The Story of an Unrealised Common Celebration
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Geolinguistic and Sociolinguistic Situation of Northern Samogitians of Kretinga: Dialectal Area, Use of the Dialect, Linguistic Attitudes
DALIA PAKALNIŠKIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Fields of research: history of Lithuanian language, Baltic linguistics, geolinguistics. JŪRATĖ LUBIENĖ Klaipėdos universitetas Fields of research: lexicology, dialectology, geolinguistics. GEOLINGUISTIC AND SOCIOLINGUISTIC SITUATION OF NORTHERN SAMOGITIANS OF KRETINGA: DIALECTAL AREA, USE OF THE DIALECT, LINGUISTIC ATTITUDES Šiaurės žemaičiai kretingiškiai geolingvistiniu ir sociolingvistiniu požiūriu: plotas, tarmės vartojimas, kalbinės nuostatos ANNOTATION The aim of this article is to highlight the parameters denoting the vitality level of lin- guistic and cultural identity of one dialectal community (namely, the Northern Samogi- tians of Kretinga) under the circumstances of increasing globalization and diglossia. In accordance with the theoretical concept of geolinguistics as a dynamic dialectology, the do- main classification proposed by Anton M. Hagen and the empirical material issues denoting sociocultural identity of the subdialect are presented. The vitality and sociocultural distinc- tion of the dialectal area is being sustained by various factors, three of which have the most important role: sufficiently developed infrastructure, dialect use and attitudes based on the value system of users of the dialect. Straipsniai / Articles 37 DALIA PAKALNIŠKIENĖ, JŪRATĖ LUBIENĖ KEYWORDS: Samogitian dialect, Northern Samogitians of Kretinga, stan- dard language, geolinguistics, sociolinguistics, domain, linguistic attitude. ANOTACIJA Straipsnyje svarstoma, ar įmanomas vienu dialektu kalbančios -
THE EXPERTS of LITHUANIAN in SERVICE of the RUSSIAN EMPIRE: DMITRIIKASHIRIN, ZAKHARIILYATSKII, and ANDRIUS POIDENAS Summary
Giedrius Subačius THE EXPERTS OF LITHUANIAN IN SERVICE OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE: DMITRIIKASHIRIN, ZAKHARIILYATSKII, AND ANDRIUS POIDENAS Summary From 1795 to 1914 the Russian Empire controlled Lithuania. It instilled a ban on Latin letters for Lithuanian texts that lasted for almost forty years (1865-1904). During that time almost sixty Lithuanian books in Cyrillic (i.e., Russian) letters were printed mostly by the initiative of the imperial administrators in Lithuania. Underground Lithuanian books and newspapers were printed in Latin script abroad and dispersed by knygnesiai (book carriers) and read illegally in Lithuania. At the same time, schools that had been teaching Lithuanian were also closed and so-called public "Russian schools" were introduced as a countermeasure to the spreading network of under ground private "home" schools, which taught Lithuanian in Latin script. The book The Experts of Lithuanian in Service of the Russian Empire: Dmitrii Kashirin, Zakharii Lyatskii, and Andrius Poidenas (Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2011) recounts linguistic biographies of the three experts who served the administra tion of the Vilnius Education District to prepare, edit, evaluate, review, and correct certain Lithuanian texts in Cyrillic. Most of the Lithuanian Cyrillic texts approved by the imperial administrators in the Vilnius Education District were distributed to the schools and the populace in the form of primers and public readings. In the rare cases of private initiatives to print Lithuanian books in Cyrillic alphabet (e.g., that of Juozapas Miliauskas), the experts were used by the administrators to criticize and to reject the unwelcome proposals. By and large this book deals with the life and work of Kashirin, Lyatskii, and Poidenas: the three experts producing and evaluating Lithuanian Cyrillic during the 1867-1901 period of the ban on Latin script. -
Personal Names and Denomination of Livonians in Early Written Sources
ESUKA – JEFUL 2014, 5–1: 13–26 PERSONAL NAMES AND DENOMINATION OF LIVONIANS IN EARLY WRITTEN SOURCES Enn Ernits Estonian University of Life Sciences Abstract. This paper presents the timeline of ethnonyms denoting Livonians; specifies their chronology; and analyses the names used for this ethnos and possible personal names. If we consider the dating of the event, the earliest sources mentioning Livonians are Gesta Danorum and the Tale of Bygone Years (both 10th century), but both sources present rather dubious information: in the first the battle of Bråvalla itself or the date are dubious (6th, 8th or 10th century); in the latter we cannot be sure that the member of the Rus delegation was really a Livonian. If we consider the time of recording, the earliest sources are two rune inscriptions from Sweden (11th century), and the next is the list of neighbouring peoples of the Russians from the Tale of Bygone Years (12th century). The personal names Bicco and Ger referred in Gesta Danorum, and Либи Аръфастовъ in Tale of Bygone Years are very problematic. The first certain personal name of a Livonian is *Mustakka, *Mustukka or *Mustoikka (from Finnic *musta ‘black’) written in 1040–1050s on a strip of birch bark in Novgorod. Keywords: Livs, Finnic peoples, ethnonyms, anthroponyms, onomastics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2014.5.1.01 1. Introduction This paper (1) seeks to present the timeline of ethnonyms denoting Livonians; (2) to specify their chronology; (3) and to analyse the names used for this ethnos and possible personal names. It is supple- mental to the paper by Mauno Koski on words denoting Livonians (Koski 2011). -
Crusading, the Military Orders, and Sacred Landscapes in the Baltic, 13Th – 14Th Centuries ______
TERRA MATRIS: CRUSADING, THE MILITARY ORDERS, AND SACRED LANDSCAPES IN THE BALTIC, 13TH – 14TH CENTURIES ____________________________________ A Thesis Presented to the School of History, Archaeology and Religion Cardiff University ____________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in History & Welsh History (2018) ____________________________________ by Gregory Leighton Abstract Crusading and the military orders have, at their roots, a strong focus on place, namely the Holy Land and the shrines associated with the life of Christ on Earth. Both concepts spread to other frontiers in Europe (notably Spain and the Baltic) in a very quick fashion. Therefore, this thesis investigates the ways that this focus on place and landscape changed over time, when crusading and the military orders emerged in the Baltic region, a land with no Christian holy places. Taking this fact as a point of departure, the following thesis focuses on the crusades to the Baltic Sea Region during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It considers the role of the military orders in the region (primarily the Order of the Teutonic Knights), and how their participation in the conversion-led crusading missions there helped to shape a distinct perception of the Baltic region as a new sacred (i.e. Christian) landscape. Structured around four chapters, the thesis discusses the emergence of a new sacred landscape thematically. Following an overview of the military orders and the role of sacred landscpaes in their ideology, and an overview of the historiographical debates on the Baltic crusades, it addresses the paganism of the landscape in the written sources predating the crusades, in addition to the narrative, legal, and visual evidence of the crusade period (Chapter 1). -
THE PAST and PRESENT of the SAMOGITIAN LANGUAGE 1. Historical Overview an Essential Question Has Been Repeatedly Raised Since Ol
The Past and Present of the Samogitian Language JUOZAS PABRĖŽA https://doi.org/10.22364/bf.28.1.05 Baltu filoloģija XXVIII (1) 2019 THE PAST AND PRESENT OF THE SAMOGITIAN LANGUAGE Juozas PABRĖŽA Šiauliai University 1. Historical overview An essential question has been repeatedly raised since olden times: is Samogitian a language or a dialect? Before the appearance of standard Lithu- anian, the concept of the Samogitian language prevailed. Quite a few Samogi- tians wrote their works in Samogitian. The 19th c. boasts a particularly large number of such works. In that period the concern and efforts to create standard Lithuanian on the basis of the Samogitian dialect were particularly obvious. The language and the spelling of Dionizas Poška, Silvestras Valiūnas and Simonas Stanevičaus, all of them originally being South Samogitians, were oriented towards their native Dūnininkai dialect. Three of the most prominent Samogitians of the 19th c. — Jurgis Ambraziejus Pabrėža, Simonas Daukantas and Motiejus Valančius — employed the North Samogitian Dounininkai dialect in their writings. The creator of the standard Samogitian language J. A. Pabrėža wrote: “A Samogitian will never agree about the language either with a Lithuanian, a Prussian or a Latvian.” (Subačius 1996: 54) Juozas Čiulda, the author of the most solid grammar of the Samogitian language of the time, written in Polish in 1854 (Trumpi samprotavimai apie žemaičių kalbos gramatikos taisykles — “Brief Reasoning about the Rules of the Samogitian Language”) consistently used the concept of the Samogitian language, and at the end of his book affirms this by stating the following: “These are my speculations about the Samogitian language. -
A Look at Schillings of the Free Imperial City of Riga by Charles Calkins
A Look at Schillings of the Free Imperial City of Riga by Charles Calkins The seaport of Riga is the capital of Latvia and the largest city of the Balkan states. It is located on the Gulf of Riga, a bay of the Baltic Sea, at the mouth of the Daugava river. The area was settled in ancient times by the Livs, a Finnic tribe, giving the area its name of Livonia. Riga began developing economically due to the Daugava being used as a Viking trade route to Byzantium. By the 12th century, German traders were visiting Riga, establishing an outpost near Riga in 1158. After a failed attempt at Christianization in the late 1100s, Bishop Albert landed with a force of crusaders in 1200, and transferred the Livonian bishopric to Riga in 1201, which became the Archbishopric of Riga in 1255. Albert established the Order of Livonian Brothers of the Sword in 1202 to defend territory and commerce, and Emperor Philip of Swabia caused Livonia to become a principality of the Holy Roman Empire. The Order of Livonian Brothers was given one-third of Livonia, and the Church the other two-thirds, which included Riga. In 1211, Riga minted its first coinage, and gradually gained more independence through the 1200s. In 1236, the Order of Livonian Brothers was defeated in battle with the Samogitians of Lithuania. The remaining Brothers were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as a branch known as the Livonian Order. The Livonian Order subsequently gained control of Livonia. In 1282, Riga became a member of the Hanseatic League, a confederation of towns and merchant guilds which provided legal and military protection. -
From Tribe to Nation a Brief History of Latvia
From Tribe to Nation A Brief History of Latvia 1 Cover photo: Popular People of Latvia are very proud of their history. It demonstration on is a history of the birth and development of the Dome Square, 1989 idea of an independent nation, and a consequent struggle to attain it, maintain it, and renew it. Above: A Zeppelin above Rīga in 1930 Albeit important, Latvian history is not entirely unique. The changes which swept through the ter- Below: Participants ritory of Latvia over the last two dozen centuries of the XXV Nationwide were tied to the ever changing map of Europe, Song and Dance and the shifting balance of power. From the Viking Celebration in 2013 conquests and German Crusades, to the recent World Wars, the territory of Latvia, strategically lo- cated on the Baltic Sea between the Scandinavian region and Russia, was very much part of these events, and shared their impact especially closely with its Baltic neighbours. What is unique and also attests to the importance of history in Latvia today, is how the growth and development of a nation, initially as a mere idea, permeated all these events through the centuries up to Latvian independence in 1918. In this brief history of Latvia you can read how Latvia grew from tribe to nation, how its history intertwined with changes throughout Europe, and how through them, or perhaps despite them, Lat- via came to be a country with such a proud and distinct national identity 2 1 3 Incredible Historical Landmarks Left: People of The Baltic Way – this was one of the most crea- Latvia united in the tive non-violent protest activities in history. -
History of the Crusades. Episode 231. the Baltic Crusades. the Livonian Crusade Part XXVIII
History of the Crusades. Episode 231. The Baltic Crusades. The Livonian Crusade Part XXVIII. The End of the Sword Brothers. Hello again. Last week we saw trouble brewing for the Sword Brothers. Forced to travel to Rome to defend themselves against allegations made by Baldwin of Alna, the Sword Brothers successfully defended the charges, but then faced a backlash from Pope Gregory IX, who decreed not only that Estonia be returned to the Danish Crown, but that the Sword Brothers owed King Valdemar II of Denmark a significant sum of money in compensation for removing Estonia from Danish hands. Pope Gregory also sent William of Modena, the Sword Brothers’ defender, to Scandinavia, effectively removing him from Estonia for the moment. So the Sword Brothers are in a bit of a pickle. Estonia was a vital source of income for the Order and now, not only had that source been taken away by Rome, the stipulation that the already financially stretched Order pay compensation to Denmark was a death blow. Although, it wasn’t actually. No, the death blow for the Sword Brothers is about to arrive not from Rome, but from the Lithuanians. Now, remember we saw last week that Master Volquin decided to invade Lithuania in an attempt to gain more land and income for his Order? Well, that turned out to be a really bad idea. Their first raid against the Lithuanians had been successful, but their next one wouldn’t be. In the year 1236 a contingent of crusaders arrived in Riga and their leaders, the Counts of Dunenburg and Haseldorf, were intent on bringing Christianity to the pagan Lithuanians. -
Were the Baltic Lands a Small, Underdeveloped Province in a Far
3 Were the Baltic lands a small, underdeveloped province in a far corner of Europe, to which Germans, Swedes, Poles, and Russians brought religion, culture, and well-being and where no prerequisites for independence existed? Thus far the world extends, and this is the truth. Tacitus of the Baltic Lands He works like a Negro on a plantation or a Latvian for a German. Dostoyevsky The proto-Balts or early Baltic peoples began to arrive on the shores of the Baltic Sea nearly 4,000 years ago. At their greatest extent, they occupied an area some six times as large as that of the present Baltic peoples. Two thousand years ago, the Roman Tacitus wrote about the Aesti tribe on the shores of the #BMUJDBDDPSEJOHUPIJN JUTNFNCFSTHBUIFSFEBNCFSBOEXFSFOPUBTMB[ZBT many other peoples.1 In the area that presently is Latvia, grain was already cultivated around 3800 B.C.2 Archeologists say that agriculture did not reach southern Finland, only some 300 kilometers away, until the year 2500 B.C. About 900 AD Balts began establishing tribal realms. “Latvians” (there was no such nation yet) were a loose grouping of tribes or cultures governed by kings: Couronians (Kurshi), Latgallians, Selonians and Semigallians. The area which is known as -BUWJBUPEBZXBTBMTPPDDVQJFECZB'JOOP6HSJDUSJCF UIF-JWT XIPHSBEVBMMZ merged with the Balts. The peoples were further commingled in the wars which Estonian and Latvian tribes waged with one another for centuries.3 66 Backward and Undeveloped? To judge by findings at grave sites, the ancient inhabitants in the area of Latvia were a prosperous people, tall in build. -
The Courlander Experience in Tobago
THE COURLANDER EXPERIENCE IN TOBAGO THE REPUBLIC OF LATVIA: A maritime nation on the Baltic sea with excellent ports, 64.589km2 in area and a population of nearly 2.000.000 inhabitants. There are apx. 1.500.000 Latvians living in Latvia and the rest of the world. 2018 marks the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Latvia. COURLANDERS: Latvians from the province of Courland (Kurzeme). In the days of the Duchy of Courland and Semgallia, a “Courlander” could also be an inhabitant of the province of Semgallia. “Courlander” is a literal translation of the Latvian kurzemnieks. The academic word for anything pertaining to Courland is Couronian. THE DUCHY OF COURLAND AND SEMGALLIA: A de facto independent nation formed in 1561 and existing until 1795, comprised of 2 modern day provinces of Latvia, and ruled by the German-Baltic dukes of Courland, although officially a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The flags of Courland consisted of a red and white 2 band flag and the red and black “crab” flag which originated in Tobago, as there are no crabs of this type in Latvia. As such, it can be considered the first flag of Tobago. CHRONOLOGY 1639 Sent by Duke Jacob, probably involuntarily, 212 Courlanders arrive in Tobago. Unprepared for tropical conditions, they eventually perish. 1642 (possibly 1640) Duke Jacob engages a Brazilian, capt. Cornelis Caroon (later, Caron) to lead a colony comprised basically of Dutch Zealanders, that probably establishes itself in the flat, southwestern portion of the island. Under attack by the Caribs, 70 remaining members of the original 310 colonists are evacuated to Pomeron, Guyana, by the Arawaks. -
The Baltic Crusades. the Lithuanian Conflict Part V. Samogitia Erupts
History of the Crusades. Episode 300. How did that happen? The Baltic Crusades. The Lithuanian Conflict Part V. Samogitia Erupts. Hello again. Last week we saw relations between the Teutonic Order and Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania deteriorate, following the failure of Vytautas to take Moscow and the subsequent imprisonment by Vytautas of the Orders former ally Svitrigaila. The deterioration of this alliance came at the same time as an alarming rise in unrest in Samogitia, as the taxation obligations imposed by the Order on the Samogitians saw anti-German sentiment in the region increase. While Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen was nervously wondering whether Vytautas was about to prompt the Samogitians into another full scale uprising, King Jogaila of Poland decided to pile on more pressure by encouraging Rome to push the Teutonic Order into campaigns far away from the Baltic region, and by amping up claims by the Kingdom of Poland for contested lands in the border regions and in Pomerelia. Wisely, Grand Master Ulrich looked at this situation and decided that he'd better start preparing for war. He offloaded Gotland onto a satisfied Queen Margaret and commenced a series of rapid castle building and castle improving projects across Samogitia. Now, all may have been well, and war may have been prevented, if not for some extreme weather, which occurred during 1408, and the Grand Master's unfortunate reactions to the events which followed. The winter of 1407 to 1408 was unusually long, with cold, snowy weather remaining well into April of 1408. This meant that the growing season for 1408 would be dangerously short. -
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania As a Successor of Rome in the Early
Open Political Science, 2018; 1: 170–181 Research Article Joanna Orzeł* From imagination to political reality? The Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a successor of Rome in the early modern historiography (15th–18th centuries)# https://doi.org/10.1515/openps-2018-0015 received December 17, 2018; accepted December 31, 2018. Abstract: At the beginning of the Renaissance Lithuanians understood that to join the civilization of Western Europe, it was necessary to have an appropriate (it means: very long) tradition. Like other countries, they had to create their own myth of origin. The most prestigious tradition was Greek-Roman antiquity, so the country’s origin story was invented, claiming its people descended directly from Rome. According to subsequent chronicles, the founder of the new state was Palemon (Publius Libon, initially Vilia). Using the theory of cultural memory of Jan and Aleida Assmann, the article presents how and why the Lithuanian myth of origin was transformed from 15th to the end of the 18th century. Particular attention was paid to the current needs of the state and the powerful noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which also found their origins in the state myth. During the early modern period, the changes in the story were made (including the date of Palemon’s arrival in the Lithuanian lands). Nonetheless, the myth was not questioned for a long time. Even once it had already been established that it was no more than a fairy tale, the story was revived again, performing other functions in the 19th century. Keywords: cultural memory; foundation myth; mythical genealogy; Palemon; the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; Polish- Lithuanian historiography; Greco-Roman antiquity in early modern period.