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Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research Volume 6 Number 3 September 2014 Volumeissn 2141 8 -Number2480 2 January, 2014 ISSN 1993-8233

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Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research Volume 6 Number 3 September 2014 Volumeissn 2141 8 -Number2480 2 January, 2014 ISSN 1993-8233 Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research Volume 6 Number 3 September 2014 VolumeISSN 2141 8 -Number2480 2 January, 2014 ISSN 1993-8233 ABOUT JPAPR The Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research (JPAPR) is published monthly (one volume per year) by Academic Journals. Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research (JPAPR) Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research (JPAPR) is a peer reviewed open access journal. The journal is published monthly and covers all areas of the subject such as political science, emergency preparedness, investment policy, industrial policy, tariff and trade etc. Contact Us Editorial Office: [email protected] Help Desk: [email protected] Website: http://www.academicjournals.org/journal/JPAPR Submit manuscript online http://ms.academicjournals.me/ Editors Dr. Assembe Mvondo Dr. Montanus C. Milanzi CIFOR Central Africa Regional Office Faculty of Public Administration and Management Forests and Governance Programme Mzumbe University Mzumbe, Yaoundé, Tanzania. Cameroon. Dr. Maitreyee Bardhan Roy Prof. Nilambar Jha Basanti Devi College School of Public Health and Community Medicine Kolkata, BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences India. Dharan, Nepal. Dr. Wellington Didibhuku Thwala Dr. Francis Odari Onditi Department of Construction Management University of Nairobi Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment University of Johannesburg Institute for Development Studies (IDS) Doornfontein, Kenya. South Africa. Dr. Zareen Abbassi Dr. P. Edward French Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Political Science & Public Department of Public Administration Administration University of Sindh Jamshoro, Mississippi, MS India. USA. Dr. Adi Salem Prof. Vijaya Kumar Babu Avadhanula Government Transformation and Technology Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Program Archaeology Dubai School of Government Osmania University Dubai, Hyderabad, India. UAE. Dr. Bogdan Glavan Dr. Jean-Claude Garcia-Zamor Department of Public Administration Romanian American University Florida International University Bucharest, Miami, FL Romania. USA. Dr. Manoj Subhash Kamat Dr. Gianluca Carlo Misuraca Faculty, Shree Damodar College of Commerce & Economics Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne - EPFL Goa University Lausanne, Switzerland. Comba, India. Dr. John W. Forje Department of Political Science Dr. Susana Aguilar Fernández University of Yaounde Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Sociología Yaounde, Departamento de Sociología I, Cambio Social Cameroon. Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) Madrid, Spain. Editorial Editorial Board Dr. Gbadebo Olusegun Abidemi Odularu Dr. Dan Zhao Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) Institute of Econimic Education Accra, School of Education Ghana. Huazhong Normal University Wuhan, Dr. Innocent Chirisa China. Department of Rural and Urban Planning University of Zimbabwe Dr. Seyyed Mousa Hosseini Harare, Young Researchers Club Zimbabwe. Islamic Azad University Iran. Prof. ir. C.J.A.M. (Katrien) Termeer Wageningen University and Research Centre Dr. Anup Shekhar Chakraborty Wageningen, Department of Political Science The Netherlands. St. Joseph's College Darjeeling, Dr. Korynne Taylor-Dunlop India. St. John’s University Center for Educational Leadership and Prof. S.K. Kataria Accountability Department of Public Administration Oakdale Mohanlal Sukhadia University UK. Udaipur, India. Dr. Jinlong Liu Renming University Dr. Rizwan Danish Beijing, Department of Business Administration China. University of the Punjab Gujranwala Dr. Olumide Agbaje Pakistan. School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology & Maxillofacial Surgery Dr. Carolyn M. Macola Katholieke Universiteit Leuven School of Legal Studies Leuven, Kaplan University Belgium. USA. Dr. Ravi Dhar Prof. Ferdous Jahan Patents & Technology Transfer Offices Department of Public Administration National Institute of Immunology, University of Dhaka New Delhi, Bangladesh. India. Dr. Yu-Kang Lee Department of Political Economy National Sun Yat-sen University Taiwan. (R.O.C.) Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research Table of Contents: Volume 6 Number 3 September 2014 ARTICLES Review Immunities and privileges of International Organizations and the international civil service 34 Ruwantissa Abeyratne Research Articles Public administration reform in Eritrea: Past trends and emerging challenges 44 GebreMichael Kibreab Habtom Vol. 6(3) pp. 34-43, September 2014 DOI: 10.5897/JPAPR2009.049 Article Number: 7B805ED47297 Journal of Public Administration and Policy ISSN 2141-2480 Copyright © 2014 Research Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/JPAPR Review Immunities and privileges of International Organizations and the international civil service Ruwantissa Abeyratne International Civil Aviation Organization, 999 University Street, Montreal H3C 5H7, Quebec-Canada. Received 29 September, 2009; Accepted 25 February 2010 A fundamental principle of public international law and the law of the international civil service bestows a certain degree of immunity and some privileges to members of the international civil service (those serving in the United Nations system). Therefore it follows that negligence of a member of the international civil service cannot be judged at the same level as that of a member of the public, particularly in relation to professional duties discharged. This is because the international civil service is granted immunity from liability for acts committed and opinions given in the course of their employment, provided such acts related to the performance of official duties. The special position occupied both by an international Organization of nations and its employees in the national courts is due to an explicit recognition of “rootlessness” and international character of both the Organization and its international civil service which, if brought into subjugation by national jurisdictions and legislation, would be rendered destitute of independence in their work for the international community. This article discusses the nature of international organizations and their staff, the types and degree of immunity they enjoy, the difficulties posed by the grant of such immunities and instances of waiver of such immunity. Key words: International civil service, international organizations, diplomatic immunity, waiver of diplomatic immunity, absolute immunity, qualified immunity, negligence. INTRODUCTION Negligence of professionals that gives rise to civil liability Organization in which the international civil servant is is grounded on principles of tort lawi . However, negli- employed is also granted immunity from interference by gence of a member of the international civil service (a local judicial bodies and local regulations with the work of person serving in the United Nations system) cannot be the diplomatic corps in a country as such would stultify judged at the same level as the international civil service their mission (Mendaro vs. World Bank, 1983). is granted immunity from liability for acts committed and The separation between the United Nations and its opinions given in the course of their employment, pro- professional staff has always been blurred due to the fact vided such acts related to the performance of official that the above principle can also be applied the other way duties. The natural extension to this principle is that the around, that is, in the context of legal rights and liabilities E-mail: [email protected]. Author agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License Abeyratne 35 of the international civil service, The immunity granted by distinction ends, as unlike the other categories mentioned; the host country to the Organization also applies to the they are accorded immunity from judicial process in staff. Therefore, when discussing professional negligence respect of professional duties performed. There is a line of the international civil service the relevance would rest drawn, however, precluding this category of employee with the concept of immunity rather than principles of from shielding himself absolutely from the law. The negligence. This article focusses on the reception of delicate balance between immunity and liability was members of the international civil service and specialized brought to bear in the 1976 decision of the Criminal Court agenciesii of the United Nations they serve, in particular of the City of New York in People v. Mark S. Weinerv their status as respondents in national courts. where the court held that, in an instance where a United The position of an international organization or an Nations security officer used undue force on the plaintiff, employee of such an organization as plaintiff or applicant immunity from suit would be so unconscionable that it in a national court does not entail much debate since they violated on its face the concepts of fundamental fairness usually have independent legal status as persons and and equal treatment of all persons who sought judicial can enter into contractsiii, enforce obligations entered into determination of a disputevi. In the early French case of with others and be sued in tort for negligence. However, Avenol v. Avenolvii involving the Secretary General of the as will be seen later in this article, not all international League of Nations who claimed diplomatic immunity from organizations nor their employees, possess independent a suit
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