',4,4',5-pentaCB (number 118), 2,3,3',4,4',5-hexaCB (number 157), and 2,3,3',4,4’5,5'-heptaCB (number 189), and di-orto substituted biphenyl compounds 2,3',4,4',6-pentaCB (number 119), 2,2',3,4,4'- pentaCB (number 85), 2,2',4,4',5-pentaCB (number 99), 2,3,4,4',6-pentaCB (number 115), 2,3,4,4',5,6-hexaCB (number 166), 2,2',3,4,4',5-hexaCB (number 168), 2,2',4,4',5,5'- hexaCB (number 153), 2,2',3,3',4,4'-hexaCB (number 128), 2,2',3,4,4',5'-hexaCB (number 138), 2,3,3',4,4',6-hexCB (number 158), 2,2',3,3',4,4',5-heptaCB (number 170), 2,2',3,4,4',5,5'-heptaCB (number 180), 2,3,3',4,4',5,6-heptaCB (number 190), 2,3,3',4,4',5',6- heptaCB (number 191), 2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5'-octaCB (number 194), and 2,3,3',4,4',5,5',6- octaCB (number 205). The commonality of PCB congeners in Finnish fat tissue in the 1980s according to the Luotamo study (1991) was the following listed from the most common to the rarest congener: congener number 138 > 153 > 180 > 170 >118. The serum of occupat-

ionally exposed people the hexa- and heptachlorine biphenyl isomers were the ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 47 most common. The AMAP study found most of the same congeners in the maternal plasma as listed above. The average concentrations of the most common congeners (153, 138, 170, 180) did not show significant differences (Table 14).

2.2.4 Discussion Sources for Errors

Collecting Background Information

The form for background information should have included the mothers’ height and weight, which are essential concerning nutrition and health. This data was not included. The participants of the study were asked concerning the use of any prescribed or over the counter medication. The latter group was large enough to arouse suspicion that the public health nurse had recommended some of them, which means that the nurses should have been inquired separately concerning any recommendations on vitamins and the like. The mothers used overlapping vitamin preparations and several kinds of natural remedies, concerning some of which the nurse would have been needed to ask. All the questions on smoking have not been analysed yet. Generally, the questionnaire asked about the quality and quantity of smoking.

The Dietary Survey

Cheese had been omitted in the dietary survey, which was later added to the survey by the public health nurses. Other items not specifically mentioned were buns, cookies, and candy. The participating mothers had added these items themselves. Pastries and white bread were included in the survey, however, there were other items nonessential for the diet, however, perhaps essential due to the calorie count.

Collecting the Samples

The blood samples were not taken after overnight fasting. In order to be able to compare the results, the lipids were defined so that the fat-soluble substances could be calculated against the lipids. The blood samples were collected towards the end of the pregnancy, but no precise time for taking the sample could be determined, because it depended on the mothers’ ability to visit a laboratory or on the availability of laboratory services. The effect of nutrition on the blood concentrations of certain metals is known concerning only a few elements (Mussalo Rau- hamaa 1987). Based on the study, the copper serum concentrations fluctuate slightly during the course of a day. The zinc concentrations usually decrease as the day progresses. The sample collecting equipment and tubes were carefully selected to prevent contamination. They were acid washed and some of them came directly from Canada. As a result, the possibility of contamination when collecting the sample was minor. When the results of the analyses were received from Canada, it was found out that some of the maternal whole blood samples had coagulated and could not be analysed. Apparently what had occurred was that the need for mixing the sample with the anti-coagulant had not been emphasized sufficiently to the nurses. The matter was stated in the sample collection instructions and it was also mentioned

orally, thus, the issue could not be helped much further. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 48 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Creatinine adjustment was used in the urine samples. The specific density of urine has also been used for adjusting, as suggested in the literature.

Shipping the Samples

Deep-frozen samples were sent to Canada in five shipments. The shipping took days, even though the shipments were via air mail. Additionally, some of the delays were caused by the lag at customs or that the shipment was misplaced at the airport. The penultimate shipment in the spring of 1998 was lost at the Paris airport from where it arrived in Quebec days later. The samples had seeped, because they had melted, but a majority of the samples could be analysed nevertheless. Due to the seepage, the volume of the samples was smaller and, thus, not enough for all the analyses.

Errors in the Calculations

The concentrations of some of the metals and many of the pesticides were so low that they were below the detection levels and, as a result, their analysis became a problem. Sometimes the detection level has been divided by two and the value calculated this way has been used, or the concentration has been marked as zero. In this case the results sent for the combined Canadian report were calculated with the former method. This creates an error, if indeed the concentration of the sample has been zero. For example, concerning the organochlorines, the levels were so low, not including the DDE and HCB compounds, that the used ”method of calculation” carries no significance in estimating a risk.

2.2.5 Summary The concentrations of heavy metals or organochlorines in pregnant Finnish women have previously been studied by following the concentrations in breast milk. There are very few results concerning maternal blood or cord blood concentrations. The heavy metal concentrations in northern Finnish women defined in this study are generally the same as with other pregnant Finnish women reported in the literature. In the international AMAP comparison, the Finnish concentrations are generally very low both concerning heavy metals and organochlorines. Some of the northern maternal and newborn urine arsenic concentrations were alarmingly high. These cases need to be studied further. All of the samples collected for this study could not be analysed. Especially placenta and hair samples

are waiting for analyzing. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 49 Nutrient and Contaminant Levels

in Lapland ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 3 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 3.1 Pollutant Levels in Lappish Foodstuffs and Drinking Water

For this AMAP study, in order to calculate the differences in the pollutant intake between the participants, differences in studies on Lappish foodstuffs pollutant levels were being searched for and how these levels differ from the levels of the rest of Finland. In 1998, when the results were being analysed, information was so poorly available that the analyses on the dietary questionnaire and on the food diaries had to be made with the Nutrica® programme provided by the Social In- surance Institution of Finland containing general data for the whole of Finland. However, there was still an interest to clarify what exactly is known concerning the contaminant levels in the Lappish foodstuffs. The contaminant levels have been collected into tables, which are presented at the end of this report (Appendix 5).

3.1.1 Vegetables In a project focusing on the development of quality, the Finnish Agricultural Research Centre has investigated the levels of lead and cadmium in Lappish potatoes, carrots, and cabbage between 1990 and 1992 (Tahvonen 1993). The levels found were considerably lower than the highest permissible levels. There were no significant differences between the samples collected in different areas. In addition, no great differences were found between the Lappish foodstuffs and foodstuffs from the rest of Finland. The cadmium levels in the Lappish potato samples were approximately half of the levels found in the rest of the country.

3.1.2 Berries and Mushrooms A significant amount of berries are picked in Lapland, so the pollutant levels in the berries are of great interest. In addition, higher heavy metal levels were found in lichen, the higher the closer the levels were measured to the sources of pollution. The discussion on the Kola Peninsula trans-boundary pollution has initiated some research, which studied the airborne transmission of pollutants and dissolving of heavy metals caused by the acid rain and their effects on the forest berries of Lap- land. In addition, ploughing a cut forest area has raised questions among the Lap- pish berry pickers. A rather extensive study on heavy metals was conducted in the area of Lapland (Laine et al. 1993). The study investigated the heavy metal levels (copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium, iron, aluminium, magnesium, manganese, and calcium) in blueberries and lingonberries around Lapland including samples from Russia as well. The samples were collected in August-September of 1990. The differences in the levels were also studied in the east-west direction as well as in the southwest-

northeast direction. On the latter axis the levels of nickel, copper, and chromium ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 50 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 were even, however, the levels of copper and nickel in the blueberries and lingonberries were high on the Russian side, especially near Montsegorsk. There were isolated cases of high chromium and cadmium levels further away from Montse- gorsk in Russia. The manganese levels appeared to decrease towards the polluted areas. On average, the levels of heavy metals did not differ from the levels measured in berries elsewhere in Finland (Varo et al. 1980). In the eastern parts of the Inari Lapland, the levels of nickel were somewhat higher than the equivalent levels in the southern parts of Lapland. The cadmium and aluminium levels in Lappish berries were minor and no regional differences were found. According to the results, the iron levels in the Lappish forest berries were lower than in southern Finland. In 1991, levels of iron, copper, aluminium, manganeseand nickel were studied in lingonberry samples collected from a forest ploughing area and from a control forest in the area of Kittilä, Posio, the municipality of Rovaniemi, Inari, Sallaand the Ranua commune. In the areas of deforestation, the enrichment of iron and aluminium near plants and the solubility of these metals can manifest as elevated iron and aluminium levels in the lingonberries (Laine et al, 1992). The average iron levels of the lingonberries in the deforestation areas were 2.8 mg/kg by comparison to the 1.9 mg/kg in the control area. The average aluminium levels in the lingonberries in the ploughing area were 5.3 mg/kg, whereas the levels in the control area were 4.5 mg/kg. In 1989, the Social and Health Department of the State Provincial Office of Lapland commissioned a study on the levels of heavy metals (cadmium, nickeland mercury) in the berries (cloudberry, blueberry, and lingonberry) and mushrooms picked in the region (Utsjoki, Inari, Salla and Kemijärvi). The study found the levels low. In 1991, 50 samples of cloudberries (Rubus chamaemorus) were studied in the area of 13 Lappish communes. Levels of copper, aluminium, manganese, nickeland cadmium were measured from the samples. No significant levels of heavy metals were found in the Lappish cloudberries (Laine et al. 1993). The National Food Agency of Finland (Eurola et al. 1996) studied in 1993–1994 the cadmium, lead, mercury, copper, zincand manganese levels of seven commercially popular mushrooms (Cantharellus cibarius, Cantharellus tubaeformis, Boletus edulis, Leccinum aurantiacum/versipelle, Lactarius trivialis, Russula paludosaand Craterellus cornucopioides) around the country (Lapland included). The cadmium, leadand mercury levels differed according to the type of the mushroom. The average cadmium level at fresh weight was 0.07 mg/kg, lead level 0.03 mg/kgand mercury level 0.028 mg/kg. In general, the cadmium and lead levels remained below the defined maximum level of 0.1 mg/kg per fresh weight in legislation. However, the average cadmium levels of Boletus edulis, Leccinum aurantiacum/versipelle, and Rozites caperatus exceeded the threshold levels. The average copper level in the mushrooms at fresh weight was 2.8 mg/kg, zinc level 7.0 mg/kg, and manganese level 1.4 mg/kg. No statistically significant differences were found concerning levels of metals. Higher lead levels were detected in the mushrooms collected in the Uusimaa province,in the Southern part of Finland, than in the mushrooms collected elsewhere in the country.

3.1.3 Reindeer The National Veterinary and Food Research Institute of Finland has studied in 1990–1991 in a project on the quality of Lappish foodstuff the mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, chromium, and nickel levels in reindeer meat; lead, cadmium, and copper levels in reindeer liver, as well as lead cadmium, copper, chromium, and nickel levels in reindeer kidneys (Rintala et al. 1993). In addition, PCB and organo-

chlorine compound levels were also studied. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 51 Both the adult and calf reindeer meat heavy metal levels were low and close to the defining levels of the methods, which is 0.001 mg/kg fresh meat. High levels of cadmium were measured in the internal organs of reindeer. The liver and kidney samples of the adult reindeer and calves in southern Lapland contained lower levels of cadmium when compared with the other areas studied. Possibly the reindeer feed used in southern Lapland had decreased the cadmium intake when the amount of lichens in the reindeer diet decreased. The lead levels in the internal organs of reindeer were rather high, yet below the level of 0.5 mg/kg per fresh weight suggested for bovine and pork liver and kidney by the Work Group on contaminants of the Nordic Council of Ministers in 1991. The reindeer kidney samples did not contain lindane, chlordane, nor heptachlorine. DDT compounds were found in low levels, however, the levels were below the recommendation of 1.0 mg/kg, and of the same level as in the bovine samples used for comparison. Varying PCB and HCB levels were found in the samples, some of which exceeded 0.05 mg/kg of fat. The PCB levels in adult reindeer and calves were higher in eastern Lapland than in western and southern Lapland. The cadmium and lead levels in reindeer muscle tissue were low, near the level defined by the National Veterinary and Food Research Institute of Finland in 2000 in connection to studies on contaminants. The lead levels in reindeer liver were higher than in pork or bovine liver, however lower than the highest permissible levels. In 6 out of 11 samples, the reindeer liver cadmium levels exceeded the highest permissible level (0.5 mg/kg). Based on the previous contaminant study results from 1999, the lead levels had remained unchanged, however, the liver cadmium levels had increased. Thus, the heavy metal levels in reindeer meat are low and are the equivalent of the levels found in Finnish elk, pork, and beef. However, the cadmium levels of the internal organs; liver and kidneys, were rather high and the levels increase as the animal grows older.

3.1.4 Game The lead levels in rabbit meat, liver, and kidneys has decreased since 1980–1982 to 1992–1993 (Venäläinen et al. 1996), the region of Oulu representing northern Fin- land in the study. The lead levels in the rabbit meat were higher than in elk or reindeer. The average lead levels in the liver and kidneys were below 0.5 mg/kg. The cadmium levels in rabbit meat were low and approximately the same as in pork, beef, reindeer, and elk. The cadmium levels in rabbit meat were lower in northern Finland than in southern Finland. The cadmium levels in rabbit liver were below 0.5 mg/kg, however, the cadmium levels in the kidneys were rather high, over 1 mg/kg. The chromium and nickel levels in rabbit meat were low, the same as in pork and beef. The zinc levels in rabbit meat were half of the levels in elk meat. The Nutrica® programme contained information on the nutrients and contaminants only for the willow grouse concerning wild and waterfowl. The change away from using lead cartridges in hunting will have a gradual effect on the water fowl lead levels. The levels of lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc in elk meat, liver, and kidneys were below the recommended threshold levels in the study of 1990 (research area southwest, southeast, and central Finland) (Niemi et al. 1993). In 1999, elk liver and kidney were found exceed the EU levels for cadmium in a contaminant study by The National Veterinary and Food Research Institute of Finland on produce (the locations for the samples were the provinces of Satakunta, Uusimaa, Keski-Suomi, and Kymi). The maximum cadmium level for liver is 0.5 mg/

kg and for kidneys 1.0 mg/kg. Also the cadmium levels of elk calves exceeded these ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 52 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 levels. Thus, based on the results, it is recommended not to use the internal organs of elk in the diet. According to the Finnish legislation, the liver of elk of over one year of age is not accepted as produce.

3.1.5 Fish The mercury levels in pike, burbot, whitefish (genus Coregonus), and perch were studied in 1991 from the Lokka and Porttipahta reservoirs in Finland. The levels were found to be significantly lower than the recommended levels issued by the Finnish National Board of Health (Alajeesiö 1995). The National Veterinary and Food Research Institute of Finland studied the levels of mercury in fish (perch, whitefish, pike) in 1990-1991 as a part of a project on the quality of Lappish produce (Rintala et al. 1993). The locations of the fish were the lakes Kemijärvi, Miekojärvi and Inarijärvi, the Kemijoki river, and the reservoir of Porttipahta. The mercury levels in all of the fish samples were below the recommendation of 0.5 mg/kg by the Finnish National Board of Health. Porvari and Verta (1998) studied the prevalence of mercury and methyl mercury in reservoirs and in the Kemijoki water system in 1979 to 1994. In the two Lappish reservoirs of Lokka and Porttipahta, the pike mercury levels have decreased almost to background levels, but with other species the levels are still elevated. 35 % of pike, 27 % of burbot, 15 % of perch, and 10 % of roach exceeded the limit of 0.5 mg/ kg. The construction of the (regulating) reservoirs is still faintly visible in the fish mercury levels of Porttipahta, Kitinen, Kemijärvi, and the main river bed of Kemi- joki. Generally, the levels in fish were higher in the samples collected from Kitinen, Kokkosniva, and the Pelkosenniemi section of the Kemijoki river. The lowest levels (not including rare large and/or old specimens) were found in the fish of the control areas and in the Lokka reservoir. The levels were clearly lower than in the reservoir systems of the Etelä-Pohjanmaa region, however, slightly higher than in the large lakes of central Finland. The effect of the construction can be seen especially in the mercury levels of pike and burbot in the waterway below the Porttipahta reservoir up to the section of Pelkosenniemi, however, it can also be seen in lower levels in the Kemijärvi lake and in the Kemijoki river below it all the way to the estuary. During the monitoring of the Vuotos reservoir (Porvari 1998) the mercury levels of pike, burbot, and whitefish have been monitored in specific basins. Fish with mercury levels exceeding 1 mg/kg were found in the reservoir basins of Kurit- tukoski (11 year-old burbot), Kokkosniva (7 year-old pike), and Vajukoski (9 year- old pike). Especially new reservoirs release significant amounts of mercury. When accumulated in the predatory fish, the mercury can cause restrictions on the usability of the fish. Fish (pike, burbot, perch) with mercury levels of over 1 mg/kg, thus, not suitable for human consumption, comprise less than two percent of the fish in the Kemijoki water system. These fish are usually large individuals of over then years of age (Meriläinen et al. 1994). The National Board of Waters and the Environment (Korhonen et al. 1994) has studied the organochlorine compound levels in pike, vendace, and whitefish in the Finnish freshwaters and coastal waters at the turn of the 1990s. The samples from Lapland were collected from Lokka, the Torniojoki river, Inarinjärvi lake, and the Kitkajärvi lake. The organochlorine levels in the areas studied were clearly under the proposal by the Finnish Ministry of Trade and Industry (756/90) on the maximum levels of contaminants in the produce. DDT and PCB levels in vendace and whitefish were, on average, approximately one hundredth of the abovementioned level, and in pike less than one hundredth. HCB and BHC levels were, on average, one

hundredth of the same level for all of the freshwater species studied. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 53 In 1994, the Finnish Agricultural Research Centre (Kumpulainen 1998) studied the levels of PCB and organochlorine pesticides (OCP) in Finnish fish and found that the highest total PCB and OCP levels were found in fish from the area of the Baltic Sea, such as salmon (total PCB average 198 μg/kg, total DDT average 147 μg/ kg), and Baltic herring (total PCB average 114 μg/kg, total DDT 96 μg/kg). The PCB levels in salmon from the Teno river were the same as in farmed rainbow trout (30 μg/kg).

3.1.6 Beef and Mutton The National Veterinary and Food Research Institute of Finland has results for meat processing facilities in Oulu, Kuusamo, and Kemi concerning lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic levels in beef and bovine kidneys in 1994 and 1995, as well as concerning cadmium and lead levels in beef and bovine liver and kidneys in 1996 and 1997. The lead and cadmium levels of these meat processing facilities are the same as the levels in reindeer meat. The lead and cadmium levels in bovine liver and kidneys are lower than the levels in reindeer calf liver and kidneys. The average lead (Pb) level in a Finnish beef fillet in 1991 was 10 μg/kg, in ground beef 8 μg/kg, pork loin 9 μg/kg, chicken breast 5 μg/kg, and chicken leg 7 μg/ kg (Tahvonen et al. 1994). The cadmium levels of beef, pork, and chicken were below the level of definition (<1 μg/kg). The Finnish heifer and bovine liver average lead and cadmium levels in 1991 were Pb 36 μg/kg and Cd 36 μg/kg (heifer), 66 μg/ kg (cow), and for pork liver Pb 11 μg/kg and Cd 21 μg/kg. The National Veterinary and Food Research Institute of Finland has measured organochlorine levels in samples of beef and mutton fat from the meat processing facilities from the provinces of Lapland and Oulu between 1995 and 1997. The levels found were below the threshold level (<5 μg/kg of fat) or near the threshold level (two samples).

3.1.7 Milk and Milk Products The National Veterinary and Food Research Institute of Finland has studied the levels of lead, cadmium, arsenic, and organochlorine compounds in Lappish milk between 1996 and 1997. The levels of lead were less than 0.01 mg/kg, of cadmium less than 0.001 mg/kg, of arsenic less than 0.005 mg/kg, and the organochlorine levels were below the level of definition, which is 5 μg/kg, calculated per lipids. The Finnish Agricultural Research Centre has not found any organochlorine nor PCB compounds in Lappish milk samples in 1990 and 1992 (Kumpulainen 1993). In addition, the contaminant levels in Lappish cheese samples were low. The average lead levels in low-fat milk samples collected from dairies around Finland were 1.7 μg/kg in 1990 (Tahvonen ym. 1995); the lead levels for Finnish cheeses were 17 μg/kg. The cadmium levels in milk and cheeses were below the level of definition (1 μg/kg). The lead levels in Lappish milk samples were approximately the same as in the samples collected from elsewhere in Finland. The domestic and foreign milk and milk product organichlorine compound (PCB and organochlorine pesticide compounds) levels were clearly below the recommended maximum levels in the studies conducted in 1990 and 1991 (Hietaniemi et al. 1994). PCB compound levels higher than the level of definition were not found in the

Finnish milk and cheese samples. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 54 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 3.1.8 Water The studied locations were asked for information on the levels of heavy metals and trace elements (arsenic, zinc, selenium, nickel, and copper) in the drinking water. No research results existed for Utsjoki concerning the elements in question. Other communes studied had results from the 1990s, in which the element levels were mostly low. Isolated cases of elevated copper levels were found in the water of Salla (highest level 0.7 mg/l) and Inari (2.0 mg/l), as well as cadmium in the water of the Kilpisjärvi water processing plant (0.10 mg/l). In a national well water survey, the Geological Survey of Finland collected approximately a thousand well and spring water samples around the country in the summer of 1999. The zinc, copper, and chromium levels did not exceed in a single case the levels set by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health (Hatakka et al. 2001). Concerning nickel, 2 % of well water samples exceeded the maximum level of 20 μg/l. One ground well lead levels exceeded the limit of 10 μg/l. The highest level or arsenic allowed, 10 μg/l, was exceeded by 3 % of drill well waters. The coastal areas in southern Finland had higher ground water arsenic levels than the rest of the country. The well water selenium levels were low, as were the iodine levels in the entire country.

3.2 Studies on the Use of Foodstuffs and on the Nutritional Values of Foodstuffs in Lapland

This section deals with what is currently known on the Lappish nutrition and the use of food stuff, and how the diet is different by comparison to the rest of Finland. The Saami diet has already been studied in the 1960s and 1970s. The latest is the National FINDIET 2002 Study by the National Public Health Institute, in which Lapland is included for the first time, and which is realized in the spring of 2002, thus, the information not being available yet. The study focuses on the adult population – no information on the diet of Lappish children is available. Generally, the adult section will also be very small in a national study, thus, making conclusions will be uncertain. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Department of Radiochemistry of the University of Helsinki studied dietary habits in Lapland in connection to radioactivity measure- ments. In 1960 135 families (812 persons) were interviewed on their dietary habits in Enontekiö, Inari, and Utsjoki (Jokelainen 1965). The participants in the study were divided into four groups: nomadic reindeer herding and Saami living in a permanent location of habitation, fisher Saami, and Skolt Saami. In addition, in the area of Inari, the summer and winter diets of 16 families were studied with an inventory method. At that point in time, the most important foodstuff in the Saami diet were grain, milk and milk products, margarine, sugar, meat and meat products, potatoes, and fish. In the winter diet, the order of importance for the foodstuff was the following: meat, grain, potatoes, and milk. In the summer diet, the order was fish, grain, and milk. Over half of the Skolt Saami followed a traditional Saami meal pattern of one main course and several snacks. A newer habit of 2 main meals and 4–5 snacks had been adopted by a majority of the other groups. The traditional Saami dishes of fried reindeer, meat stew, meat soup, cooked meat, and cooked, salted, and dried fish, were popular, but typical Finnish dishes were included in the diet as well. In the study by Jokelainen, 114 men and 60 women were also interviewed in 1962 to assess the individual diets. The diets were found to provide sufficient energy

and the intake of protein, iron, thiamine and niacin was high. The Skolt calcium ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 55 intake was low and there was a slight deficiency in the intake of riboflavin in the summer diet. The intake of vitamin C was adequate in all other groups, except for the nomadic Saami and the Skolt. In 1971 and 1976 the food consumption of the population of Inari and Utsjoki was studied (Hasunen et al. 1976) in order to establish whether there had been any changes in the dietary habits since the study in 1962. In 1971, 110 people and in 1976 66 people were interviewed on their diet. The diet and the choice of produce were found to be significantly dependent on the choice of lifestyle. The reindeer herding people of Inari included a lot of reindeer meat in their diet, whereas fish was the most common among the reindeer herding fishermen. Also, the Inari people of other professions used a lot of fish in their diet. The most important produce in the Lap- pish diet were meat and meat products, grain products, fish, potatoes, milk and fats. The diet varied significantly between winter and summer. In the winter, the consumption of meat was high, whereas in the summer the consumption of fish was high. The consumption of meat became gradually a year-round phenomenon when the freezers became more common. The consumption of potatoes decreased, whereas the consumption of other vegetables as well as fruit and berries increased by comparison to the 1962 study. The people of Utsjoki were less nomadic, which made farming possible. Due to this, the consumption of milk increased since the 1962 study. In a study on reindeer herders (Näyhä et al. 1993) in 1986 a 24 hour diet interview was conducted on 661 individuals. Common features among reindeer herders were irregular meals and picnic meals. Seasons of the year had an effect on the composition of the diet. The diet favored dark bread, meat in the winter and fish in the summer, however, vegetables, berries and fruit were used little. Butter was the most popular fat in the diet, and more fatty products were favored also among milk products. Due to this, the diet was rich in fat and the fat was saturated. The intake of carbohydrates was under the recommended level, however, the intake of protein was high, which is due to the frequent use of reindeer meat in the mountainous Lap- land. The intake of vitamins A and C was below the recommendations, however the intake of minerals was usually adequate. In 1993, the dietary habits of 44 mothers of preschoolers in the region of Enon- tekiö were studied with an interview (Vieltojärvi 1995). The participants of the study could be divided into two groups, which differed from one another based on the use of traditional foods. Those following a traditional diet have simple meals prepared with traditional methods using either reindeer or fish. The meals of the mothers not following a traditional diet were more varied, the methods of preparation varied more, and other meats in addition to reindeer was used. The mothers following a traditional diet used more margarine (Norwegian fish or vegetable margarine) in preparing the food. The Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority surveyed the use of berries, mushrooms, game, reindeer meat, and fish from 1 500 Finnish households in 1996. Less mushrooms were used in northern Finland (the provinces of Oulu and Lap- land) by comparison to the rest of the country, however, more berries, game, and reindeer meat were used up north (Markkula et al. 2001). In the so-called cohort-66 study in 1997 in northern Finland (the provinces of Oulu and Lapland), the diet, the use of alcohol, smoking, and fitness habits as well as diseases and the ability to function were surveyed with a mailed questionnaire from people born in 1966 (Näyhä S et al. 1999). 34 % of the women born in 1966 and living in northern Finland (excluding Oulu) were overweight or obese, whereas of men, approximately half were overweight or obese. The women who had moved elsewhere from northern Finland were slimmer than the women still living in northern Finland. Those born in 1966 and living in northern Finland (excluding Oulu) included rye bread in their diet on a daily basis more than those who moved

elsewhere, however, they included less vegetables and fruit in their diet. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 56 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 The National Public Health Institute of Finland has been monitoring the health behavior and the state of health of Finnish adults since 1978 with an annual survey. Based on the survey of 1999 (sample 5000 individual, between 15 to 64 years of age), the differences in the state of health and health behavior have been assessed on provincial level in Finland for individuals between the ages of 25 to 64 (Num- mela et al. 2000). In Lapland, more tobacco is used daily than in the rest of the country, also women’s sobriety is more common. Physical leisure activities are more common, however, the women eat less bread than in the rest of the country, even though the women favor lighter options on top of their bread. The use of fatty milk among men is common and both sexes use fresh vegetables less than in the rest of the country. Healthy dietary habits are slightly rarer than the country average. Missing teeth is common and going to the dentist is rare.

3.3 Goals and Research Methods

3.3.1 Goals The purpose of the dietary survey was to assess the transfer of heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead and nickel), arsenic, certain trace elements (zinc, copper, and selenium) and organochlorine compunds through food and drink in expecting mothers (N=147) in seven Lappish communes (Enontekiö, Utsjoki, Inari, Kemijär- vi, Pelkosenniemi, Savukoski, and Salla). In addition, the nutritional value of the diet was evaluated. There are still socio-economical differences in dietary habits in Finland. Differences between age groups exist as well and not in the benefit of younger age groups (National Public Health Institute 1998). Due to the increased need for energy during the pregnancy and nursing, the lifestyle changes for the mothers may be quite drastic from normal or average. Assessing the diet for this particular risk group is vital, because the mother’s diet will affect her own as well as her child’s current and future health. New studies have shown even more strongly that the diet at the foetal stage and while nursing is crucial concerning the development of several chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and allergies. Thus, the mother’s diet during the pregnancy and while nursing have far-reaching consequences (Hoppu et al. 2001). In addition, there is more evidence on the exposure of foetuses to environmental toxins having an effect on the future development and health (Grandjean et al. 1997, Grandjean et al. 2000, Sörensen et al. 1999). The methods in this study were a seven day food diary and a dietary questionnaire (frequency survey).

3.3.2 Food diary With the food diary method, the participants in the survey listed all of the consumed food and drink for seven days in the fashion of a diary. The seven day food diary contains the variations between the different days, because during the weekend the diet is often different from the diet during the week. The participating mothers filled in the food diary between the sixth and ninth months of pregnancy. The mothers listed into the food diary where, when and what they ate and drank, the quantity, how the food had been prepared, and from where did the produce of the

food originated. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 57 It was originally intended that the participating mothers would fill in the seven day food diary twice during the pregnancy to even out the fluctuations between the seasons of the year, but the mothers experienced filling in the food diary for the second time as too time-consuming. A total of 127 food diaries were returned. Not all of the participants in the AMAP study filled in the food diary.

3.3.3 Dietary Questionnaire The dietary questionnaire studied how often the participant uses the different produce and types of food (frequency survey). The participants in the study filled in the questionnaire between the sixth and the ninth month of pregnancy. The frequency in the use of foodstuffs was asked on the scale of how many times per day/week/month. The size of the portion was requested to be referred to from a portion picture book (Haapa et al. 1985), and to circle the suitable alternative. In addition, it was requested in the questionnaire to inform where the produce had been acquired (where was it cultivated, hunted/ fished, or had it been bought from a store). A total of 147 questionnaires were returned.

The dietary questionnaire surveyed the frequency of use for the following produce and food types: 1. milk and buttermilk 2. other milk products (yogurt, fermented milk or sour whole milk, ice cream, cream) 3. bread 4. fats (spreads on bread) 5. sausages 6. eggs 7. vegetables (fresh, pickled and cooked vegetables, potatoes, and mushrooms) 8. rice and macaroni 9. meat (reindeer, elk, beef, pork, chicken, game fowl, water fowl, other game) 10. fish and other fish products 11. fruit 12. berries 13. pastries 14. water 15. other drinks

3.3.4 Analysing the Food Diaries and Dietary Questionnaires The information in the food diaries and dietary questionnaires was fed into the Nutrica® nutrition calculation program (version 2.5) from the Social Insurance Institution of Finland, and nutritional values of the participants’ diets were calculated. The program was upgraded in the spring of 1998 and, thus, it contains the average nutritional values for the produce and foodstuffs available in 1998. It was intended that the nutrient levels of the local produce would be fed into the programme, but only few of the Lappish produce had local nutrient level information available, so the analyses made were based on the Nutrica® information, which are average Finnish levels. Concerning communal water supply, the study results in many of the communes were so low on the elements and heavy metals in their drinking water that it was estimated that the zero levels in Nutrica® would suffice in the calculations. The average organochlorine compound levels could not

be calculated, because Nutrica® did not contain the level information. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 58 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 The results from Nutrica® were further analysed with the SPSS-program. The average daily nutrition of the mothers has been compared regionally and nationally based on recommendations. The average daily nutritions listed in the diaries and in the questionnaires have been compared.

3.4 The Results of the Food Diaries and the Dietary Questionnaires

3.4.1 Mercury Based on a frequency questionnaire, the average daily mercury intake through the diet was 4.40 μg per day (15.4 % of the Provisional tolerable weekly intake, PTWI). Based on the food diary, the mercury intake was 3.65 μg per day (12.8 % of the PTWI). Based on the diaries, the maximum intake level was 16.4 μg per day, which constitutes 114.8 μg per week (57 % of the PTWI). Results are presented in Table 16.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The temporary recommendation by FAO/WHO (1990) for maximum mercury intake is 0.3 milligrams per week. Up to 0.2 milligrams of this can be methyl mercury (which converts to 3.3 μg/kg per body weight kilogram per week). The average Finnish mercury intake in the 1970s was 5.7 μg/day (Varo and Koivistoinen 1980) and at the end of 1980s 2.3 μg/day (Kumpulainen et al. 1989). In Finland, the exposure of women at a fertile age to mercury originating from fish in 1992 was minor, on average 6 μg/day (Alftan et al.1994). This is the equivalent of 14 % of the PTWI by the WHO. The participants in the study were from North Carelia, Kuopio, the Turku-Loimaa area, and the Helsinki-Vantaa area. Also Mustaniemi et al. (1994) estimate the Finnish mercury exposure through the diet to be 6.8 μg per day on average, most of which (71 %) comes from fish. The average mercury intake (3.65–4.40 μg per day) found in this AMAP study among pregnant Lappish mothers are approximately the same as found in previous studies in Finland. The average intake of mercury by a person weighing 60 kg (PTWI) is around 26 μg per week. The PTWI recommended by WHO for mercury is 200 μg per week (for a 60 kg individual). For the Canadian and Greenland Inuit, the estimated mercury intake estimated in the AMAP studies is 850 μg per week. The mercury levels in fish vary based on the species of fish. Fish that use plankton as nutrition, such as Baltic herring, vendace, and bream, fishes of the Rutilus genus, and saltwater fishes, the mercury levels rarely elevate high enough to limit their use as nutrition. The highest levels of mercury were detected in the pikes of small forest lakes in southern and central Finland, where the maximum levels allowed for predatory fishes are often exceeded. The mercury levels are lower in the fish of clear, non-acidic and clay soil lakes. The mercury levels increase due to age. The fish which can have high mercury levels (0.5–1 mg/kg) are pike, perch, burbot, and pike-perch (National Food Agency Finland 2002). The amendment to the EU regulation 466/2001 enforced since 5.4.2002, sets the maximum levels for mercury in fish. This means a maximum of 1 mg of mercury per kilogramme of fresh weight in the part being used as produce in, for example, the following species of fish: tuna, ocean perch, pike, and eel. In other fish and fish products, the maximum level is 0.5 mg/kg per fresh weight in the part being used as

produce (National Food Agency Finland 2002). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 59 The mercury intake from nutrition is dependent on the species and origin of the fish in addition to the amount of fish used. When a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish, as well as farmed salmon and ocean fish, are used in the diet, the exposure to mercury can be decreased (Mustaniemi et al.1994). The varied use of different species of fish is also recommended in the nutritional recommendations for families with children by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health (Hasunen 1997). The control guide by the National Food Agency Finland on the chemical hazards of foodstuffs and household water (2002) states that it is vital to ensure that the diet of an expecting mother contains as little methyl mercury as possible and it is recommended that freshwater predatory fish is used in the diet only once a month. In order to ensure the safety of all population groups, according to the guide, a sufficient amount of freshwater fish samples need to be studied. Based on the information acquired, the professional and leisure fishermen, as well as the local populous, can be informed on the mercury levels in fish and on the dangers of organic mercury.

3.4.2 Lead The average intake of lead in expecting mothers according to the frequency questionnaire was 58.8 μg/day (27.5 % of the PTWI) and according to the food diary 48.3 μg/day (22.5 % of PTWI). The maximum intake according to the frequency questionnaire was 135.7 μg/day, which means approximately 950 μg/week (63 % of the PTWI). The results are illustrated in Table 16, at the end of this section on heavy metals.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

Varo and Koivistoinen (1980) estimate the Finnish lead intake at the end of the 1970s as 66 μg/day, and at the end of the 1980s as 20 μg/day (Kumpulainen et al. 1989). According to the estimate by Kumpulainen, the lead intake in 1996 was approximately 14 μg/day (Kumpulainen 1998). The most important sources of lead for Finns are meat, milk, and grain products as well as popular fruit (Kumpulainen et al. 1990). The average lead intake in this AMAP study was 48.3–58.8 μg/day is high compared with the estimated Finnish intake of 1996 of 20 μg/day, being mostly the equivalent of the intake level of late 1970s, 66 μg/day. The mercury levels of produce in Nutrica® originate from the studies in late 1970s, thus, having an effect on the intake estimate. The exposure to lead has decreased to one third since the use of lead-free gasoline began (National Food Agency Finland 2002). Adding lead into gasoline has been discontinued in almost all European countries – in Finland in 1985. However, plants with large leaf area (for example parsley and lettuce) can accumulate high lead levels from polluted air. The average lead intake of expecting mothers found in this AMAP study based on the food diaries was 337 μg/week calculated as a weekly intake for an individual of 60 kilograms in weight. In an AMAP study (AMAP 2002) the estimated average weekly intake for the Canadian Inuit was 470 μg, for the white Canadians 168 μg, the Canadian Dene and Métis <42 μg, the Greenland Inuit 15 μg, and white Danes 162 μg. The lead intake of Lappish mothers appears to be rather high when compared with the other countries, however, it needs to be noted that the lead levels of Nutrica® are outdated and that the lead levels the in foodstuffs have decreased. Mustaniemi et al. (1994) have estimated the average lead intake through nutrition as 19.5 μg for an average consumer in 1992. This is the equivalent of

approximately 9 % of the PTWI for lead by the WHO (1 500 μg/week). The Finnish ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 60 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 lead intake from the different food groups was as follows: fish 19 %, other produce (coffee, tea, alcohol, sugar, sweets, water) 24 %, meat 10 %, milk products 9 %, grain 13 %, vegetables 8 %, berries 10 %, and fruit 7 %. According to the average Finnish food basket diet (Eurola 2001), the Finnish lead intake from 1997 to 1999 was 8.8 μg/day, which is approximately 4 % of the levels defined by the WHO. The lead intake spread rather evenly between the different produce groups. The highest lead intake was from drinks and spices (33 %), however, also grains, fruit and berries, vegetables, and meat products were significant sources of lead.

The EU regulation 466/2001 has set the maximum levels for lead as follows: • milk and formula 0.02 mg/kg • bovine, mutton, pork, and poultry meat 0.1 mg/kg • other edible parts of the previously mentioned animals 0.5 mg/kg • common sole, eel, horse mackerel, grey mullet, and sardine 0.4 mg/kg • meat of other species of fish 0.2 mg/kg • crustaceans (excluding brown crab meat) 0.5 mg/kg • shellfish 1.0 mg/kg • cephalopods (without internal organs) 1.0 mg/kg • grains (including buckwheat) and legumes 0.2 mg/kg • vegetables not including cabbages, leaf plants, fresh herbs, all mushrooms (peeled potato) 0.1 mg/kg • cabbages, leaf plants, and all grown mushrooms 0.3 mg/kg • fruit excluding small fruit 0.1 mg/kg • berries and small fruit 0.2 mg/kg • fats and oils including lactic fats 0.1 mg/kg • fruit juices 0.05 mg/kg and wines 0.2 mg/kg.

3.4.3 Cadmium The average cadmium levels in Expecting Lappish mothers were according to the frequency questionnaire 11.9 μg/day (19.8 % of the PTWI) and according to the food diary 10.4 μg/day (17.3 % of the PTWI). Based on the maximum intake level of 33.9 μg/day (estimated according to the dietary survey), the intake per week is 237.3 μg, which is 56.5 % of the PTWI. The results are illustrated in Table 16 at the end of this section on heavy metals.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The recommendation by the FAO/WHO for the maximum permissible weekly intake (PTWI) is 7 μg/kg/week. For an individual weighing 60 kilograms this is 60 μg/day, 420 μg/week. The Greenland and Canadian Inuit (AMAP 2002) have been estimated to intake 1 000 μg per week in their diet, which exceeds the PTWI. The level of cadmium intake of the Canadian Métis and Dene as well as the Canadian whites are estimated to be closer to the levels of the expecting Lappish mothers. In the 1970s, the average Finnish cadmium intake was estimated as 13 μg/day (Varo 1980), whereas, at the end of 1980s it was 10 μg/day (Kumpulainen et al. 1989), and in 1996 approximately 12 μg/day (Kumpulainen 1998). This is approximately 15 % of the PTWI. According to the average Finnish food basket diet (Eurola 2001) the Finnish cadmium intake from 1997 to 1999 was 7.9 μg/day, which is approximately 13 % of the limit defined by the WHO. The average cadmium intake of 10.4 –11.9

μg/day in this AMAP study meets the previous Finnish cadmium intake levels. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 61 However, in the lack of heavy metal levels for elk and reindeer liver, the average levels for animal liver were used, so the participants of the study using the internal organs of elk actually have higher cadmium levels. The most significant sources of cadmium in the Finnish diet are grain products 57 %, vegetables, fruit, and berries 23 %, internal organs 4 %, and fish 5 %. Other produce are estimated to add up to 11 % (National Food Agency Finland 2002). The groups exposed to cadmium the worst are those who included internal organs, shrimp, seeds and mushrooms (these produce contain higher levels of cadmium) often in their diet, as well as smokers and individuals with a deficiency of iron, calcium, or vitamin D (National Food Agency Finland 2002).

The EU regulation 466/2001 has set the maximum levels for cadmium as follows: • bovine meat 0.05 mg/kg • horse meat 0.2 mg/kg • bovine, mutton and poultry liver 0.5 mg/kg and kidneys 1.0 mg/kg • fish meat, excluding the species mentioned below 0.05 mg/kg • common sole, eel, anchovy, horse mackerel, and sardine 0.1 mg/kg • crustaceans, excluding the brown crab meat 0.5 mg/kg, shellfish 1.0 mg/kg, cephalopods without internal organs 1.0 mg/kg • grains (0.1 mg/kg), excluding bran, wheat germs, wheat grains, and rice (0.2 mg/kg) • soy beans 0.2 mg/kg • vegetables and fruit 0.05 mg/kg, excluding leaf plants, fresh herbs, celery and grown mushrooms 0.2 mg/kg), and excluding stalk vegetables, root vegetables, and peeled potato 0.1 mg/kg.

The national contaminant monitoring programme monitors animal produce regularly. Of all of the samples studied in 1999 (392 samples), only the cadmium levels of elk liver and kidneys were nearly constantly over the recommended levels, thus, not suitable for the human diet. According to legislation (MMM p20/ EEO/1997) the liver and kidneys of elk of over one year of age are not accepted as produce. Exposure to heavy metals through nutrition in Finland is one of the lowest in Europe and the intake of heavy metals through produce is only approximately 10– 15 % of the levels deemed safe. The lead and cadmium levels in basic Finnish produce – in grain, milk and, meat – are very low. Concerning mercury, those using freshwater fish often in their diet may be a risk group. Specifically, some small lakes situated near industrial areas as well as reservoirs a few years after their construction may have high mercury levels in their predatory fish (Mykkänen 1999).

Table 16. Intake of heavy metals through the diet calculated based on the frequency questionnaire and the food diary.

Frequency (N= 147) Food diary (N= 127) PTWI Heavy metal Mean Range Mean Range 60 kg person

Mercury μg/day 4.4 0.9–14.5 3.7 0.9–16.4 μg/week 30.8 25.6 200

Lead μg/day 58.8 14.6–136 48.3 20.4–118 μg/week 412 338 1 500

Cadmium μg/day 11.9 3.6–33.9 10.4 4.5–19.1

μg/week 83.1 72.7 420 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 62 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 3.4.4 Arsenic The average arsenic intake according to the frequency questionnaire was 30.5 μg/ day and according to the food diary 28.7 μg/day (Table 17). The PTWI by the WHO to inorganic arsenic is 0.015 mg/kg. According to the study in the late 1970s (Koivistoinen 1980), the Finnish arsenic intake was 58 μg per day, which is 45 % of the PTWI for inorganic arsenic calculated per day. According to the same study, 45 % of the intake originated from fish, 21 % from vegetables, 12 % from grain, 6 % from dairy products, 3 % from meat, and 14 % from other produce. Organic arsenic compounds can exist in high concentrations in marine animals, however, this exposure is not likely in Finland (Vuori 2001). Instead, high arsenic levels in Finland have been found in drill wells in certain areas of the country.

3.4.5 Nickel According to the frequency questionnaire, the average nickel intake from the diet was 142 μg/day and according to the food diary 122 μg/day (Table 17). The intake of nickel depends significantly on the share and amount of fauna- based produce (low nickel content) and flora-based produce (high nickel content) in the diet. No normative recommended allowance has been given concerning nickel. The following are some of the nickel intake levels reported from different countries: England 140–150 μg/day (adults), the United States 69–162 μg/day, and Denmark 60–260 μg/day (average 130 μg/day).

3.4.6 Zinc Based on the frequency method, the average daily zinc intake through the diet was 12.5 mg per day. Based on the food diary, the zinc intake was 11.5 milligrams per day (Table 17). According to the Finnish nutritional guidelines, the recommended daily intake of zinc for expecting mothers is 9 milligrams per day. Estimated with the frequency questionnaire, 20 % of the expecting mothers and estimated with the food diary 22 % of the mothers took in zinc from their diet less than this recommendation. According to the State Nutrition Committee of Finland, the maximum daily ingestion of zinc for an adult is 45 milligrams per day. None of the calculated results in this study exceeded this recommendation. The average intake of zinc among Finns is adequate based on the recommendations (State Nutrition Committee of Finland 1998). The normative recommended allowance for adults is 4–19 milligrams per day (FAO/WHO 1996). The recommended daily allowance (RDA) for expecting mothers is 11 milligrams per day (over 19 years-of-age).

3.4.7 Copper Based on the frequency questionnaire, the average daily copper intake level through the diet was 1 320 μg per day. Based on the food diary, the copper intake was 1 187 μg per day (Table 17). The normative recommended allowance for copper is 1 200– 1 400 μg per day (FAO/WHO 1996). The RDA for expecting mothers is 1.0 milli-

grams per day. The average copper intake among the mothers in this study was ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 63 according to the RDA and the WHO’s recommendation. The average intake level of copper among Finns is adequate based on the recommendations (State Nutrition Committee of Finland 1998).

3.4.8 Selenium Based on the frequency method, the average daily selenium intake level through the diet was 68.7 μg per day. Based on the food diary, the selenium intake was 68.2 μg per day. Based on the Finnish national nutritional guidelines, the recommended daily allowance of selenium for expecting mothers is 55 μg per day. Estimated with the frequency method 29 % of the expecting mothers and estimated with the journal method 22 % of the mothers took in selenium through their diet below this recommendation. It should be noted that the selenium levels of the produce in Nutrica® are based on the analyses from the 1970s, and that the levels of selenium were changed in fertilizers in the 1980s and 1990s. According to the Finnish National Nutrition Council, the maximum daily intake of selenium for an adult is 300 μg per day. The calculated levels in this study did not exceed this recommendation. Furthermore, the WHO’s PTWI recommendation of 2400 μg per day was not exceeded by the average levels (frequency questionnaire: 481 μg per day, food diary: 477 μg per day) nor by the maximum levels. According to the Finnish National Nutrition Council, the minimum daily intake of selenium is 20 μg per day for women of 15 to 50 years-of-age. This minimum allowance was exceeded even by the lowest levels. The Finnish intake of selenium through the diet is sufficient compared with the recommendations (State Nutrition Committee of Finland 1998). The selenium intake for Finnish men in 1997 was on average 66 μg and for Finnish women 47 μg per day. The main sources for selenium are meat (40 %), milk products and eggs (25 %), as well as grain products (20 %). The 1998 addition of selenium (10 mg per kilo of fertilizer) will increase the selenium intake level to the level of 1990, which was 100–120 microgrammes per day. In addition, the selenium depositories of expecting women will be sufficient to meet the needs of the foetus through this addition.

Table 17. The intake of arsenic, nickel, zinc, copper, and selenium of expecting mothers through their diet.

Frequency questionnaire (N=147) Food diary (N=127) Trace element Mean intake Range Mean intake Range

Arsenic μg/day 30.5 9.2–98.2 28.7 9.2–222 Nickel μg/day 142 42.1–735 122 39.1–357 Zink mg/day 12.5 3.6–27.7 11.5 5.8–20.3 Copper μg/day 1 320 388–3 159 1 187 590–2 207

Selenium μg/day 68.7 4.0–137 68.2 34.4–124 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 64 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389

– 3.4.9 Persistent Organochlorine Compounds, POP Compounds In this AMAP study, the estimated intake of organochlorine compounds of expecting Lappish mothers was not calculated, because they were not available in the Nutrica® database on produce. The pesticide levels in Finnish produce are on average a fraction of the levels deemed safe. A majority of the pesticide intake (91 %) comes from imported fruit (Penttilä et al. 2000). The total intake of pesticide residue for Finns is at the most 1– 2 % of the levels deemed safe, thus, there is no reason to avoid the use of imported fruit. PCB compounds and dioxins, which are a problem in the Baltic Sea fish, are found in fatty fish such as salmon and Baltic herring and more in older specimens than in younger. The intake of these compounds can be decreased by limiting the consumption of fatty saltwater fish and including a variety of freshwater fish in the diet. The Finnish dioxin and PCB compound intake has been found to decrease during the past years. In 1995, the intake was estimated as 2.8 picograms/body weight in kilograms/day (Hallikainen et al.1995), and in 1999 the intake was approximately 1.7 pg/body weight in kilograms/day (Vartiainen et al. 2001). The 15 year monitoring by the National Public Health Institute found that the dioxin and PCB levels in breast milk have also decreased, dioxins approximately by 5 % per year and PCB compounds 7 % per year (Kiviranta et al. 1999, Vartiainen et al. 2001). Measured from the Finnish food basket from 1997 to 1999 (Kiviranta et al. 2001), the dioxin and PCB intake per day is 105 pg and, thus, the weekly intake of an individual of 70 kg is 10.5 pg TEq/kilograms of weight (TEq = the equivalent amount of TCDD, toxicity equivalent). Calculated according to the average weight of 60 kg, the intake is 12.3 pg TEq/kilograms of weight, also which is lower than the goal of 14 pg TEq/kilograms of weight. Most EU countries exceed the maximum level of total intake of 14 pg TEq per weight in kilograms per week recommended by the EU for dioxins and PCB compounds.

3.4.10 The Quality of the Diet

Energy Nutrients

The average energy intake estimated through the frequency questionnaire was 7.1 MJ and 7.5 MJ estimated through the food diary (Table 18). The best way to measure the energy intake is a suitable weight gain by an expecting mother. The weight gain goals during pregnancy are individual. The factors affecting the need of energy are, for example, the mother’s age and size, the quality of her work, and the amount of exercise.

Protein

The average protein intake of the participants in the study was 76.4 g/day (18.2 % of the total energy intake) according to the frequency questionnaire, and according to the food diary 71.9 g/day (16.3 % of the total energy). The results are illustrated in Table 3.3. The average protein intake, thus, exceeds the recommendation of 10–15

%E by the State Nutrition Committee of Finland. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 65 Fat

The average fat intake estimated with the frequency questionnaire was 60.0 g/day (30.3 % of the total energy intake) and with the food diary 71.0 g/day (36.0 % of the total energy intake). The results are illustrated in Table 18. According to the recommendation by the State Nutrition Committee of Finland (1998) the amount of fat in the diet should be approximately 30 %E. The share of hard fats in the energy should be approximately 10 %E. According to the frequency questionnaire, the share of hard fats of the whole energy was 13.1 %E and according to the food diary 16.2 %E. The share of mono-saturated fatty acids of the whole energy was 9.7 % based on the frequency questionnaire and 11.1 % based on the food diary, their recommended value being 10–15 %. The share of poly-unsaturated fatty acids from the total energy intake was 4.2 % based on the frequency questionnaire and 4.6 % based on the food diary, their recommended value being 5–10 %. Thus, the amount of saturated fatty acids is too great. The average intake of mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids estimated with the frequency questionnaire was found to have a significant difference between the studied locations through the Kruskal Wallis test (p=0,038 and p=0,074). The intake mono-unsaturated fatty acids was the highest in Pelkosenniemi and the lowest in Enontekiö. The intake of poly-unsaturated fatty acids was the highest in Pelkosenniemi and the lowest in the commune of Savukoski. According to the recommendation by the State Nutrition Committee of Finland (1998), the diet of expecting mothers should include at least 5 % of poly-unsaturated fatty acids of the total energy intake. The intake of necessary poly-unsaturated fatty acids (lipoic acid and alpha lipoic acid) from the total energy was 2.4 % based on the frequency questionnaire and 2.5 % based on the food diary, thus, under the recommendations. A significant difference in cholesterol intake between the locations of the study estimated with the frequency questionnaire was found with the Kruskal Wallis test, the intake being the highest in Pelkosenniemi and the lowest in Enon- tekiö. The average cholesterol intake through the frequency questionnaire was 216 mg per day and through the food diary 244 mg per day.

Carbohydrates

The average carbohydrate intake was estimated as 216 g/day (51.3 % of the total energy intake) with the frequency questionnaire and 210 g/day (47.6 % of the whole energy) with the food diary. The results are illustrated in Table 18. The estimated average carbohydrate intake was less than the recommendation by the State Nutrition Committee of Finland (55–50 % of the total energy intake). Good sources of carbohydrates in the diet are grain products, vegetables, fruit and berries.

Alcohol

The use of alcohol was low. The average alcohol intake according to the frequency method was 0.42 g/day (0.17 % of the total energy intake) and according to the food diary 0.35 g/day (0.14 % of total energy intake). The State Nutrition Committee of Finland recommends the intake of alcohol as maximum 4–5 % of the total energy intake. The Committee also recommends abstaining from the use of alcohol during

the pregnancy. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 66 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Table 18. The average energy nutrient intake according to the frequency questionnaire (N-147), and according to the food diary (N-127) compared with Finnish recommendations (1998) for expecting mothers. Energy nutrient Frequency questionnaire Food diary Intake recommendation

Protein g/day 76.4 71.9 Protein E% 18.2 16.3 10–15 Fat g/day 60.0 71.0 Fat E% 30.3 36.0 30 Saturated fatty acids E% 13.1 16.2 10 Mono unsaturated fatty acids E% 9.7 11.1 10–15 Poly-unsaturated fatty acids E% 4.2 4.6 5–10 Essential fatty acids E% 2.4 2.5 >5 Carbohydrates g/day 216 210 Carbohydrates E% 51.3 47.6 55–60 Alcohol E% 0.17 0.14

Fiber

The estimated intake of fiber was 25.4 g/day (3.55 g/MJ) through the frequency questionnaire and through the food diary 19.3 g/day (2.57 g/MJ). According to the recommendations by the State Nutrition Committee of Finland (1998) 25–35 g/day or 3 g/MJ of fiber is recommended for adults. The intake of fiber was either at the lower recommended level or low in general. The best sources of fiber for Finns are grain products (rye bread), potato, vegetables, fruit, and berries. Either 50 % of the expecting mothers, estimated through the frequency questionnaire, or 20 %, estimated through the food diary met the lower recommended level of 25 g of fiber per day. Thus, the intake of fiber was lower than the recommendation in 50–80 per cent of the expecting mothers.

Sugar

The estimated intake of sucrose (sugar) was 27.6 g/day (6.6 % of total energy intake) with the frequency questionnaire and 38.1 g/day (8.7 % of the total energy intake) with the food diary. The State Nutrition Committee of Finland (1998) recommends that the intake of sugar and fats should be kept low in order to intake the recommended amount of fiber. For children and adults with a small need for energy (<8 MJ/ day), the share of sugar is at most approximately 10 % of the total energy intake to ensure that the diet can include a sufficient amount of other energy nutrients. In this study, the intake of sugar for expecting mothers was not excessive.

Vitamins

The need for nutrition during pregnancy is not precisely known. The need for energy nutrients increases 15–50 % compared with a normal situation. Also, the absorption of energy nutrients becomes more efficient. There is no need to eat for two during a pregnancy concerning the quantity, however, concerning the quality, the diet should be nutritionally dense, which means that it should contain significant amounts of energy nutrients per the total intake. The average intake of vitamins by the expecting mothers, the variation, and recommendations are illustrated in Table

19 at the end of this section on vitamins. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 67 Fatsoluble Vitamins

Estimated through the frequency questionnaire, the intake of vitamin A in the form of a retinol equivalent by the expecting mothers was 1 110 μg/day and through the food diary 879 μg/day. According to the recommendations by the State Nutrition Committee of Finland, the recommended amount of retinol equivalent in the diet is 800 μg. 42 % (frequency questionnaire) and 58 % (food diary) of the expecting mothers were below the recommended intake level. As it is possible for vitamin A to have a harmful effect on the foetus, the amount of retinol intake of an expecting mother should not exceed 3 000 μg per day. The retinol intake levels of one expecting mother through both methods (not the same individual) exceeded the daily allowance of 3 000 μg. The intake of vitamin D from the diet according to both the frequency questionnaire and the food diary was 3.8 μg/day. The State Nutrition Committee of Finland recommends 10 μg per day of vitamin D during pregnancy. The vitamin D intake from the diet remained under this recommendation for 97 per cent of the expecting mothers estimated with both of the methods. The highest allowed daily intake of 50 μg was not exceeded by a single participant in the study. The intake of vitamin E through the diet was 7.2 mg/day (frequency questionnaire) and 7.4 g/day (food diary). The recommended vitamin E intake according to the Finnish nutritional recommendations for pregnant women is 10 mg. For 84 % (frequency questionnaire) and 82 % (food diary) of the mothers the vitamin E intake through the diet remained under the recommendation. Thus, the average intake of the fatsoluble vitamins was adequate for vitamin A, however the average vitamin D and E intake remained under the recommendations.

Watersoluble Vitamins

The State Nutrition Committee of Finland recommends 1.5 mg as the daily intake of thiamine (vitamin B1) for expecting mothers. For 53 % (frequency questionnaire) and 84 % (food diary) of the mothers, the intake through the diet was lower than the recommendation. The average intakes (1.5 mg and 1.2 mg) were also lower than the recommendation. In Finland, the recommended daily intake of riboflavin (vitamin B2) for expecting mothers is 1.6 mg. The calculated average intakes (2.3 mg and 2.0 mg) exceed this recommendation. For 26 per cent (frequency questionnaire) and 32 per cent (food diary) of the mothers, the intake is below the recommendation. The State Nutrition Committee of Finland recommends 17 mg of niacin equivalent per day to expecting mothers. The average intakes (27.3 mg and 26.4 mg) exceeded this recommendation. For 11 % (frequency questionnaire) and 4 % (food diary) the intake remained below this recommendation. In Finland, the recommended daily intake of pyridoxine (vitamin B6) for expecting mothers is 1.4 mg. The average intakes (2.2 mg and 1.7 mg) exceed this recommendation. The intake of 12 per cent (frequency questionnaire) and 26 per cent (food diary) of the expecting mothers was under the recommendation. A significant difference (p=0,055) in the average vitamin B6 intake, estimated through the food diaries, was found between the areas studied with the χ2 test. The intake was the highest in Pelkosenniemi and the lowest in the commune of Savukoski. The State Nutrition Committee of Finland recommends 2.0 μg/day of cobalamin (vitamin B12) for expecting mothers. The average intakes (5.6 μg and 5.2 μg) exceed the recommendation twice. The intake of only 7 % (frequency questionnaire) and 2 % (food diary) of vitamin B12 by the expecting mothers was under the

recommendation. A significant difference in the average vitamin B12 intake was ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 68 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 found estimating with the frequency questionnaire between the different areas studied with the χ2 test. The intake was the highest in Pelkosenniemi and the lowest in Enontekiö. In Finland, the recommended intake of folic acid during pregnancy is 400 μg/ day. The average intakes (307.9 μg and 261.8 μg) were under the recommendation. 79 % (frequency questionnaire) and 96 % (food diary) of the mothers took in folic acid through the diet less than the recommendation. The State Nutrition Committee recommends 70 mg/day as the vitamin C intake during pregnancy. The average intakes (191 mg and 115 mg) exceeded the recommendation. 10 % (frequency questionnaire) and 24 % (food diary) of the mothers took in vitamin C from their diet less than the recommendation. As a conclusion, it can be stated that the average intake by the mothers of watersoluble vitamins was adequate for riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin, pyridoxine (vitamin B6), cobalamin (vitamin B12), and vitamin C. The average intake of thiamine and folic acid was below the recommendations.

Table 19. The average intake of vitamins by the expecting mothers, variation and the recommended intake during pregnancy (Finnish recommendation 1998).

Frequency questionnaire Food diary (N=127) (N=147) Intake Vitamins Mean Range Mean Range recommendation

Retinol equivalent μg/day 1 110 212–4 905 879 239–3 664 800 Retinol μg/day 448 26.5–4 334.2 518 97.9–3 447 Caroten μg/day 3 848 420–2 663 2 062 213–11 460 D-vitamin μg/day 3.8 0.4–11.8 3.8 0.9–14.4 10 E-vitamin mg/day 7.2 2.1–17.0 7.4 2.8–16.5 10 Thiamin, B1 mg/day 1.5 0.5–2.8 1.2 0.5–2.5 1.5 Riboflavin, B2 mg/day 2.3 0.5–6.7 1.9 0.7–4.3 1.6 Niacin equivalent mg/day 27.3 11.1–52.3 26.4 13.6–45.1 17 Niacin mg/day 13.5 4.0–30.1 13.1 6.3–22.7 Pyridoxine, B6 mg/day 2.2 0.9–5.6 1.7 0.7–3.1 1.4 Cobalamine, B12 μg/day 5.6 0.9–23.3 5.2 1.7–12.5 2 Folic acid, μg/day 308 115–741 262 116–477 400 Pantoteic acid, μg/day 6.3 2.2–13.4 5.2 2.4–10.3 Biotine, μg/day 39.6 9.8–86.2 33 13.8–61.5 C-vitamine, mg/day 191 20.3–585 115 18.2–330 70

Minerals and Trace elements

The average intake of minerals and trace elements by the expecting mothers, the variation, and recommendations are illustrated in Table 20 at the end of this section on minerals and trace elements. As a table salt, the recommended intake of sodium in Finland is 5 g/day. The natural natrium content of foodstuffs accumulates usually to approximately only 0.5 g of sodium, thus, less than 1.25 g of salt per day. However, an average and safe intake has been estimated as 1–2 g of salt per day. The average intake of sodium estimated with the frequency questionnaire and the intake of salt calculated from it was 7.3 g/day through the frequency questionnaire and 7.1 g/day through the food diary. Thus, the intake of natrium estimated as table salt was high when

compared with the recommendations. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 69 Table 20. The average intake of minerals and trace elements from the diet by the expecting mothers, and the Finnish recommendation (1998). μg/day or mg/day Frequency N=147 Diet journal N=127 Intake questionnaire recommendation Element Mean Range Mean Range

Sodium mg/day 2 922 855–6 559 2 842 1 314–4 632 Potassium mg/day 3 928 1 445–9 172 3 178 1 669–5 693 3.1 Calcium mg/day 1 252 185–3 749 1 167 441.6–2 309 900 Magnesium mg/day 354 125–793 309 159.6–563 280 Phosphorus mg/day 1 638 463–3 818 1 476 671–2 624 700 Sulphur mg/day 24.8 271–1 596 743 374–1 294 Iron mg/day 11.4 3.3–26.7 10.1 4.9–19.0 Manganese mg/day 6.0 1.2–20.5 4.9 1.8–10.4 Zink mg/day 12.5 3.6–27.7 11.5 5.8–20.3 9 Copper μg/day 1 320 388.4–3 159 1 187 599–2 207 Molybdenium μg/day 103 34.4–217 87.2 32.8–154 Cobolt μg/day 15.8 5.0–37.8 13.4 6.6–31.9 Nickel μg/day 142 42.1–735 122 39.1–357 Chromium μg/day 27.4 7.3–62.2 23.5 9.0–59.1 Fluorine μg/day 369 129–741 386 174–777 Iodine μg/day 229.3 52.8–621.0 210 94.2–414 175 Selenium μg/day 68.7 24.0–136.5 68.2 34.4–124 55 Arsenic μg/day 30.5 9.2–98.2 28.7 9.2–222 Strontium mg/day 1.6 0.4-4.5 1.4 0.7–2.5 Aluminium mg/day 4.7 1.4–10.3 4.3 2.3–7.8 Mercury μg/day 4.4 0.9–14.5 3.7 0.9–16.4 Cadmium μg/day 11.9 3.6–33.9 10.4 4.5–19.1 Lead μg/day 58.8 14.6–135.7 48.3 20.4–118

In Finland, the recommended daily intake of potassium for expecting mothers is 3 100 mg. The calculated average intakes (3 928 mg and 3 178 mg) exceeded the recommendation. The intake of potassium was below the recommendations with 28 % (frequency questionnaire) and 50 % (food diary) of expecting mothers. In Finland, the recommended daily intake of calcium from the diet during pregnancy is 900 mg. The average intakes of calcium (1 252 mg and 1 167 mg) were, on average, adequate. 32 % (frequency questionnaire) and 22 % (food diary) of the expecting mothers took in less calcium from their diet than the recommendation. The recommended intake of magnesium is 280 mg in Finland. The average intakes (354 mg and 309 mg) exceeded the recommendation, thus, the intake of magnesium was sufficient. 26 % (frequency method) and 39 % (food diary) of the expecting mothers took in less magnesium per day than the recommendation. The recommended intake of phosphorus during pregnancy is 700 mg per day in Finland. The average intake of phosphorus was adequate (1 638 mg and 1 476 mg). Estimated with the frequency questionnaire, 3 % of the expecting mothers took in less phosphorus than the recommendation, where as estimated with the food diary, only 1 % of the mothers had the Saame. The recommended intake of iron for women is 12–18 mg/day in Finland. However, for some individual women 18 mg of iron is not enough. According to the State Nutrition Committee, it is necessary to include an iron supplement during the last two trimesters according to the instructions provided by the prenatal care, because the normal iron content of food is not enough to compensate for the

increased need of iron caused by the pregnancy. In this study, the iron intake of the ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 70 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 expecting mothers was 11.4 mg and 10.1 mg per day, which is very low compared with the recommendation. According to the frequency questionnaire, 57 % of the expecting mothers, and according to the food diary, 75 % of the mothers took in less than 12 mg of iron. 40 per cent of the participants in the study were using iron supplements according to the food diary. The highest allowed daily intake of 60 mg was not exceeded by any of the participants in their diet. The recommended intake of iodine during pregnancy is 175 μg/day in Fin- land. In this study, the average intake of iodine (229 μg and 210 μg) exceeded the recommendation. Estimated with the frequency questionnaire, 28 % of the expecting mothers, and estimated with the food diary, 31 % of the mothers took in less iodine than the recommendation. The highest allowed intake of 1 000 μg was not exceeded by any of the participants in the study. As a conclusion, it can be stated that the intake of the following minerals and trace elements, that is, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iodine was sufficient on average. The intake of natrium (salt) was excessive, and the intake of iron was inadequate.

Comparisons to the Results in the Literature

The diet of Finnish adults (the Finnish National Public Health Institute: FINDIET 1997, which does not include Lapland) includes on average too much protein and fat and too little carbohydrates and fibre. The intake of vitamins and minerals is on average according to the recommendations, except with women the intake of vitamin D and iron is below the recommendations, and the intake of salt (natrium) for both sexes is excessive. Thus, the diet of the expecting Lappish mothers does not essentially deviate, on average, from the general Finnish diet concerning the intake of nutrients. The university hospitals of Tampere and Oulu are conducting a DIPP study (Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study) on the dietary habits and the intake of nutrients of 118 Oulu women during pregnancy, the results of which were similar to this study on Lapland (Erkkola et al. 2001). Concerning the diet of the expecting Oulu mothers, the intake of fats was 33 %, protein 15 %, and carbohydrates 52 % from the total energy intake. The intake of fiber was low and high concerning sugar. The intake of necessary fatty acids was lower than the recommendations as with folic acid, vitamin D, and iron. The Saami living in northern Norway in the traditional reindeer herding areas (n=75) have been studied for their use of foodstuffs and their nutrient intake through dietary questionnaires and compared the results to a group of Norwegians (n=65) (Nilsen et al. 1999). The intake of nutrients in the Saami diet was otherwise adequate except for folic acid. The intake of calcium and iron for women was slightly under the recommendation. The Saami used more meat, fat, table sugar, and coffee in their diet, whereas, they used less fruit and vegetables than other Norwegians.

3.5 The Use of Foodstuffs According to the dietary questionnaire, 85 % of the participating mothers included reindeer in their diet, 46 % included elk, 91 % beef, 89 % pork, 93 % chicken, and 97 % fish. One third (33 %) of the participants included game and water fowl in their diet and 7 % rabbit. A great deal of the participants included beef and pork in their diet, however, those including a lot of reindeer or elk in their diet, did not include a lot of beef or pork. Fish and chicken were very popular among the participants. Only two of the mothers announced that they did not include fish in their diet. Most commonly, the participants included salmon fish, fish of the Coregonus genus, vendace, frozen pollock, Baltic herring, and tuna in their diet. Fish rarely included

were burbot, perch, and pike. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 71 In this study, 18 individuals included reindeer liver monthly in their diet according to the dietary survey, however, elk liver was included by only one individual once a month. Reindeer kidneys were included by one person monthly. Wood grouse and black grouse were included in their monthly diet by eight individuals, willow grouse was included by 18 individuals. Four individuals reported including water fowl in their monthly diet and other game was included by five individuals. None of the participants in the study included the foodstuff mentioned before on a weekly basis.

3.6 The Use of Vitamin and Mineral Supplements In addition to the use of medication, the dietary questionnaire included the use of vitamin and trace element supplements. 94 of the participants in the study (64 % of those participating in the questionnaire) reported using vitamin or mineral supplements. The most common supplement was an iron supplement (used by 59 individuals), but also calcium supplements (by 22 individuals), folic acid supplements (by 15 individuals) and multivitamin supplements (by 21 individuals) were being used. In addition, some individuals were using a single vitamin supplement (D, A+E, E, B, C) or a single mineral supplement (zinc, fluorine).

3.7 Discussion The results of the dietary questionnaire and food diary have been compared at the rehabilitation centre of the Finnish Social Insurance Institution in a nutritional study (Vuorinen et al 2001). The results show that the information obtained with the rather narrow questionnaire on the use of foodstuffs correspond rather well to the information obtained with the food diary. In this study, there was no great difference between the results obtained with the frequency questionnaire and the food diary tested with a variance analysis. A difference (p<0,01) was found in the intake of fats, sucrose, and fiber as well as among vitamins in the intake of retinol equivalents, carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, folic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin, and vitamin C. A difference between the methods was found in the intake of other minerals and trace elements expect for natrium, calcium, fluorine, selenium, arsenic, aluminium, and mercury. The food diary method gave a higher average intake for energy, fat and fatty acids, cholesterol, sucrose, retinol, vitamins D, E and B12 as well as fluorine. These differences can largely be explained by the fact that the frequency questionnaire did not include much information on the use of snacks such has potato chips, cookies, sweets, etc. However, it makes no difference if the frequency questionnaire over- or un- derestimates the intake of a nutrient for all of the participants by comparison to the food diary, if those studied are in the right order (Aro et al. 1993). The dietary questionnaire did not have a separate section for cheese. The public health nurses usually requested the mother to fill in the consumption of cheese at the end of the form, but not all of the mothers may have recorded this information. In the section concerning fats, only spreads used on bread were included in the section. However, the answers also included the use of vegetable oil to which many of the mothers had apparently included the use of fat or oil in cooking. The calculated intake of fat (56.2 g/day) according to the questionnaires was lower than according to the food diaries (70.4 g/day). The dietary questionnaire was rather extensive and time-consuming, thus, towards the end of the questionnaire, the

participants may have grown tired of filling in the information. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 72 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Table 21. The average intakes of contaminants and nutrients estimated with the frequency questionnaire and the Food diary, standard deviation (sd) and range among expecting Lappish mothers per day (the number of expecting mothers 124).

Foodstuff Unit Mean SD Range Mean SD Range

Energy kJ 7 184 2 260 2 928–13 596 7 490 1 760 3 272–13 861 Water g 2 887 892 1 250–6 011 1 879 570 936–4 082 Protein g 76.5 26.3 29.0–147.9 72.1 17.4 33.6–125.4 Fat g 57.0 20.3 15.2–119.1 70.6 20.2 22.8–131.6 Saturated F.A. g 24.5 9.6 5.7–53.9 31.78 9.68 9.2–62.4 Monoethenoids g 18.2 6.7 4.6–37.5 21.7 6.8 7.4–46.3 Polyethenoids g 8.0 3.2 2.1–18.0 9.1 3.5 3.0–21.5 Linolic acid g 3.8 1.6 1.0–9.6 4.2 1.7 1.4–11.2 Linoleic acid g 0.7 0.2 0.2–1.4 0.6 0.3 0.2–2.2 Cholesterol mg 214 81 60–436 243 82 82–532 P/S-correlation 0.34 0.11 0.14–0.70 0.29 0.08 0.08–0.52 Carbohydrates g 217 76 78–414 210 53 100–428 Saccharose g 28 17 3.2–112 38 17 9.5–82 Fibers g 26 12 7.0–61 19 6.5 7.7–36 Alcohol g 0.43 1.10 0.0–6.5 0.35 0.81 0.0–4.9 Retinol equivalent μg 1 134 816 2 13–4 905 885 584 239–3 664 Retinol μg 450 529 26.5–4 334 521 514 97.9–3 447 Carotene μg 3 974 3 549 420–26 628 2 081 1 699 213–11 459 Vitamin-D μg 3.8 1.9 0.4–10.9 3.8 2.10 0.9–14.4 Vitamin-E mg 7.3 2.8 2.1–17.0 7.4 2.72 2.8–16.5 Thiamin B1 mg 1.5 0.5 0.5–2.8 1.2 0.32 0.5–2.5 Riboflavin B2 mg 2.2 0.9 0.6–4.7 2.0 0.61 0.7–4.3 Niacin equivalent mg 27.5 9.2 11.1–52.3 26.4 6.07 13.6–45.1 Niacin mg 13.7 5.3 4.0–30.1 13.1 3.35 6.3–22.7 Pyridoxine B6 mg 2.24 0.85 0.9–5.6 1.7 0.42 0.7–3.1 Cobalamine B12 μg 5.53 3.3 0.8–23.3 5.3 2.13 1.7–12.5 Folic acid μg 316 120 115–741 263 72.12 116– 477 Pantothenic acid mg 6.36 2.2 2.2–12.1 5.2 1.30 2.4–10.3 Biotin μg 40 14.9 9.8–86.2 33.1 8.82 13.8–61.5 C-vitamin mg 193 114 20.3–585 115 65.16 18.2–330 Natrium mg 2 946 991 886–6 559 2 843 749 1 314–4 632 Potassium mg 3 976 1 504 1 455–9 172 3 183 783 1 669–5 693 Calcium mg 1 241 596 185–3 280 1 170 375 442–2 309 Magnesium mg 3 58 130 125–793 310 80 160–563 Phosphorus mg 1 640 587 528–3 431 1 481 383 671–2 624 Iron mg 11.5 4.5 3.3 - 26.7 10.1 2.9 4.9–19.0 Manganese mg 6.0 3.0 1.2–20.0 5.0 1.9 1.8–10.4 Zink mg 12.6 4.5 3.6–27.7 11.5 3 5.8–20.3 Copper μg 1 349 537 388–3 159 1 191 338 599–2 207 Nickel μg 146 97 43–735 122 52 39.1–357 Chromium μg 27.5 10.8 7.3–62.2 23.5 7.1 8.9–59.1 Fluorine μg 373 124 140–741 386 110 174–777 Iodine μg 228 88.7 76.1–526 211 58.3 94.2–414 Selenium μg 69.0 23.2 29–137 68.4 16.8 34.4–124 Arsenic μg 31.2 15.0 9.2–98.2 28.9 21.7 9.2–222 Aluminium mg 4.7 1.8 1.4–10.3 4.3 1.2 2.3–7.8 Mercury μg 4.5 2.7 0.9–14.5 3.7 2.9 0.9–16.4 Cadmium μg 12.2 5.1 3.6–33.9 10.4 3.0 4.5–19.1

Lead μg 59.3 24.2 14.6–136 48.3 15.7 20.4–118 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 73 The results of the food diary represent the season of when the mother filled in the journal and it does not include seasonal variation. It would have been good to have at least two food diaries filled in by the same participant representing different seasons, however, the mothers experienced the food diary as time-consuming to fill in. Filling in the frequency questionnaire, the season currently at hand may have an effect on the answers as it is harder to remember the whole year. The participants of this study filled in dietary questionnaires and food diaries rather evenly at different seasons, however in the summer there were slightly less individuals to fill in the frequency questionnaire. 19 % filled in their food diary in the summer (May-August), 23 % in the fall (September-November), 27 % in the winter (December- February), and 30 % in the spring (March-May). 12 % filled in their frequency questionnaire in the summer, 23 % in the fall, 27 % in the winter, and 23 % in the spring. 13 % did not disclose when they had filled in the frequency questionnaire. So little was found out on the contaminant and nutrient levels of Lappish foodstuffs that the results were calculated using common Finnish levels (the levels in Nutrica®). Some of these levels are starting to be outdated information in places, for example, the information on mineral levels are from the 1970s. The amount of selenium in the fertilizer has changed in Finland in the 1990s. The supplements in flour has changed: adding thiamine in wheat flour was discontinued in 1996 and adding iron into baking flour was discontinued also in 1996. Nutrica® did not contain nutrient levels for the following foodstuffs: crow- berry (Empetrum nigrum, calculated with the information for blueberry), different mushrooms (calculated with the information for mixed mushrooms), reindeer and elk blood (calculated with porcine blood), reindeer and elk liver (calculated average with generic liver information), reindeer and elk kidneys (calculated average with generic kidneys information), reindeer heart (calculated with the information for bovine heart), reindeer fat (calculated with the information for bacon), as well as wood grouse, black grouse, duck and goose (calculated with the information for willow grouse). All of these factors may have had an effect on the results.

3.8 Conclusions and Recommendations There is no significant difference between the intake of nutrition for the expecting Lappish mothers and adults compared with the general Finnish intake. The intake of fat and especially hard fat and protein is high, whereas, the intake of carbohydrates and especially fiber is low. The intake of vitamin D and iron may be low for women. It is essential to attract attention to any problematic issues in the nutritional advisory during pregnancy, as well as for the mothers themselves, when the realization of the nutritional recommendations can still be achieved, that is, to pay attention to the quality and quantity of fat, on the reasonable intake of protein, as well as on the increase of carbohydrates through an increase of vegetables, fruit, berries, and whole grain products. In addition, it is useful to eliminate from the total nutrient intake the so-called ”unnecessary” sources of energy, including sweets, fatty snacks, and alcohol, because the need for energy during pregnancy will not increase significantly and because more nutrients are needed during pregnancy than normally. In addition, a sufficient intake of vitamin D in the winter and a sufficient intake of folic acid and iron should be paid attention to. Liver should be avoided in the diet during pregnancy in order to avoid an excessive intake of vitamin A and cadmium. The risk group for excessive vitamin A intake is those including liver dishes often in their

diet or mothers using supplements containing vitamin A. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 74 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 There are no studies on the dietary habits of Lappish children and adolescents, thus, there is no information on the dietary habits of the future generation in Lap- land. In the cohort 66 study concerning those born in 1966 (individuals of approximately 30 years-of-age), it was found that approximately 30 % of the women and approximately half of the men were overweight. According to the studies by the National Public Health Institute of Finland, the dietary habits of Lappish adults differs from the general Finnish diet in that it includes less vegetables than on average in Finland. In a study by the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority of Finland showed that less mushrooms are eaten in northern Finland, however, more berries, game, and reindeer meat are eaten than in the rest of the country. There is no information on the contaminant levels of individuals including plenty of game, fish, or reindeer and elk internal organs in their diet, and, for example, there is no information on the contaminant levels in water fowl. Individual choices on foodstuffs and how the food is processes have an effect on the the amount of contaminants in food, or in avoiding them altogether. A varying diet prevents a continuous exposure to the same contaminants, as well as secures a sufficient and varying intake of nutrients. The intake of pesticides from Finnish vegetables and fruit is lower by comparison to the intake from imported fruit. In order to avoid excessive intake of heavy metals, the vegetables and fruit should be peeled, and avoid using vegetables or berries grown near busy roads. In the Finnish diet, the intake of too much fat and salt are a bigger risk than the intake of contaminants (Mykkänen 2001). According to the plate model in the dietary recommendations, the intake of vegetables is recommended as half a plate, thus, as high. Preferably each meal should contain something from the vegetable group. Due to an increase in the use of vegetables, the intake of vitamins (for example, folic acid), minerals and trace elements as well as fiber has increased. Vegetables contain little energy nutrients, thus, they are considered ”light”. According to the study by the Finnish National Public Health Institute, the use of vegetables in Lapland is lower than in the rest of the country, which may be affected by the poorer availability and quality of vegetables, as well as a higher price in thinly populated areas. It is a good idea to use seasonal and cheaper vegetables and basic Finnish vegetables such as potato, onion, cabbage, carrots, turnip and rutabaga. In addition, a wide variety of frozen vegetables can be found in the frozen goods sections. The berry-rich lands and marshlands of Lapland should be taken advantage of more. Berries contain plenty of vitamins, minerals, and trace elements as well as fiber, and provide colour and flavour to different dishes. The younger generations should be introduced to berry-picking. According to the guide book by the National Food Agency of Finland (2002), the communal authorities should be aware of the cadmium levels of berries and mushrooms in the area. If the levels are higher than normal (for example over 0.3 mg/kg), the contamination should be decreased, and, thus, the local inhabitants should be informed. Mushrooms in Lapland have been traditionally considered as reindeer food, however, they are a good addition to the human diet as well and their use has increased. Mushrooms safe for human consumption contain plenty of minerals and trace elements. Agarius bisporus, Leccinun aurantiacum/versipelle, and Rozites caperatus enrich cadmium, thus, they should be consumed rarely. Collecting mushrooms should be avoided in contaminated areas where the heavy metal levels of mushrooms can be several times higher than in the background areas. The use of mushrooms can be limited for some individuals due to the mushrooms’ poor digestibility

and they may cause flatulency. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 75 Whole grain products should be primarily used and avoid using products made with white flour. Thus, macaroni and rice sometimes substituting potatoes should also be whole grain products. Whole grain products contain more vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Concerning milk products, low fat products should be favoured in order to avoid the intake of hard saturated fat. Soft fats (margarine and vegetable oil) can be used in preparing food, as a spread, and in baking, however, with certain restrictions. According to the statistics by the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, the consumption of fish in Finland has remained much the same during the past decades. Calculated as fillet weight, Finns consume fish approximately 13– 14 kg (approximately 30 kg of whole fish) per person annually, half of which fish is domestic and half imported. Internationally compared, Finns are consumers of fish: compared between the EU countries, Finland is the third biggest consumer of fish after Spain and Portugal. Compared with other countries, Iceland, Japan, and Nor- way exceed the Finnish levels. The most popular species of fish consumed in Fin- land are rainbow trout, Baltic herring, and farmed Norwegian salmon. Between these species, the popularity of Baltic herring is decreasing and is being replaced by pike-perch, perch, and vendace. Only one fourth of Finns includes fish in the diet according to the recommendations, which is at least twice a week. Most Finns include fish at the most only once a week or a couple of times a month, women slightly more often than men. Fish covers approximately 60 % of the daily vitamin D intake, and in addition it is a significant source of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin B12, and selenium (Kara et al. 2001). When the consumption of fish is varied, including freshwater and saltwater fish, farmed fish and ocean fish, the exposure to mercury and the intake of dioxins can be decreased. In Finland, the consumption of fish nor breastfeeding does not need to be decreased due to environmental toxins (Vartiainen 2001). However, adolescents should avoid monotonous consumption of Baltic Sea fish, because the dioxin and PCB levels accumulate in the body in the course of the years. Reindeer meat is rather lean, 4.5 g of fat/100 g of unprocessed reindeer meat (the Fineli® Finnish Food Composition Database of the National Public Health Institute) compared with beef (7.2 g/100g) or pork (15.2 g/100 g). The breast filled of chicken as well as, elk and rabbit meat contain even less fat. Reindeer meat contains high levels of minerals and trace elements, especially selenium (30 μg/100 g) and iron (6.7 mg/100 g) compared with other meats commonly used in Finland. Forest fowl meat also contains high levels of minerals and trace elements, and is lean. Thus, reindeer meat is a good addition to the diet, however, reindeer liver should not as often due to the high cadmium levels (National Veterinary and Food Research

Institute of Finland 2000). ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 76 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 References

Aikio-Puoskari U and Pentikäinen M. The Language Rights of the Indigenous Saami in Fin- land -under Domestic and International Law. Th Northern Institute for Environmental and Minority Law. University of Lapland. Acta Juridica Lapponica 26. 2001. Aitio A, Luotamo M, Kiilunen M. (toim.) Kemikaalialtistumisen biomonitorointi. Työterveys- laitos. Painotalo MIKTOR: Helsinki, 1995. AMAP. Assessment report: Arctic Pollution Issues Arctic Monitoring and Assessment program. Oslo 1998:844 AMAP / HH Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program / Human Health. Second report. 2003. Alajeesiö L. Tekoaltaiden kalojen elohopeapitoisuus. Elintarvike ja terveys 5/1995 Alftan G, Männistö S, Valsta L, Pietinen P. Naisten altistuminen ravinnon elohopealle Suomes- sa. Elintarvikeviraston tutkimuksia 1/1994 Alfthan G. Kalan suurkuluttajien altistuminen kalan elohopealle Suomessa vuonna 1994. Kan- santerveyslaitos B9/1995. Aro A. Kliininen ravitsemus. Duodecim 1993 Ando M, Saito H, Wakisaka I. Transfer of polychlorine biphenyls (PCBs) to newborn infants through the placenta and mother’s milk. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1985;14:51-57. Bencko V. Arsenic. Kirjassa: Genotoxic and Carcinogenic Metals: Environmental and Occupational Occurrence and Exposure. Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology. Vol XI. Princeton Scientific Publishing co., inc. 1987. Bush B, Snow JT, Koblintz R. Polychlorobiphenyl (PCB) congeners, p,p’-DDE, and hexachlorobenzene in maternal and fetal cord blood from mothers in upstate New York. Arch Environ Toxicol 1984;13:517-527. Crondahl J, Mitchell P, Zenk A E and Walden S. Alaska Bureau of Vital Statistics 1998 Annual Report..Juneau 2000. Dewailly E, Nantel A, Bruneau S, Laliberte C, Ferron L, Gingeras S. Breast Milk Contamination by PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs in Arctic Quebec: A Preliminary Assessment. Chemosphere 1992;25:1-2. Dewailly E, Nantel A, Weber J-P, Meyer F. High levels of PCBs in breast milk of Inuit Women from Arctic Quebec. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1989. Elintarvikevirasto: Valvontaopas elintarvikkeiden ja talousveden kemiallisista vaaroista.2002 Eläimistä saatavien elintarvikkeiden vierasainetutkimukset 2000. Eläinlääkintä- ja elintarvike- laitos (EELA), Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö, elintarvike- ja terveysosasto (MMMELO) ja Elintarvikevirasto (EVI). Helsinki 2001 Erkkola M-L, Karppinen M, Knip M, Virtanen S. Raskaudenaikainen ravitsemus – kohtaavat- ko suositukset ja käytäntö? Duodecim 2001;2:149. Eurola M, Pääkkönen K, Varo P. Raskasmetallit sienissä. Elintarvikeviraston julkaisuja 7/1996 Eurola M. Raskasmetallit, kivennäis- ja hivenaineet ravinnossa. Suomalaisten elintarvikkeiden ja ravinnon ravitsemuksellinen laatu ja kemiallinen turvallisuus -kutsuseminaari 5.12.2001. Järjestäjät: MTT ja Finfood. Eyssen G E M, Ruedy J, Neims A. Methyl mercury exposure in Northern Quebec. II. Neurologic findings in children. Am J Epidemiol 1983;118:470-479. FAO/WHO. Trace elements in human nutrition and health. World Health Organization, Geneva.1996. Fein G G, Jacobson J. L, Jacobson S W, Schwartz P M, Dowler J K. Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls: Effects on birth size and gestational age. J Pediatrics 1984;105: 315-320. Filppa J. Paliskuntain yhdistyksen tilasto, Statistics of Reindeer Herders Association. July 2002. Finnish Cancer Registry : Statistics in Internet 2002: http://www.cancerregistry.fi/v98/ v980014.html Foldspang A, Hansen J C. Dietary intake of methylmercury as a correlate of gestational length and birth weight among newborns in Greenland. Amer J Epidemiol 1990;132:

310-317. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 77 Gissler M, Vuori E, Rasimus A ja Ritvanen A. Lisääntymistilastot 2000. Stakes Tilastoraportti 3/ 2002. Helsinki 2002. Grandjean P, Weihe P, Debes F, Steuerwald U, White R, Neurobehaviooral development up to 5.5 years after prenatal exposure to methylmercury and PCB. Twelfth conference of the International Society for Environmental Epidemiology. ISEE2000, August 19-23, 2000, No 79. Also in Epidemiology 11;2000. Grandjean P, Weihe P, White R F, Debes F, Araki S, Yokoyoama K, Murata K, Sörensen N, Dahl, R and Jörgensen P J. Cognitive Deficit in 7-year-old Children with Prenatal Exposure to Methylmercury. Neurotox Teratol 1997;6;417-428:1997. Grandjean P, Weihe P, White R F, Debes F, Araki S, Yokoyoama K, Murata K, Sörensen N, Dahl, R and Jörgensen P J. Cognitive Deficit in 7-year-old Children with Prenatal Exposure to Methylmercury. Neurotox Teratol 1997;6;417-428. Haapa E, Toponen T, Pietinen P, Räsänen L. Annoskuvakirja. Kansanterveyslaitos ja Helsingin yliopiston ravitsemustieteen laitos. 1985. National public health institute and dep. of clinical nutrition. University of Helsinki Hallikainen A, Mustaniemi A, Vartiainen T. Dioksiinien saanti ravinnosta. Elintarvikeviraston julkaisuja 1995;1 Hansen J C. Exposure to heavy metals (Hg, Se, Cd & Pb) in Greenland. A review of an Arctic environmental study. Aarhus 1988. Hansen J C, Jensen T G, Tarp U. Changes in blood mercury and lead levels in pregnant women in Greenland 1983-1988. Kirjassa: Proc 8th International Congress on Circumpolar Health, toim. Postl B D. ym. Whitehorse, Canada 1991: 605-607. Hansen J C, Kromann N, Wulf H C, Alboge K. Selenium and its interrelation with mercury in wholeblood and hair in an east Greenlandic population. Sci Total Environ 1984;38:33- 40. Hansen J C, Tarp U, Bohm J. Prenatal exposure to methyl mercury among Greenlandic Polar Inuits. Arch Environ Health 1990;45:355-358. Hasunen K, Kalavainen M, Keinonen H, Lagström H, Lyytikäinen A, Nurttila A, Peltola T. Lapsi, perhe ja ruoka ; Imeväis- ja leikki-ikäisten lasten, odottavien ja imettävien äitien ravitsemussuositus. Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriön julkaisuja 1997;7 Hasunen K, Möttönen H. Food consumption and intake of iron and potassium by Finnish Lapps in 1971 and 1976. Department of Radiochemistry, University of Helsinki, preliminary report (U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration Annual Report 76 No 89)/ International Microcard Series COO-3011-6. Hatakka T, Lahermo P, Tarvainen T. Pohjaveden laatu haja-asutusalueilla – valtakunnallisen kaivovesikartoituksen tuloksia. Ympäristö ja terveys 2001;4. Hietaniemi V. Organoklooripestisidijäämät ja PAH-yhdisteet elintarvikkeissa ja ravinnossa. Suomalaisten elintarvikkeiden ja ravinnon ravitsemuksellinen laatu ja kemiallinen turvallisuus - kutsuseminaari 5.12.2001. Järjestäjät: MTT ja Finfood. Hoppu U ja Isolauri E. Odottavat ja imettävät naiset – uusi ravitsemuksellinen riskiryhmä. Duodecim 2001;2:129. Hyvönen-Dabek N M, Nikkinen-Vilkki P, Dabek J T. Selenium and other elements in human material and umbilical serum, as determined simultaneously by proton-induced x-ray emission. Clin Chem 1984;4:529. IWGIA, Indigenous Peoples of the Soviet North. Document 67, Copenhagen 1990. International Committee. Report of the International Committee on Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man. Scan J Work Environ Health 1990;16:1-82. Johansen P. Heavy metals in marine mammals and heavy metal intake in humans in Green- land. Kirjassa: Proc 5th International Symposium on Circumpolar Health, toim. Har- vald B, Hart Hansen J P. Nordic Council for Arctic Medical Research Report Series 33, 1982. Jokelainen A. Diet of the Finnish Lapps and its Caesium-137 and potassium contents. Acta Agralia Fennica 103, Helsinki, 1965 Kacew S and Lock S. Toxicologic and Pharmacologic Principles in Pediatrics. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. New York 1988:1-15.

Kansanterveyslaitos. Finravinto 1997 -tutkimus. Kansanterveyslaitoksen julkaisuja B8/1998. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 78 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Kantola M, Purkunen R, Kröger P, Tooming A, Juravskaja J, Pasanen M, Saarikoski S, Vartiai- nen T. Accumulation of cadmium, zinc, and copper in maternal blood and developmental placental tissue: differences between Finland, Estonia, and St. Petersburg. Environmental Research Section A 83, 54-66, 2000. Kara R, Aro A. Kalan merkitys ruokavaliossa. Suomen lääkärilehti 2001;2:194-196. Kiilholma P, Gröönroos M, Liukko P, Pakarinen P, Hyörä H, Erkkola R. Maternal serum, copper and zink concentrations in normal and small-for-date pregnancies. Gynecol Obst Invest 1984;18:212. Kiilunen M. Occupational exposure to chromium and nichel in the 1980s in Finland. Science of the Total Environment 1997;199: 91-101. Kirjarinta L ja Eriksson A W. Preliminary studies on Diabetes mellitus in Finnish Lapps. Nordic Council Arct. Med. Res. Rep. 1976;15:41-47. Kiviranta H, Purkunen R, Vartiainen T. Levels and trends of PCDD/Fs and PCBs in Human Milk in Finland. Chemosphere 1999;38 (2):311-323 Kiviranta H, Vartiainen T. Dioksiinien ja PCB:n pitoisuudet lihassa ja näiden kokonaissaanti suomalaisesta ruokakorista. Suomalaisten elintarvikkeiden ja ravinnon laatu ja kemiallinen turvallisuus -kutsuseminaari, järjestäjät: MTT ja Finfood, 5.12.2001 Kjellström T, Kennedy P, Wallis S, Mantell C. Physical and mental development in children with prenatal exposure to mercury from fish. National Swedish Environmental Protection Board 1986. Report 3080. Koivistoinen P. Mineral element composition of Finnish foods.Acta Agric.Scand. 1980;suppl.22. Korhonen M, Miettinen V. Organoklooriyhdisteet Suomen vesistöjen kaloissa. Ympäristö ja terveys 1994;7-8. Korhonen M, Verta M, Backström V. Harmful substances. In; Kauppila & Bäck S (toim.) The state of Finnish coastal waters in the 1990s. TheFinnish Environment Institute, The Finnish Environment 472, Helsinki, 2001 Kuhnert P M, Kuhnert B R, erhard P, Brashear W T, Groh-Wargo S L, Webster S. The effect of smoking on placental and fetal zinc status. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;5:1241. Kumpulainen J. Lapissa tuotetun maidon, perunoiden, porkkanoiden ja kaalin C-vitamiini-, karoteeni- ja raskasmetallipitoisuudet. MTT:n lehdistötiedote 20.4.1993 Kumpulainen J, Tahvonen R in. Consultation of the European Co-operative Research Network on Trace Elements. FAO, Rome, 1989, Appendix VI, pp.1-30 Kumpulainen J, Tahvonen R. Hivenalkuaineet In. Vitamiinit ja hivenaineet suomalaisessa ravinnossa. Kansaneläkelaitoksen julkaisuja ML:97,Turku 1990:11-27 Kumpulainen J (toim.). Suomalaisten elintarvikkeiden kilpailukyky – turvallisuus ja ravitsemuksellinen laatu. Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy, Jyväskylä 1998 Kurttio P. Arsenic and fluoride in well waters- exposure and health effects. National Public Health Institute A12/1999, Kuopio, Finland 1999, (Thesis). Laine K, Lajunen L, Perämäki P, Pakonen T, Saari E, Havas P. Lehdistötiedote 17.6.1992 Laine K, Saari E, Kemppainen K, Pakonen T, Havas P, Lajunen L, Perämäki P, Paama L.: Lapin metsämarjojen raskasmetallipitoisuudet. Ympäristö ja terveys 1993;7-8. Lapin lääninhallitus, State Provincial Office of Lapland: VTT:n tutkimusselostus marjojen ja sienien raskasmetallipitoisuuksista.1989 Laurila T, Tuovinen J-P, Lättilä H. Lapin ilmansaasteet. Ilmatieteen laitos, Ilmanlaatuosasto. Helsinki, 1991. Lee A M, Huel G, Godin J, Hellier G, Sahuquillo J, Moreau T, Blot P. Inter-individual variation of selenium in material plasma, cord plasma and placenta. Science of Total Environ- ment 1995;159:119-127. Lodenius M ja Rantala M. Pohjois-Suomen asukkaiden elohopeakuormituksesta. Ympäristö ja terveys 1988; 1:24-26. Lodenius M and Seppänen A. Hair Mercury contents of fish eating habits of people living near man-made Lake. Chemosphere 1982;11;755-759. Lodenius M, Seppänen A and Herranen M. Accumuilation of mercury in fish and man from reservoirs in orthern Finland. Water, Air Soil Pollut 1983;19:237-246. Louekari K, Mukherjee A B, Verta M. Changes in human dietary intake of mercury in polluted areas in Finland between 1967 and 1990. Louekari K. Estimation of heavy metal intakes based on household survey. Näringforskning

1990;34:107-112. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 79 Louekari K, Mukherjee A B, Verta M. Changes in human dietary intake of mercury in polluted areas in Finland between 1967 and 1990. In: Watras CJ, Huckabee JW /Eds) Mercury Pollution, Integration and Synthesis. Lewis Publishers, 1994;705-711. Luoma P, Näyhä S, Pyy L, Korpela H, Sikkilä K, Hassi J. Altistuminen raskasmetalleille Lapissa. Duodecim 1994;110:487-492. Luotamo M. Assessment of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls. Väitöskirja. Helsinki, 1991. Luotamo M, Järvisalo J, Aitio A. Analysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in human serum. Environ Health Perspectives 1985;60:327-332. Marjanen H. Kivennäisaineiden ja vitamiinien merkityksestä. 1998 Markkula M-L, Rantavaara A. Consumption of mushrooms and other wild food products in Finland. Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety. 2001. Meriläinen J, Palomäki A, Witick A, Reinikainen P. Kemijärven 1900-luvun ympäristöhistoria. Ympäristöntutkimuskeskus. Jyväskylän yliopisto 1994 Melanen M, Ekqvist M, Mukherjee A B, Aunela Tapola L, Verta M, Salmikangas T. Raskasme- tallien päästöt ilmaan Suomessa 1990-luvulla. Suomen ympäristökeskus Suomen ym- päristö 329, 1999. Meyer M B, Jona B S, Tanascia J A. Perinatal events associated with maternal smoking during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 1976;103:464-476. Middaugh J P, Miller J, Dunway C E, Jenkerson S E, Kelly T, Ingle D, Perham K, Fridley D, Hlady W G, Hendrickson V. Causes of Death in Alaska 1950, 1980-1989. An analysis of the causes of death, years of potential life lost, and life expectancy. Section of Epidemiology, Division of Public Health and social services. State of Alaska. August 1991. Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Lehto J. Selenium addition to fertilizers effectively increased the serum levels of this element in the Finnish population. Journal of the American College of Nutrition1989; 8:588-590. Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Pyysalo H, Antervo K. Heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide and other chlordane compounds in Finnish plywood workers. Archives of Environmental Health 1991; 46: 340-346. Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Kantola M , Seppänen K, Soininen L, Koivusalo M. Trends in the concentrations of mercury and selenium in inhabitants of northeastern Finnish Lapland in 1982-1991; pilot study. Arct Med Res 1996;55: 83-91. Mussalo-Rauhamaa H. Residues of certain chlorinated and aromatic compounds in Finnish population groups. Commentationes Physico-Mathematicae et Chemico-Medicae 131/ 1991, Summary 128 p, (Thesis). Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Soininen L, Piepponen S, Lehto J, Koivusalo M. Selenium concentration in the serum of the inhabitants of northeast Finnish Lapland. Kirjassa:Symposium on the State of the Environmental Monitoring in Northern Fennoscandia and the Kola Peninsula, toim. Tikkanen E, Varmola M, Katermaa T. Arctic Centre Publications. Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi 1992:359-361. Mustaniemi A, Hallikainen A, Männistö, S. Elintarvikkeiden lyijypitoisuudet ja lyijyn saanti ravinnosta. Elintarvikeviraston tutkimuksia 1/1994. Mustaniemi A, Hallikainen A, Witick A. Elohopean saanti kalasta ja muusta ravinnosta. Elin- tarvikeviraston tutkimuksia 13/1994 Mykkänen H. Käsityksiä ruoan turvallisuudesta. Suomen lääkärilehti. 1999;11:1409-1411. Mykkänen H. Ravitsemukselliset riskit ja terveys -esitys Valtakunnallisilla ravitsemuspäivillä 16.10.2001. Mäkelä-Kurtto R. Viljelytoimenpiteiden vaikutus maan raskasmetallipitoisuuteen. Koetoimin- ta ja käytäntö 1987;44:67. Nickul E. Suomen saamelaiset 1962. Pro gradu tutkielma. Tilastotieteen laitos. Helsingin Yli- opisto. 1968. Niemi A, Venäläinen E-R, Hirvi T, Valtonen M. Heavy metals in muscle, liver and kidney from Finnish elk in 1980-81 and 1990. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.1993;50:834-841. Nilsen H, Utsi E, Bonaa KH. Dietary and nutrient intake of a Sami population living in traditional reindeer herding areas in north Norway: comparisons with a group of Norwegians. Int J Circumpolar Health 1999;58:120-33 Nummela O, Helakorpi S, Laatikainen T, Uutela A, Puska P. Terveyskäyttäytyminen ja tervey- dentila maakunnittain Suomessa 1978-1999. Kansanterveyslaitoksen julkaisuja B10/

2000. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 80 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Näyhä S, Hassi J, toim. Poronhoitajien elintavat, työ ja terveys. Kansaneläkelaitoksen julkaisuja, ML:127, 1993 Näyhä S, Hassi J, toim. Väestön terveys Oulussa. Oulun aluetyöterveyslaitoksen julkaisuja 6/1999.Oulu, 1999. Näyhä S, Korpela H, Pyy L, Hassi J. Effect of Soviet industry on blood cadmium in Finns. Lancet 1991; 338: 1593. Penttilä P, Siivinen K, Korkka L. Torjunta-aineiden saannin arvioiminen kasviksista ja viljasta. Elintarvikeviraston tutkimuksia 10/2000 Penttinen R, Kallio-Mannila K, Nikander A. Ravinnon tuotanto-olosuhteet ja turvallisuus- ympäristöongelmien vaikutukset Suomessa. Suomen ympäristökeskus, Suomen ympäristö 568, 2002. Porvari P. Vuotosseuranta 1998. Suomen ympäristökeskus. Porvari P. Verta M. Elohopea ja metyylielohopea tekoaltaissa ja Kemijoen vesistössä. Suomen ympäristö 175/1998 Pulkkinen P. Smoking and pregnancy, with a special reference to fetal growth and certain trace element distribution between mother, placenta, and fetus. Acta Univeritatis Tamperensis ser A vol 265. University of Tampere, Tampere 1989. Ph. D. thesis. Pyysalo H, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Wickström K. Neutraalien organokloori yhdisteiden pitoi- suuksien trendi Suomen luonnossa ja keräytyminen suomalaisväestön rasvakudokseen. Kemia-Kemi 1;1984: 22- 25. Pönkä A. Lead in the ambient air and blood of children in Helsinki. Science of Total Environment. 1998;219:1-5 Rantala L. Suullinen tiedonanto. Personal communication 2002. Revich B. A. Quality of air in industrial cities of the USSR and child health. Sci Total Environ 1992;119:121-132. Rintala R, Hirvi T, Venäläinen R. Poronlihan vierasaineet. Elintarvikeviraston julkaisuja. Tutki- muksia 5/1993 Rintala R, Hirvi T, Venäläinen E-R. Eläinlääkintä- ja elintarvikelaitoksen lehdistötiedote poro- jen ja kalojen vierasaineista 20.4.1993 Rintala R, Venäläinen E-R, Hirvi T. Heavy metals in muscle, liver and kidney from Finnish Reindeer in 1990-91 and 1991-92. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 54/1995 Roberts R J. Developmental aspects of clinical pharmacology. Julkaisussa: The Scientific Basis of Clinical Pharmacology, ed. R Spector. Boston, Little, Brown, 1986: 153-170. Roncevi N, Pavkov S, Galetin-Smith R, Vukanic T, Vojinovic M, Djordjevic M. Serum concentrations of organochlorine compounds during pregnancy and the newborn. Bull Envi- ron Contam Toxicol 1987;38:117-124. Ruhling Å, Brunelis G, Goltsova N, Kvietkus K, Kubin E, Liiv S, Magnusson S, Mäkinen A, Pilegaard K, Rasmussen L, Sander E, Steinnes E. Atmospheric heavy metal deposition in Northern Europe 1990. Nordisk Council of Ministers. Nord 1992:12. Saamelaiskäräjät, the Saami Parliament . Saamelaistilastot, Statistics 1999. Salonen J T, Seppänen K, Lakka T A, Salonen R and Kaplan G A. Mercury accumulation and accelerated progression of carotid atherosclerosis: a popultion-based prospective 4-year follow-up study in men in eastern Finland. Atherosclerosis 2000; 148:265-27. Soininen L, Järvinen S and Pukkala E. Cancer Incidence among Sami in Northern Finland 1979-1998. Int. J. Cancer 2002; 100: 342-346 Soininen L, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H and Vitikka R. Mercury concentrations in the blood of the pregnant women and in the cord blood of newborn in Finnish Lapland. AMAP Report 2000:1 abstr.no 39. State Provincial Office of Lapland, Lapin lääninhallitus: VTT:n tutkimusselostus marjojen ja sienien raskasmetallipitoisuuksista.1989 Suomen syöpärekisteri, Finnish Cancer Registry: Statistics in Internet 2002: http://www.cancerregistry.fi/v98/v980014.html Sörensen N, Murata K, Budtz-Jörgensen E, Weihe P and Grandjean P. Prenatal Methylmercury Exposure as a Cardiovascular Risk Factor at Seven Years of Age. Epidemiology 1999; 10: 370-375. Sörensen N, Murata K, Budtz-Jörgensen E, Weihe P and Grandjean P. Prenatal Methylmercury Exposure as a Cardiovascular Risk Factor at Seven Years of Age. Epidemiology 1999; 10: 370-375.

Tahvonen R. Lapin elintarvikkeiden kehityshanke. MTT 1993. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 81 Tahvonen R, Kumpulainen J. Lead and cadmium contents in pork, beef and chicken, and in pig and cow liver in Finland during 1991. Food Addit. Contam. 11/1994, pp. 415-426. Tahvonen R, Kumpulainen J. Lead and cadmium contents in milk, cheese and eggs on the Finnish market. Food Additives and Contaminants . 1995;12:789-798. Takeuchi T, Morikawa N, Matsumoto H and Shiraishi Y. A pathologic study of Minamata disease in Japan. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.) 1962;2:40-57. Tarp U, Hansen J C. Influence of diet on blood cadmium in Greenlanders. Kirjassa: Proc 8th International Congress on Circumpolar Health, toim. Postl B. D. ym. Whitehorse, Canada 1991:768-769. Taylor P R, Stelma J M, Lawrence C E. The relation of polychlorinated biphenyls to birth weight and gestational age in the offspring of occupationally exposed mothers. Am J Epidemiol 1989;129:395-406. Tuisku T. Nenetsien ankarat elämisen ehdot tundralla ja kylässä. Poronhoidon sopeutumis- strategiat ja delokalisoitumisprosessi Nenetsiassa. Acta Universitatis Lapponiensis 1999;23:157-171 Tuomisto J ja Vartiainen T. Dioksiinien kertyminen ravinnosta ihmisen rasvakudokseen: taustaa riskinarvioinnille. Ympäristö ja terveys 1994;7-8:44-48. Työterveyslaitos: Työryhmä: Erityisäitiysloma 1991 Valkonen S, Järvisalo J, Aitio A. Urinary arsenic in a Finnish population without occupational exposure to arsenic. Kirjassa: Trace-element - Analytical Chemistry in Medicine and Biology. Vol 2. Toim. Brätter B, Schramel P. Walter de Gruyter & Co, 1983. Valtion ravitsemusneuvottelukunta: Suomalaiset ravitsemussuositukset. Komiteanmietintö 1998:7. Vartiainen T. Uskaltaako kalaa enää syödä? -esitys Pro Kala ry:n seminaarissa 25.9.2001. Vartiainen T, Kiviranta H, Hallikainen A, Strandman T. Elintarvikkeiden orgaaniset ympäristö- myrkyt ja niiden siirtyminen ihmiseen. Duodecim 2001;1:91-97 Varo P, Koivistoinen P. Mineral element composition of Finnish foods. XII. General discussion and nutritional evaluation. Acta Agric. Skand. 1980;22:165-171 Venäläinen E-R, Niemi A, Hirvi T. Heavy metals in tissues of hares in Finland, 1980-82 and 1992-93. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1996;56:251-258 Vieltojärvi I-E. Enontekiöläisten leikki-ikäisten lasten äitien ruokatottumukset ja käsitykset ruoasta. Opinnäytetutkielma. Kuopion yliopisto. 1995. Vuori E, Huunan-Seppälä A, Kilpiö J, Salmela S. S. Biologically active metals in human tissues. II. The effect of age on the concentration of cadmium in aorta, heart, kidney, lung pancreas and skeletal muscle. Scand J Work Environ Health 1979:16-22. Vuori E. Raskasmetallien, kivennäis- ja hivenaineiden merkitys terveydelle. Suomalaisten elintarvikkeiden ja ravinnon ravitsemuksellinen laatu ja kemiallinen turvallisuus – kutsuseminaari 5.12.2001. Järjestäjät: MTT ja Finfood Vuorinen A, Hakala P, Järvinen R, Impivaara O: Ruokavaliokysely ja ruokapäiväkirja ravitse- mustutkimuksessa. Menetelmävertailu. Turku: Kela, Sosiaali- ja terveysturvan tutkimuksia 60, 2001 Westermarck T, Raunu P, Kirjarinta M, Lappalainen L. Selenium content of whole blood and serum in adults and children of different ages from different parts of Finland. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1977; 40:465-475. WHO. Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Terphenyls. Environmental Health Criteria 2. World Health Organization, Geneva 1976 WHO. World Health Organization. Recommended health based limits in occupational exposure to heavy metals. Report of a WHO Study Group. Tech. Rep. Ser. 647. WHO, Geneva, 1980. World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 101. Methylmercury. Geneva: Who 1990. Yakushiji T, Watanabe I, Kuwabara K, Tanaka R, Kashimoto T, Kunita N, Hara I. Rate of decrease and half-life of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the blood of mothers and their children occupationally exposed to PCBs. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol

1984;13:341-345. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 82 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 1/1 AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme NUMBER______Commune number - running number of the mother

THE FILLING DATE______

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND FOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire will be filled between 6. and 9. month of pregnancy ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 83 APPENDIX 1/2

(also vitamins and minerals) minerals) and vitamins (also (also vitamins and minerals) minerals) and vitamins (also

______

______4.2. SELF STARTED PHARMACEUTICALS: HAVEHAD YOU SPECIAL TO DESIRES FOODSTUFF ANY SOMETHING OR ELSE? WHICH? NAMES: PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE: YEAR: STARTING shampoo______present the of name The ______before used have you shampoo the of name The ______color hair own Your dye?______the of name the is what dyed, If ______color? new the is What substances______care hair Other before?______than gravidity during less smoke you Do PASSIVE SMOKING ______home? your in inside smoking are people many How ______day? per inside smoked are cigarettes many How INFORMATION6. NEEDED THE FOR OFHAIR ANALYSES SAMPLE: Fill and make checks checks make and Fill smoke not I do ) ( years I smoked_____ that before (date); ______smoking finished I have ) ( year_____. Starting I smoke. ) ( cigarette the of Mark day per Cigarettes per week Cigarettes PHYSICIAN: BY ORDERED DRUGS 4.1. YEAR: STARTING DOSAGE: MEDICINE: THE OF NAME THE ______4. DRUGS _ 5. SMOKING _

%, %, ___ Abortions (Which month?)

%, ______% Breast Breast feeding time (months) %, NORWEGIAN ___

Apgar- Apgar- points

YEARS

______%, FINNISH%, Birth Birth length cm ___ %, NORTHERN SAAMI SAAMI NORTHERN %, ______

______(date) Birth Birth weight/g

______

INARISAAMI INARISAAMI

Before time time Before delivery YEARS YEARS ______

______

______Normal Normal time delivery

GRAVIDITY 2. EMPLOYMENT: PRESENT 1.9. 1.3. AGE: TIME: AND PLACE BIRTH 1.2. BACKGROUND: BIRTH 1.5. OCCUPATION: PRESENT 1.8. 1.10.FORMER OCCUPATIOS AND JOBS AND THEIRDURATION: Occupation Job Duration of emloyment COMMUNE PRESENT IN LIVING OF TIME 1.6. OTHER, what OTHER, Ethnic group group Ethnic SAAMI SKOLT GRAVIDITIES: FORMER 2.2. Year TIME AND HABITATIONS LIVING FORMER 1.7. 1.1. NAME: ADDRESS: 1.4. the Diagnosis by M.D.: made 3.1. diagnosis: of Year 1.BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1.BACKGROUND ______1.11.INTERESTS TIME DELIVERY CALCULATED 2.1. DISEASES PRESENT 3. ______○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 84 ○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 1/3

a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d THE RIGHT RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE

MONTH MONTH MONTH

WEEK WEEK WEEK

DAY DAY DAY DAY

PICTURE HOW GLASES MANY RING PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING COMMENTS PICTURE HOW PIECES MANY RING COMMENTS COMMENTS

signify the number Milk and Sour milk products dairy Other Bred To be filled by the picture book

NUMBER NUMBER Milk of own cow - fat free - whole milk milk Ennabled - fatfree milk NUMBER - light mik(Blue) - whole milk (red) milk Sour jogurt 2 2 processed sour milk 2 2 cream 2 2 Alternatives 7-14 in the picture-book, ryebred barley 3 wheetbread(white) mixedbread 3 5 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. Food

7. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 85 APPENDIX 1/4

a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d f a b c d e a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d THE RIGHT RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE pcs

MONTH MONTH MONTH

WEEK WEEK WEEK

DAY DAY DAY DAY

HOW PIECES MANY COMMENTS

PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING COMMENTS ( in baking, in food preparing, on bread) Fats Fats Delicatessen Eggs mark number NUMBER NUMBER butter margarine vegetableoil mixed butter vegetable oil lightsmear,what? 15 Alternatives 16-25 in the picture-book, PICTURE Cheese HOW TIMES MANY 15 15 15 Meat 15 RING Sausage Finnishsausage Smallsausages eggs 74 COMMENTS 7.4. 7.5. 7.6.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 86 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 1/5 COMMENTS FROM FROM WHERE? PLACE STORE

a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c d e a b c a b c a b c THE RIGHT RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE

MONTH MONTH MONTH

WEEK WEEK WEEK

DAY DAY DAY DAY

PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING COMMENTS PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING FROM PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING COMMENTS GROWING BOUGHT (cooked) Porridge and gruels gruels and Porridge Vegetables pastaRice and mark the number NUMBER NUMBER Alternatives 26-27 in the picture-book, ruis ohra vehnä mikä? muu, NUMBER tomato cucumber lettuce carrots mushrooms potatoes (alternatives 48-51,mark) what? other, rice macaroni 32 33 34 89 36 53 52 7.7. 7.8. 7.9.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 87 APPENDIX 1/6 COMMENTS BOUGHT FROM AND PLACE STORE% TIME TIME

a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c THE RIGHT RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE

MONTH

WEEK

FALL WINTER FALL WINTER

DAY DAY

MER PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING CATCHING

THE FOOD (%) BY SEASONS SEASONS BY (%) FOOD THE Meat (prepared) NUMBER Alternatives 62-80,mark the number meat reideer venison other game, what? meat pork cattle meat, beef meat,what? other organs, innerwhat? hen ESTIMATION OFWAY THE OF PREPARIN Cooced Fryed Salted Dryed Smoked Raw Other? SPRING SUM 7.10.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 88 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 1/7 BYED FROM COMMENTS AND PLACE THESTORE TIME TIME

a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c THE RIGHT RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE MONTH

WEEK

Fall Winter Fall Winter DAY DAY

mer mer PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING CATCHING

BY SEASONS SEASONS BY Fish (prepared) Fish NUMBER Sum- Alternatives 81-88, mark the number trout whitefish vendace other salmon fish pike fish,what? other ESTIMATION OFWAY THE OF PREPARING THE FOOD (%), Spring cooced fried smoked salted WEIGHTTHE OFTHE FISH USED FOR FOOD (mostly used) choose the closest right alternative below 1 kg SPRING 1 - 2 kg SUMMER FALL over 2 kg WINTER kg 10 over 7.11.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 89 APPENDIX 1/8 DRILLED WELL GROUND WATER (mark the right alternative) % PLACE BOUGHT WATER WATER

a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c d a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c THE RIGHT RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE MONTH MONTH MONTH

WEEK WEEK WEEK

DAY DAY DAY DAY DAY

PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING PICTURE HOW TIMES MANY RING COMMENTS PICKING- STORE COMMENTS (Waterfor drinking and preparing coffee, thee etc) Fruits Berries Water NUMBER own well own 122 NUMBER NUMBER apple Orange Banana Grapes kiwi what? other, clodberry Straberry Blueberry berry cow 99 100 what? other, 102 number 104 number 105 communalpipeline 105 other water, what? 106 106 122 PICTURE 122 MONTAKO LASILLISTA RING SURFACE 7.12. 7.13. 7.14.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 90 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 1/9 ______

a b c a b c a b c a b c a b c c d a b c c d THE RIGHT RIGHT THE ALTERNATIVE MONTH

WEEK

DAY DAY

PICTURE NUMBER OF GLASES RING COMMENTS Other drinks drinks Other NUMBER juice lemonade beermade home beer vine spirit 122 123 121 124 125 126 7.15.

7.16. Spices ______7.18. Others, not mentioned here (especially those, which have grown near your living place)______○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 91 APPENDIX 2

Assessment Locality...... Program Puh -981-5376200 Blood samples from the mother

1. most important 2. 3.

I) tube II) tube III) tube (Cu, Zn, Se,lipids) (Cd, Hg, Pb ) (PCB:s, org.chlorines) take 7-10 ml blood into violet- take 7 ml blood into bluestopper take 10 ml blood into violet- stopper vacumtube vacumtube stopper vacumtube

turn around the tube 7-8 times turn around the tube 7-8 times turn around the tube 7-8 times

centrifuged 10 min. pour into a 7 ml plastic tube centrifuged 10 min.

move plasma carefully by pour- this is the plastic tube with move plasma with a clean ing into (5 ml ja 7 ml) plastic- whole blood - so it is red and pipette into a 5 ml glasbottle tubes there is more blood than in the other plastic tube .

1 ml 2 ml whole blood plasma keep frozen -20 oC keep frozen -20 oC keep frozen -20 oC - from these tubes will be ex- - from this tube will be exam- from this bottle will be exam- amined Cu, Zn, Se and lipids ined Cd, Hg and Pb ined PCB:s and organchlori- nes

All the same samples will be taken from the umbilical cord blood except cadmium. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 92 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 3

Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program Puh -981-5376200

THE URINE SAMPLING OF THE MOTHER

50 ml urine is taken directly to the container.

The urine sample is very suspectile for contamination and hence it should be taken in very clean environment. Before sampling the mother should avoid lerge amounts of fluids. Otherwise the urine might be very diluted. Freezed -20 °C.

Nickel, Ni and arsenic, As will be anlysed

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 93 APPENDIX 4

HOW TO TAKE THE URINE SAMPLE FROM THE NEWBORN

Just after delivery the ”uridome®” is placed around the uretra and it is hold there until the urine sample is there. The urine is moved from the uridome to the container and freezed

”Uridom” can stay on the skin at most some hours, so as not to the child get skin problems. A few mililiters of urine sample is enough if the sampling is difficoult.

Deepfreezed -20 °C.

Nickel (Ni) and Arsenic (As) are analysed.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 94 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 5/1

Contaminant levels in Lappish food

Utsjoki

Inari

Enontekiö

Kittilä Sodankylä Muonio Savukoski

Kolari Pelkosen- niemi Salla Pello Roi mlk Kemijärvi

Rova- Ylitornio niemi

Posio Tornio Tervola Ranua Keminmaa Simo Kemi

The names of the municipalities of Lapland ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 95 APPENDIX 5/2 Vegetables and berries

LEAD AND CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS OF POTATOES IN LAPLAND

District Lead Cadmium More information mg/kg mg/kg Simo, Tervola, Keminmaa 0.006 0.007 MTT: 1990 Simo, Tervola, Keminmaa, Ranua 0.004 0.005 MTT: 1991 Roi mlk, Posio, Ranua 0.006 0.006 MTT: 1990 Roi mlk, Posio, Kemijärvi, Salla 0.004 0.004 MTT: 1991 Kemijärvi 0.006 0.004 MTT: 1992 Salla, Savukoski 0.005 0.006 MTT: 1990 Pello, Kolari 0.005 0.005 MTT: 1990 Pello, Kolari, Kittilä, Muonio, 0.004 MTT: 1991 Enontekiö Pello, Muonio, Enontekiö 0.005 0.003 MTT: 1992 Sodankylä, Kittilä, 0.006 0.003 MTT: 1990 Pelkosenniemi Sodankylä, Inari, Utsjoki 0.003 0.002 MTT: 1991 0.006 0.002 MTT: 1992 Lapland 0.001–0.006 0.001–0.006 Range Puikula -potatoes 1990–1992 Whole Finland, ordinary potatoes 0.017 0.0086 Micro-Nutrica

LEAD AND CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS OF CARROTS IN LAPLAND

District Lead Cadmium More information mg/kg mg/kg Pello 0.004 0.004 MTT:1990 0.010 0.002 MTT:1991 0.004 0.002 MTT:1992 Keminmaa, Simo 0.004 0.019 MTT:1990 Keminmaa, Simo, Tervola 0.004 0.007 MTT:1991 Keminmaa, Simo, Tervola, Ranua 0.006 0.008 MTT:1992 Ylitornio, Roi mlk 0.005 0.015 MTT:1990 Kemijärvi, Sodankylä 0.006 0.007 MTT:1990 Kemijärvi, Roi mlk, Posio 0.005 0.009 MTT:1991 Kemijärvi, Roi mlk 0.006 0.010 MTT:1992 Sodankylä 0.007 0.006 MTT:1992 Finland, average 0.02 0.03 Micro-Nutrica MTT = Agrifood Research Finland

MERCURY, CADMIUM AND NICKEL CONCENTRATIONS OF BLUEBERRIES IN LAPLAND

District Mercury Cadmium Nickel Copper More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Salla < 0.01 < 0.002 0.05–0.08 State Provincial Office of Lapland 1989 Inari < 0.01 < 0.002 0.06 State Provincial Office of Lapland 1989 Northern Lapland 0.003 0.11 0.8 Laine et al. 1993 Finland, average 0.0005 0.003 0.10 0.78 Micro-Nutrica

○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 96 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 5/3

MERCURY, CADMIUM, NICKEL AND COPPER CONCENTRATIONS OF CLAUDBERRIES

District Mercury Cadmium Nickel Copper More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Utsjoki < 0.01 0.015 0.12 State Provincial Office of Lapland 1989 Salla < 0.01 0.037 0.12 State Provincial Office of Lapland 1989 Keminmaa 0.47–0.94 1.21–1.46 4.59–7.17 Laine et al. 1992 Simo 0.72–0.80 0.74–1.15 5.12–6.52 Laine et al. 1992 Ranua 0.39–0.66 < 0.03–1.21 3.21–5.54 Laine et al. 1992 Kemijärvi, South 0.43–0.59 1.38–1.49 6.63–7.78 Laine et al. 1992 Kemijärvi, North 0.13–0.20 1.08–1.11 2.31–4.72 Laine et al. 1992 Salla, South 0.17–0.20 0.98–1.17 4.59–5.41 Laine et al. 1992 Salla, North 0.15–0.19 1.63–2.13 2.73–4.26 Laine et al. 1992 Savukoski, South 0.12–0.25 1.03–1.74 < 2–3.39 Laine et al. 1992 Savukoski, North 0.19–0.22 < 0.03–0.67 3.23–5.25 Laine et al. 1992 Sodankylä 0.10–0.46 < 0.03–0.97 1.87–14.9 Laine et al. 1992 Tervola 0.26–0.33 1.41–1.45 3.19–3.27 Laine et al. 1992 Kittilä, South 0.13–0.20 0.44–0.58 1.19–1.96 Laine et al. 1992 Kittilä, North 0.14–0.27 1.81–2.01 4.67–6.90 Laine et al. 1992 Enontekiö 0.12–0.13 1.60–2.49 4.01–4.63 Laine et al. 1992 Käsivarsi < 0.01–0.10 1.71–12.4 1.45–6.00 Laine et al. 1992 Utsjoki < 0.01–0.08 0.75–1.53 5.18–6.21 Laine et al. 1992 Nuorgam 0.10 0.60–0.98 5.05–8.01 Laine et al. 1992 Sevetti 0.13–0.15 0.58–1.80 2.95–4.68 Laine et al. 1992 Inari kk < 0.01–0.27 2.85–3.07 1.75–2.12 Laine et al. 1992 Nellim 0.07–0.10 1.55–3.24 1.10–2.74 Laine et al. 1992 Saariselkä 0.05–0.09 0.64–0.86 2.28–2.59 Laine et al. 1992 Roi mlk 0.10–0.14 0.88–1.79 < 1.1–1.37 Laine et al. 1992 Finland, average 0.001 0.06 0.20 0.79 Micro-Nutrica

MERCURY, CADMIUM, NICKEL AND COPPER CONCENTRATIONS OF LINGONBERRIES

District Mercury Cadmium Nickel Copper More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Salla < 0.01 < 0.002 State Provincial Office of Lapland 1989 Ivalo < 0.01 < 0.002 State Provincial Office of Lapland 1989 Northern Finland 0.002 0.082 0.9 Laine et al. 1993 Finland, average 0.002 0.002 0.10 0.72 Micro-Nutrica

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 97 APPENDIX 5/4 Reindeer

MERCURY, LEAD, CADMIUM, COPPER AND NICKEL CONCENTRATIONS IN REINDEER MEAT

District Mercury Lead Cadmium Copper Nickel More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Kittilän mp < 0.005 A 0.01 A 0.003 A 1.83 A <0.01–0.01 A Rintala et al. 1993. Kuivasalmen pk < 0.005 V 0.01 V 0.001 V 1.92–1.96 V <0.01–0.01 V Samples 1990–1991 Itä-Kemijoen mp < 0.005 A 0.01 A 0.002 A 1.77 A <0.01–0.01 A Rintala et al. 1993. Isosydänmaan pk < 0.005 V 0.01 V 0.001 V 1.83–1.84 V <0.01–0.02 V Samples 1990–1991 Keminkylän mp < 0.005 A 0.01 A 0.003 A 1.63 A <0.01–0.01 A Rintala et al. 1993. Salla northern pk < 0.005 V 0.01 V 0.002 V 1.65–1.93 V <0.01–0.01 V Samples 1990–1991 Inarin mp 0.02 A 0.006 A 1.91 A 0.02 A Rintala et al. 1993. Hammastunturin pk 0.02 V 0.002 V 1.89 V 0.02 V Samples 1990–1991 Southern Lapland < 0.005 A 0.01 A 0.002 A 1.77 A 0.01 A Rintala et al.1995. < 0.005 V 0.01 V 0.001 V 1.84 V Samples 1990–1992 Western Lapland < 0.005 A 0.01 A 0.002 A 1.83 A 0.01 A Rintala et al.1995. < 0.005 V 0.01 V 0.001 V 1.96 V Samples 1990–1992 Eastern Lapland < 0.005 A 0.01 A 0.003 A 1.63 A 0.01 A Rintala et al.1995. < 0.005 V 0.01 V 0.002 V 1.93 V Samples 1990–1992 Northern Lapland 0.006 A 0.02 A 0.006 A 1.91 A 0.05 A Rintala et al.1995. 0.02 V 0.002 V 1.89 V Samples 1990–1992 Finland, average 0.019 0.04 0.005 3.8 0.02 Micro-Nutrica mp = merkkipiiri, marking district pk = paliskunta, reindeer herding districts A = Adult reindeer (> 2 years) V = Fawn

ORGANOCHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN REINDEER MEAT

District PCBt DDTt HCB More information mg/kg ( N) mg/kg (N) mg/kg (N) Kittilän mp <0.010 (1) <0.005 (18) A 0.013 (10) Rintala et al. 1993. Kuivasalmen pk 0.031 (19) 0.013 (2) A Samples 1990–1991 0.048 (5) <0.005 (4) V 0.026 (5) 0.007 (1) V Itä-Kemijoen mp <0.010 (2) <0.005 (15) A 0.006 (10) Rintala et al. 1993. Isosydänmaan pk 0.020 (18) 0.017 (5) A Samples 1990–1991 0.039 (5) <0.005 (4) V 0.015 (5) 0.006 (1) V Keminkylän mp 0.058 (20) <0.005 (11) A 0.012 (10) Rintala et al. 1993. Salla northern pk 0.012 (9) A Samples 1990–1991 0.064 (5) <0.005 (5) V 0.039 (5) (N = number of samples) mp = merkkipiiri, marking district pk = paliskunta, reindeer herding districts A = Adult reindeer V = Fawn

ORGANOCHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN REINDEER FAT

District SDDT PCB HCB More information Other organochlorine µg/kg µg/kg µg/kg pesticides Southern Lapland < 5 A 20 A 72 A Rintala et al. 1993. Lindane, Heptaclor and < 5 V 39 V 15 and 21 V Samples 1991–1993 Chlordane not found Western Lapland < 5 A 31 A 84 A Rintala et al. 1993. < 5 V 48 V 26 V Samples 1991–1993 Eastern Lapland < 5 A 58 A 30 A Rintala et al. 1993. < 5 V 64 and 23 V 16 V Samples 1991–1993 Northern Lapland < 5 V 19 V 23 V Rintala et al. 1993. Samples 1991–1993 A = Adult Reindeer

V = Fawn ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 98 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 5/5

CADMIUM, LEAD AND COPPER IN REINDEER LIVER

District Cadmium Lead Copper More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Southern Lapland 0.402 A 0.16 A 55.2 A Rintala et al. 1995 0.19 V 0.13 V 53.5 V Western Lapland 0.758 A 0.36 A 29.7 A Rintala et al. 1995 0.233 V 0.17 V 29.2 V Eastern Lapland 0.958 A 0.37 A 71.0 A Rintala et al. 1995 0.388 V 0.28 V 68.6 V Northern Lapland 0.546 A 0.43 A 67.7 A Rintala et al. 1995 0.31 V 0.36 V 82.2 V A = Adult reindeer V = Fawn

CADMIUM, LEAD, COPPER AND NICKEL IN REINDEER KIDNEY

District Cadmium Lead Copper Nickel More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Southern Lapland 1.72 A 0.27 A 5.41 A < 0.01 A Rintala et al. 1995, 0.538 V 0.22 V 5.0 V 0.01 V Samples 1990–1992 Western Lapland 4.62 A 0.28 A 4.75 A 0.03 A Rintala et al. 1995, 0.65 V 0.15 V 4.79 V 0.02 V Samples 1990–1992 Eastern Lapland 4.25 A 0.34 A 4.55 A 0.03 A Rintala et al. 1995, 0.938 V 0.2 V 4.27 V 0.02 V Samples 1990–1992 Northern Lapland 2.84 A 0.29 A 4.14 A Rintala et al. 1995, 1.03 V 0.18 V 4.02 V Samples 1990–1992 A = Adult reindeer V = Fawn

Cattle

LEAD AND CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN CATTLE MEET IN NORTHERN FINLAND

District (Slaughterhouse) Lead Cadmium More information mg/kg mg/kg Oulu (Lihavara Oy) 0.02 0.001 EELA 1995 0.01 0.001 EELA 1996 0.01 and 0.06 0.001 EELA 1997 Kemi (Velj.Rönkä) 0.01 0.002 EELA 1996 0.01 < 0.001 and 0.002 EELA 1997 Kuusamo (Kylmänen Food Oy) 0.01 0.001 Finland, average 0.02 0.005 Micro-Nutrica

LEAD AND CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN CATTLE LIVER IN NORTHERN FINLAND

District (Slaughterhouse) Lead Cadmium More information mg/kg mg/kg Oulu (Lihavara Oy) 0.07 0.022 EELA 1997 0.14 0.033 EELA 1997 Kemi (Velj. Rönkä) 0.06 0.033 EELA 1997 Kuusamo (Kylmänen Food Oy) 0.09 0.022 EELA 1997 Finland, average 0.03 0.12 Micro-Nutrica

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 99 APPENDIX 5/6

MERCURY, LEAD, CADMIUM AND ARSENIC CONCENTRATIONS OF CATTLE KIDNEY IN NORTHERN FINLAND

District (Slaughterhouse) Mercury Lead Cadmium Arsenic More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Oulu (Lihavara Oy) < 0.005 0.04 0.101 < 0.005 EELA 1994 0.04 0.376 0.018 EELA 1994 0.09 0.097 EELA 1996 0.04 0.086 EELA 1997 0.01 0.088 EELA 1997 Kemi (Velj. Rönkä) 0.06 0.172 EELA 1996 0.03 0.132 EELA 1996 0.04 0.029 EELA 1997 0.11 0.070 EELA 1997 0.04 0.127 EELA 1997 Kuusamo (Kylmänen Food 0.03 0.340 EELA 1997 Oy) 0.05 0.145 EELA 1997

ORGANOCHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN CATTLE FAT IN NORTHERN FINLAND

District (Slaughter- PCBt DDTt HCB Lindan Heptachlor More information house) μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg fat Oulu (Lihavara Oy) < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA 1995–1997 5 (1995) 5 (1997) Kemi (Velj. Rönkä) < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA 1996–1997 Kuusamo (Kylmänen < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA Food Oy) 1997 Detection limit for all compounds 5 μg/kg fat

Fish

MERCURY, LEAD AND CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN TROUT IN LAPLAND

District/Lake Mercury Lead Cadmium More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Lake 222 0.077 0.001 0.001 Mannio 1996 Nitsijärvi 0.17 0.001 0.001 Mannio 1996 Äälisjärvi 0.20 1.92 Liver, dw, Iivonen1992 Peltojärvi 0.06 muscle 0.17 0.56 Liver, dw, Iivonen 1992 Finland, average 0.1 0.06 0.005 Micro-Nutrica dw = dry weight

MERCURY, LEAD, CADMIUM AND SELENIUM IN ARCTIC CHARR IN LAPLAND

District/Lake Mercury Lead Cadmium Selenium More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Inari lake 222 0.12 ¤ 0.001 0.009 0.777 Mannio 1996 Inari/Nitsijärvi 0.32 ¤ 0.001 0.001 0.414 ¤ Mannio 1996 Enontekiö/Pahtajärvi 0.094 ¤ 0.003 0.006 0.735 Mannio 1996 Inari/Äälisjärvi 0.10 ¤ 0.25 + 0.1 1.23 + 0.68 Liver, dw, Iivonen et al. 1992 Inari/Peltojärvi 0.20 ¤ 0.30 + 0.15 0.53 + 0.15 Liver, dw, Iivonen et al. 1992 ¤ muscle

dw = dry weight ○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 100 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 5/7

ORGANOCHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN ARCTIC CHARR IN LAPLAND

District/Lake DDTs PCBs HCB Lindane Heptachlor Endrin Dieldrin More information µg/g µg/g µg/g µg/g µg/g ng/g ng/g

Pahtajärvi 2.11 1.01 0.99 2.57 0.55 0.15 < 0.1 Mannio 1996 Lake 222 1.4 1.71 2.5 3.03 0.35 0.1 0.1 * Mannio 1996 * Toxaphen not detected

MERCURY, LEAD, CADMIUM AND SELENIUM IN WHITEFISH IN LAPLAND

District/Lake, Basin, River Mercury Lead Cadmium Selenium More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Kemijärvi 0.058 Rintala R et al. 1993 Miekojärvi 0.135 Rintala R et al. 1993 Kemijoki 0.042 Rintala R et al. 1993 Porttipahta 0.180 Rintala R et al. 1993 Unarijärvi 0.037 Rintala R et al. 1993 Inari/Nitsijärvi 0.20 0.001 dw 0.001 dw 0.435 ¤ Amap-study Mannio 1996, ¤ Iivonen et al. 1992 Sodankylä/Vasikkajärvi 0.28 2.17 # dw 15.5 # dw Iivonen et al. 1992 Inari/Peltojärvi 0.06 0.10 # dw 1.05+0.27 # dw Iivonen et al. 1992 Kotakkojärvi 0.15 Porvari & Verta 1998 Ounasjoki/Meltaus-Patokoski 0.14 Porvari &Verta 1998 Lokka/Mutenia 0.08 Porvari &Verta 1998 Lokka/Jäkälämaa-Kotiselkä 0.12 Porvari &Verta 1998 Lokka/Kiimaselkä-Vuollosvaara 0.14 Porvari &Verta 1998 Porttipahta 0.16 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kitinen/Kokkosnivan patoallas 0.19 Porvari &Verta 1998 Pelkosenniemi 0.15 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijärvi /Kauhaselkä 0.13 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Kaisanlahti 0.15 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Jumiskonselkä 0.22 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Pirttikoski patoallas 0.23 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Valajaskoski patoallas 0.12 Porvari & Verta 1998 Vajukosken allas 0.21 Porvari 1998 Finland, average 0.13 0.07 0.005 0.37 Micro-Nutrica # = liver dw = dry weight

¤ muscle ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 101 APPENDIX 5/8

MERCURY, LEAD AND CADMIUM IN PERCH

District/Lake, Basin, River Mercury Lead Cadmium More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Kemijärvi 0.055 Rintala R et al. 1993 Kemijoki 0.081 Rintala R et al. 1993 Unarijärvi 0.239 Rintala R et al. 1993 Siiamojärvi 0.18 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kotakkojärvi 0.33 Porvari &Verta 1998 Säynäjäjärvi 0.06 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Serrikoski 0.21 Porvari &Verta 1998 Vuotosjoki 0.18 Porvari &Verta 1998 Ounasjoki/Meltaus-Patokoski 0.25 Porvari &Verta 1998 Lokka/Mutenia 0.50 Porvari &Verta 1998 Lokka/Jäkälämaa-Kotiselkä 0.13 Porvari &Verta 1998 Lokka/ Kiimaselkä-Vuollosvaara 0.23 Porvari &Verta 1998 Porttipahta 0.48 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kitinen/Kokkosnivan patoallas 0.29 Porvari &Verta 1998 Pelkosenniemi 0.20 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Kauhaselkä 0.29 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Kaisanlahti 0.20 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Lapinselkä 0.68 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Pirttikoski patoallas 0.19 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Valajaskosken patoa. 0.24 Porvari &Verta 1998 Kemijoki/ Isohaara patoallas 0.69 Porvari &Verta 1998 Sodankylä/Isoperälampi 0.47 + 0.06 0.55 + 0.04 Liver, dw, Iivonen et al. 1992 Finland, average 0.17 0.03 0.0025 Micro-Nutrica dw = dry weight

MERCURY IN BURBOT

District/Lake, Basin, River Mercury More information mg/kg Inari/Nitsijärvi 0.23 Porvari&Verta 1998 Vuotosjoki 0.16 Porvari&Verta 1998 Jaurujoki 0.21 Porvari&Verta 1998 Ylä-Kemijoki/Savukoski 0.28 Porvari&Verta 1998 Ounasjoki/Meltaus,Patokoski 0.72 Porvari&Verta 1998 Lokka 0.31 Porvari&Verta 1998 Lokka/Jäkälämaa-Kotiselkä 0.29 Porvari&Verta 1998 Lokka/Kiimaselkä-Vuollosvaara 0.26 Porvari&Verta 1998 Porttipahta 0.33 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kitinen/Kokkosnivan patoallas 0.65 Porvari&Verta 1998 0.32–0.72 Porvari 1998 Pelkosenniemi 0.35 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Kauhaselkä 0.36 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Lapinselkä 0.38 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Jumiskonselkä 0.52 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Pirttikoski patoallas 0.43 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Valajaskoski patoallas 0.32 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Isovaara patoallas 0.59 Porvari&Verta 1998 Kurkiaskan allas 0.17–0.46 Porvari 1998 Matarakosken allas 0.2–0.32 Porvari 1998 Kurittukosken allas 0.49–1.36 Porvari 1998 Lake 222 0.23 Mannio 1996 Finland, average 0.64 Micro-Nutrica

○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 102 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 5/9

ORGANOCHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN BURBOT IN LAPLAND

District/Lake PCBs DDTs HCB Mirex Toxaphen More information µg/kg µg/kg µg/kg µg/kg µg/kg Lake 222 - 2.8 11.3 - - Mannio 1996

MERCURY, LEAD AND CADMIUM IN PIKE IN LAPLAND

District/Lake, Basin, River Mercury Lead Cadmium More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Kemijärvi 0.282 Rintala R et al. 1993 Miekojärvi 0.170 Rintala R et al. 1993 Kemijoki 0.130 Rintala R et al. 1993 Porttipahta 0.294 Rintala R et al. 1993 Unarijärvi 0.194 Rintala R et al. 1993 Inari/Nitsijärvi 0.36 0.002 0.001 Mannio 1996, Selenium 0,307 mg/kg Roi mlk/Iso-Venejärvi 0.24 Iivonen et al. 1992 Siiamojärvi 0.40 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kotakkojärvi 0.84 Porvari & Verta 1998 Säynäjäjärvi 0.16 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Serrikoski 1.68 Porvari & Verta 1998 Vuotosjoki 0.42 Porvari & Verta 1998 Koutelonjoki 0.33 Porvari & Verta 1998 Ounasjoki/Meltaus-Patokoski 0.39 Porvari & Verta 1998 Lokka/Mutenia 0.41 Porvari & Verta 1998 Lokka/Jäkälämaa-Kotiselkä-Piettämä 0.30 Porvari & Verta 1998 Lokka/Kiimaselkä-Vuollosvaara 0.37 Porvari & Verta 1998 Porttipahta 0.46 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kitinen/Kokkosnivan patoallas 0.65 Porvari & Verta 1998 0.39–1.11 Porvari 1998 Pelkosenniemi 0.57 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Kauhaselkä 0.47 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Kaisanlahti 0.49 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Lapinselkä 0.43 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijärvi/Jumiskonselkä 0.55 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Pirttikoski patoallas 0.45 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Valajaskoski patoallas 0.51 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kemijoki/Isohaara patoallas 0.43 Porvari & Verta 1998 Kurkiaskan allas 0.31–0.39 Porvari 1998 Matarakosken allas 0.1–0.87 Porvari 1998 Vajukosken allas 0.23–1.06 Porvari 1998 Kurittukosken allas 0.44–0.63 Porvari 1998 Sodankylä/Venejärvi 0.05 0.03 + 0.01 Liver, dw, Iivonen et al. 1992 Lake 222 0.36 Mannio 1996 Iso Venejärvi 0.24 + 0.09 Iivonen et al. 1992 Finland, average 0.24 0.02 0.0025 Micro-Nutrica

dw = dry weight ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 103 APPENDIX 5/10 Milk

LEAD, CADMIUM AND ARSENIC IN MILK

Source Lead Cadmium Arsenic More information mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg Tank milk/Ranua dairy < 0.01 < 0.001 < 0.005 EELA, samples 1996 Tank milk/Valio Rovaniemi < 0.01 < 0.001 < 0.005 EELA, samples 1996 Low fat milk/Finlandi 0.01 0.002 0.005 Micro Nutrica

ORGANOCHLORINE CONCENTRATIONS IN MILK (all below detection limit)

Source PCBs DDTt HCB Lindan Heptachlor More information μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg μg/kg fat Tank milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1996–1997 Valio Rovaniemi Tank milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1996–1997 Valio Oulu Tank milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1997 Kainuu dairy Tank milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1996 Kuusamo dairy Farm milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1995 Kuusamo dairy Collected milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1995 Valio Oulu Collected milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1995 Valio Rovaniemi Pasteurized milk/ < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 < 5 EELA, samples 1996 Valio Oulu Detection limit for all compounds 5 μg/kg fat

○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 104 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 APPENDIX 5/11 Drinking Water

MERCURY, LEAD, CADMIUM, ARSENIC, ZINK, COPPER AND NICKEL CONCENTRATIONS IN WATER SOURCES IN AMAP-HH COMMUNES

District/Source of water Mercury Lead Cadmium Arsenic Zink Copper Nickel mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l Pelkosenniemi: 1) Kupittaja: 1996 < 0.001 < 0.005 < 0.002 < 0.005 <0.01 < 0.005 Inari: 1) Laanila:1998 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.005 < 0.01 < 0.02 2) Lutto: 1998 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.005 < 0.01 < 0.02 3) Törmänen:1998 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.005 < 0.01 < 0.02 4) Inarin village network: 1998 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.005 < 0.01 2.0 < 0.02 5) Korteranta: 1998 < 0.01 < 0.005 < 0.01 < 0.02 6) Alumavaara: 1998 < 0.01 < 0.005 < 0.01 < 0.02 Enontekiö: 1) Karesuvanto: 1992 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 2) Hetta waterplant: 1992 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 3) Kilpisjärvi waterplant: 1992 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.10 < 0.01 Nellim: surface water < 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 Salla: Vallovaara, surface water < 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 communal water plant: 1996 < 0.01 Sallatunturi waterplant: 1996 < 0.1 Kursun vok: 1996 < 0.1 Hautajärven vok: 1996 < 0.1 Salmivaaran vok: 1996 0.2 Aholanvaaran-Hirvasvaaran vok: 1996 0.3 Kemijärvi: 1) Kalliolampi: 1996 < 0.001 < 0.005 < 0.002 < 0.005 < 0.01 < 0.005 2) Kostamo: < 0.1 3) Kaisankangas: 1996 < 0.001 < 0.005 < 0.002 < 0.005 < 0.1 < 0.005 4) Vuostimo < 0.1 5) Räisälä < 0.1 6) Luusua: 1996 < 0.1 7) Lautasalmi: 1996 < 0.1 8) Lehtola: 1996 < 0.1 9) Soppela: 1996 < 0.1

Vok = Water cooperative society ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 105 Documentation page Publisher Date Lapland Regional Environment centre June 2005 Author(s) Leena Soininen, Helena Mussalo-Rauhamaa and Sari Hyvönen Title of publication AMAP Human Healt. Biomonitoring and Studying the Nutrition of Mothers and Newborn in the Finnish Lapland

Parts of publication/ other project The publication is also available in the Internet: publications http://www.environment.fi/publications Abstract The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP is one of the Arctic Council’s four environmental programmes. The task of AMAP is to monitor and assess the levels and effects of anthropogenic pollutants in all components of the Arctic environment, including the human population.

The population living in the Arctic areas is in many areas dependent on the ecosystem of their environment and its food chains.

The following studies of mothers blood and cord blood of the newborn in Northern- and Eastern Lapland were conducted: mercury, lead, cadmium, selenium, zinc, copper, 15 different polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PCB congeners), and 11 pesticides or persistent organic pollutants (POP) were measured. Arsenic and nickel were analysed from the maternal and newborn urine. The exposure to environmental pollutants was calculated by assessing the use of food stuffs of mothers.

The levels of toxic substances and calculated supply of them were low and no health risk was found. Some deficiencies in nourishment were found.

Keywords AMAP Human Health, arctic health, Saami, environmental toxicants, persistent organic pollutants, nutrition, Lappish food, Lapland

Publication series and number Regional Environmental Publications 389

Theme of publication Project name and number, if any

Financier/ Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Ministry of the Environment, State Provincial Office of commissioner Lapland, Ministry of Labor, Nordic Council for Arctic Medical Research Project organization

ISSN ISBN 1238-8610 952-11-2000-2 952-11-2001-0 (PDF) No. of pages Language 108 English Restrictions Price Public For sale at/ distributor

Financier of publication

Printing place and year Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy Saarijärvi, 2005 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 106 ○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Kuvailulehti Julkaisija Julkaisuaika Lapin ympäristökeskus Kesäkuu 2005 Tekijä(t) Leena Soininen, Helena Mussalo-Rauhamaa ja Sari Hyvönen Julkaisun nimi

AMAP Human Healt. Biomonitoring and Studying the Nutrition of Mothers and Newborn in the Finnish Lapland

Julkaisun osat/ Suomenkielinen julkaisu: AMAP ja Lapin ihminen. Lapin alueen äitien ja vastasyntyneiden muut saman projektin tuottamat julkaisut biomonitorointi ja ravitsemustutkimus (Lapin lääninhallituksen julkaisusarja 2002:8) Tiivistelmä Arktinen monitorointi ja arviointiohjelma, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP on yksi Arktisen neuvoston neljästä ympäristöohjelmasta. AMAP:n tarkoituksena on mitata ja arvioida ihmisen tuottamien saasteiden määrää arktisten alueiden luonnossa, mukaan lukien ihminen.

Arktisten alueiden väestö on riippuvainen ympäristön ekosysteemistä ja ravintoketjuista. Koska kehittyvä sikiö ja vastasyntynyt ovat herkin kohde ympäristösaasteiden vaikutuksille, päätettiin ottaa tutkimuksen kohteeksi odottavat äidit ja heidän vastasyntyneet lapsensa.

Pohjois- ja Itä-Lapin äideistä ja vastasyntyneistä lapsista tutkittiin veren elohopea-, lyijy- ja kadmiumpitoisuudet sekä hivenaineista seleeni, sinkki ja kupari. Rasvaliukoisista myrkyistä tutkittiin 15 eri polykloorattua bifenyyliyhdistettä eli PCB- kongeneeriä ja 11 eri pysyvää orgaa- nista ympäristömyrkkyä eli POP-yhdistettä. Virtsanäytteistä tutkittiin arseeni ja nikkeli, koska haluttiin tietää olisiko Murmanskin alueen saasteilla ollut vaikutusta ihmisiin. Lisäksi laskettiin äitien ravinnon käytön perusteella heidän altistumistaan näille ympäristömyrkyille ja arvioitiin heidän ravinnon saantiaan terveellisyyden kannalta.

Pitoisuudet olivat matalia sekä mitattuina että laskettuina. Terveysvaaraa ei ollut. Joitakin puutteita ravitsemuksessa havaittiin.

Asiasanat AMAP ihmisen terveys, arktinen terveys, saamelaiset, ympäristömyrkyt, POP-yhdisteet, ravitsemus, Lappi

Julkaisusarjan nimi ja numero Alueelliset ympäristöjulkaisut 389 Julkaisun teema Projektihankkeen nimi ja projektinumero

Rahoittaja/ toimeksiantaja Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö, Ympäristöministeriö, Lapin lääninhallitus, Lapin TE-keskus, Arktisen lääketieteen pohjoismainen sihteeristö, Oulun TE-keskus Projektiryhmään kuuluvat organisaatiot Ympäristöministeriö, Lapin lääninhallitus, Lapin ympäristökeskus

ISSN ISBN 1238-8610 952-11-2000-2, 952-11-2001-0 (PDF) Sivuja Kieli 108 Englanti Luottamuksellisuus Hinta Julkinen Julkaisun myynti/ jakaja

Julkaisun kustantaja Ympäristöministeriö

Painopaikka ja -aika Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy Saarijärvi, 2005 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 ○○○○○○○○○○○ 107 Sisdoallosiidu Almmustahtti Almmustahttináigi Lappi birasguovddáš geassemánnu 2005 Dahkki(t) Leena Soininen, Helena Mussalo-Rauhamaa ja Sari Hyvönen

Prentosa namma AMAP Human Healt. Biomonitoring and Studying the Nutrition of Mothers and Newborn in the Finn ish Lapland

Prentosa oasit / eará seammá Suomagielat preanttus: AMAP ja Lappi olmmoš. Lappi guovllu etniid ja njuoratmánáid pro³eavtta prentosat biomonitorointi ja biebmodilledutkan (Lappi leanará˜˜ehusa preanttusráidu 2002:8) ¡oahkkáigeassu Árktalaš monitorointi ja árvvoštallanprográmma, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP lea okta Árktalaš rá˜i njealji birasprográmmas. AMAP:a dárkku- hussan lea mihtidit ja árvvoštallat olbmo dagahan nuoskuma meari árktalaš guovlluid luonddus guoskkadin maiddái olbmo.

Árktalaš guovlluid olbmot leat gitta birrasa ekosysteemas ja biebmogollosis. Go šaddi ohki ja njuoratmánná leat hearkkimusat birrasa nuoskuma váikkuhusaide, šihttojuvvui, ahte dutkojuvvojit áhpehis nissonat ja sin easkkariegádan mánát. Davvi- ja Nuorta-Lappi etniin ja njuoratmánáin dutkojuvvojedje vara eallisilba-, ladjo- ja kadmiumdoalut ja maiddái vátneávdnasat seleena, si¹ka ja veaiki. Vudjiiluvvi mirkkuin dutkojuvvojedje 15 sierra polykloorejuvvon bifenyyliovttastusa, nuppiid sániiguin PCB- kongeneeri ja 11 eará bissovaš orgánalaš birasmirkko, nuppiid sániiguin POP-ovttastusa. Gu¿¿aiskosis dutkojuvvui arseena ja nihkkel, go háliiduvvui diehtit leatgo Murmánskka guovllu bázahusat váikkuhan olbmuide. Lassin rehkenastui etniid biepmu geavaheami vuo˜ul sin hearkivuohta dáid birasmirkkuide ja árvvoštallui sin borramuš dearvvasvuoã dáfus. Doalut ledje vuollegaèèat nu mihtidemiin go rehkenastimiin. Dearvvasvuoãvárra ii lean. Muhtin váilevuoãt biebmodilis fuopmášuvvojedje. Guovddá³á³³it AMAP olbmo dearvvasvuohta, árktalaš dearvvasvuohta, sápmelaèèat, birasmirkkot, POP-ovttastusat, biebmodilli, Lappi

Prentosa namma ja nummir Guovllu birasprentosat 389

Prentosa temá

Pro³eaktabarggu namma ja nummir

Ruhtadeaddji/ doaibmaaddi

Pro³eaktajovkui gulleva³ organisa³uvnnat Birasministeriija, Lappi leanará˜˜ehus, Lappi birasguovddáš ISSN ISBN 1238-8610 952-11-2000-2, 952-11-2001-0 (PDF) Siidut Giella 108 Suomagiella Luhtola³vuohta Haddi Almmolaš Prentosa vuovdin / juohkki

Prentosa goasttedeaddji Lappi birasguovddáš

Prentenbáiki ja áigi

Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy Saarijärvi, 2005 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 108 ○○○○ Regional Environmental Publications 389 Regional Environmental Publications Regional Environmental Publications

389 389 AMAP HumanHealth.BiomonitoringandStudyingtheNutrition ofMothersandNewbornintheFinnishLapland AMAP Human Health. Biomonitoring and Studying Leena Soininen, Helena Mussalo-Rauhamaa and Sari Hyvönen the Nutrition of Mothers and Newborn in the Finnish Lapland

The publication is also available in the Internet: http://www.environment.fi/publications

ISBN 952-11-2000-2 ISBN 952-11-2001-0 (PDF) ISSN 1238-8610