NR 57 AN­TRO­PO­MO­TO­RY­KA 2012

Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence 1

WPŁYW MARSZU NA sprawnośĆ fizycznĄ ORAz skład ciała PRZEDSTAWICIELI RÓŻNYCH GRUP WIEKOWYCH

Václav Bunc*

* Prof. Ing., Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Key words: walking, movement intervention, physical fitness, body composition, children, adult men, seniors Słowa kluczowe: marsz, interwencja ruchowa, aktywność fizyczna, skład ciała, dzieci, dorośli mężczyźni, seniorzy

SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE

Aim of the study. Summarizing the possibilities of walking as a tool influencing health, fitness, body com- position, well-being and other physiological variables. Material and methods. Following the five-month weight loss intervention program with a 1000 kcal energy intensity in seniors, 1500 kcal in middle-aged men and 2000 kcal in children, which was composed of at least 80% walking, pointing to significant changes in fitness and body composition parameters. Results and conclusions. Together with positive changes in examined variables significant improvement in predispositions for physical endurance and workload was observed. It may be concluded that walking in the range of about 10,000 steps per day helps to remove the motion deficit, which is due to present lifestyle and may be used to improve both health predispositions and physical fitness state in the majority of population.

Cel pracy. Wskazanie wpływu marszów na zdrowie, sprawność fizyczną i dobrostan zdrowotny, a także na inne parametry fizjologiczne człowieka. Materiał i metody. Uczestników badań objęto pięciomiesięcznym programem redukcji wagi o energochłon- ności 1000 kcal u seniorów, 1500 kcal u mężczyzn w średnim wieku, 2000 kcal u dzieci, który w 80 procentach składał się z marszów, i wskazano na tej podstawie istotne statystycznie zmiany sprawności fizycznej oraz para- metrów składu ciała. Wyniki i wnioski. Wraz z korzystnymi dla dobrostanu zdrowotnego zmianami analizowanych parametrów odnotowano u badanych osób istotną statystycznie poprawę wydolności fizycznej i wysiłkowej. Można zatem uznać, iż u większości populacji marsz długości około 10000 kroków dziennie zaspokaja deficyt ruchu wywołany sedenteryjnym trybem życia i może być z powodzeniem zastosowany w profilaktyce zdrowotnej i w podnoszeniu sprawności fizycznej.

1 The study was supported by grant of the Czech Ministry of Education. Grant number: MSM 0021620864.

– 63 – Václav Bunc

Introduction are able to communicate during the exercise, what can contribute to their wellness. Walking differs from a run- Physical activity oriented towards promoting active ning gait in a number of ways. The most obvious dif- lifestyle can improve the health state and predisposi­ ference is that in walking one leg always stays on the tions for working and leisure time activities in subjects. ground while the other is swinging. There is a typically Unfortunately, despite these potential health benefits, ballistic phase in running, during which the runner is the majority of current population does not exercise airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals) [3–5]. regularly [1]. The course of energy cost coefficient c is presented Among the people, who do exercise, walking is the in Figure 1. In the range of intensities lower than 7 km.h–1 most popular physical activity. Being a weight-bearing the dependence of the coefficient c on the speed of form of aerobic exercise that can be easily integrated walking has a minimum value at a ground speed about into one’s daily routine, it is frequently recommended as 4 km.h–1, increasing exponentially at speeds slower, and a good protection against health problems, low working at speed greater than 7 km.h–1 the coefficient of walking and leisure capacity [2]. energy cost grows practically linearly with the increase Major advantage of walking over running is lower of moving speed. In the same Figure 1 the coefficient frequency of injuries and lesser probability of exceeding c for running is presented. In the range from 4 to 12 the security level in examined patients. The strain on km.h–1 this coefficient is practically constant [3]. ligaments and joints caused by walking is significantly Human walking is accomplished with a strategy lower than for comparable running exercises. In the called t h e double pendulum . During forward walking group it is very important that the participants motion the leg that leaves the ground swings forward



Figure 1. Dependence of walking and running energy cost coefficient c in dependence on speed of movement

– 64 – Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the ing, flying, climbing or sitting in a communications trail- leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to er, are known as “ground pounders” [4]. Professionals, the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. who work on encouraging people to walk, come from The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one six sectors: health, transport, environment, schools, foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. sport and recreation and urban design. The process of walking recovers approximately sixty Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confi- percent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics dence, stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancy and ground reaction force [5–8]. and reduce stress. It can also minimalize the risk of Another important difference concerns the move- coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood ment of the center of mass of the body. In walking the pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modern body “vaults” over the leg on the ground, raising the scientific studies have shown that walking, besides its center of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind, as it vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are improves memory skills, learning ability, concentra- spread apart [7]. tion and abstract reasoning, as well as reducing stress Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is con- and uplifting one’s spirits [9]. Health benefits of physi- stantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This cal activity are well-documented in relation to weight is reversed in running, where the center of mass is at its management and the prevention of chronic illnesses; it lowest point as the leg is vertical. This is because the is also an important factor in the process of improving impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed mental health and cognitive function [10]. by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in In spite of above-mentioned, our knowledge of the muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion benefits of physical activity does not go hand in hand between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy [8]. with our understanding of how to get people active and There is an absolute limit on an individual’s speed of maintain activity level. There is an urgent need to de- walking (without special techniques employed in speed velop and test strategies for non-trained subjects to walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the center include physical activity into their lifestyle. These in- of mass during a stride. If it is greater than the accelera- terventions need to be systematic, robust, and longer- tion due to gravity, the person will become airborne as -term, incorporating different methods of engaging spe- his/her body vaults over the leg on the ground. Typically cific demands of intervened population groups [11]. however, animals switch into a run at lower speed than A large number of factors influence physical ac- this due to energy efficiencies [5]. tivity behavior, yet there is limited evidence of the ef- Considerable number of people walk as a hobby, fectiveness of strategies to increase physical activity. and in our post-industrial times walking is recognized This is the case particularly in regard to booster pro- as one of the best forms of exercising. The types of grams, even though the little specific data available on walking include bushwalking, racewalking, weight- physical activity booster programs is generally positive. walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and Interestingly, lessons may be learned from the obesity hiking on long-distance paths [4]. Some people prefer treatment area, which has made significant gains in to walk indoors using a treadmill. In certain countries terms of promoting and improving long-term behavior walking as a hobby is known as hiking (this term is change [9, 12]. typical for North American people), rambling (a some- The 10,000 steps per day is a physical activity pre- what old-fashioned British expression, but remaining in scription that has been suggested to meet the minimum use because it is enshrined in the title of the important recommendation for physical activity. Despite some Ramblers), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking, research, that supports walking regularly and complet- generally used to mean walking in nature areas on spe- ing 10,000 steps a day as enough activity to produce cially designated routes or trails, as opposed to those positive changes in lifestyle and certain aspects of fit- in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer ness and cardiovascular health, numerous researchers to any long-distance walk. More obscure expressions have shown limited effectiveness of walking programs, of walking are: “to go by Marrow-bone stage”, “to take having questioned long-term durability of observed one‘s daily constitutional”, “to ride Shanks’ pony”, “to ride changes [13–15]. Shanks’ mare”, or “to go by Walker’s bus”. Search and Walking is among such forms of physical activity rescue responders, who prefer walking to riding, driv- which have proved their unique usefulness from both

– 65 – Václav Bunc physical and psychosocial standpoints in the health review concluded that the strongest evidence existed for improvement program of the elderly people. However, tailored interventions that were targeted at individuals there are many barriers to physical activity for the el- most motivated to change. The authors suggested that derly, including safety issues, access, support, and future studies should also attempt to examine whether health concerns. Community mall walking programs walking interventions “are sufficiently frequent, intense, or have the potential to remove several of these barriers, sustained to produce measurable outcomes in anthropo- particularly safety and social support needs [6]. metric, physiological, biochemical or clinical outcomes”. A recent systematic review examined the associa- Effects of walking tion between pedometer use, physical activity levels and a variety of health-related outcomes [39]. The authors Recent position statements have re-affirmed the bene­ concluded that the use of pedometer was significantly fits of an active lifestyle [9, 10]. The current physical ac­ associated with increased physical activity levels and tivity recommendation for adults, aged between 18–65 reductions in BMI and systolic blood pressure. In 2006 years, to promote and maintain health is to accumulate the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence at least 30 minutes of moderately intense physical ac­ (NICE) in the United Kingdom produced a review of tivity on at least five days of the week. Promoting accu­ pedometer-based intervention studies between 1990 mulative, lifestyle physical activity is an ideal approach and 2005 [40]. Due to stringent incorporation criteria, to combat the high levels of inactivity evident in global conclusions from this review were drawn from only four populations [16, 17]. studies. Both reviews provide support for the suggestion Brisk walking has been suggested as the mode of that pedometers may be useful motivational tools for in- physical activity most likely to increase physical activity creasing walking. However, there are several limitations, at a population level [18] and is the most commonly re- considering the volume of published studies in this area, ported mode of exercise amongst adults in many popula- highlighted in these reviews. Studies were predominantly tions [11, 16]. It is available to almost all individuals with of short duration (< 12 weeks) and based in the USA little risk of injury, as a no-cost activity it can be incor- with small samples consisting mostly of clinical sub-pop- porated into people’s daily routines [19]. Researchers ulations. The evidence seemed to be limited regarding have identified that self-determined brisk walking, even their effectiveness in non-clinical samples or in countries in short bouts of 10 minutes, for 30 minutes a day (includ- other than the USA. Additionally, few studies reported ing simple everyday walking activities such as walking more than one outcome variable of interest. There was a dog) produce moderate physical activity at the intensity a need for cross-cultural, sufficiently powered random- required to achieve health benefits [20, 21]. ized controlled trials to further examine the effectiveness Walking interventions can be effective in reducing of pedometers in a community setting. body weight, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip In practice, a provider’s ability to promote physical circumference, body fat, blood pressure and the cho- activity has been limited by time constraints, lack of lesterol high density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio [20–27], training in exercise prescription, concerns over monitor- and may be effective in improving mood, affect [25, 28, ing patient safety, and lack of access to cost-effective 30] and quality of life [31]. Conversely, some studies resources that help patients remain active. have demonstrated that walking intervention as such is The goal of this study was to assess an effect of not sufficient to affect any of these health-related out- intervention program based on walking on physical fit- comes [32–36]. The reasons for such equivocal results ness and body composition in groups without of regular are unclear, therefore determining the potential health physical training differing in age. benefits that can be achieved through walking is crucial to the public health message. Material and methods Whilst several meta-analytical and systematic reviews exist that examine how best to promote physical activity Three age groups: children (139 with normal mass, [37, 38], there is comparatively limited evidence on the 95 overweight and 65 with diagnosed obesity; mean most effective methods to specifically promote walking. age 12.2 ± 2.1 years), middle age men (68 individu­ A recent systematic review from Ogilvie et al. [6] exam- als; mean age 45.7 ± 3.6 years) and 53 healthy senior ined the effectiveness of interventions aimed to increase women (53 individuals; mean age 68.7 ± 5.0 years) par­ walking at both the individual and population levels. The ticipated in the study that was among a set of physical

– 66 – Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence activity programs carried out by the Faculty of Physical jects (whether the particular subject was able to perform Education and Sports, Charles University in Prague. The the movement activity that would be under assessment). research was performed on subjects residing in the area This process could be divided in two parts [41]: of Prague, without objective internal limitation. Before the – s k i l l s : the level of movements decisive for diagnos- participation in this study, all researched individuals were tics evaluation and resulted from absolved training, subjected to the medical evaluation and dynamical as­ – m u s c l e s s t a t e (morphological, strength, sessment of ECG and blood pressure that was conducted etc.): strongly dependent on genetic predispositions by a physician one week before the start of the program. but under the influence of imposed training. Selected anthropometrical and maximal functional variables are collected in Tables 1–3. The maximal functional variables were determined Before the beginning of each movement diagnostics on a treadmill with the slope of 5% during a progres- it was necessary to verify the movement ability of sub- sive walking test until subjective exhaustion. The initial

Table 1. Selected anthropometric and functional variables collected before and after a movement intervention in adults

Variables Before After BM (kg) 79.1 ± 7.9 75.6 ± 7.8* BM (%) 100 95.6 ± 4.6* FFM (kg) 64.0 ± 3.8 65.4 ± 6.7* FFM (%) 100 102.0 ± 5.2*

BFabs (%) 19.1 ± 3.1 15.9 ± 2.8**

BFrel (%) 100 83.2 ± 3.1** BCM (kg) 35.2 ± 3.7 37.0 ± 2.8* BCM (%) 100 105.1 ± 2.7** ECM/BCM 0.82 ± 0.03 0.78 ± 0.02** ECM/BCM (%) 100 95.2 ± 3.2**

–1 HRmax (b · min ) 178 ± 7 176 ± 6

–1 VO2max · kg (ml) 33.1 ± 5.3 38.7 ± 4.8** –1 VO2max · kg (%) 100 117.0 ± 3.3**

–1 vmax (5%) (km · h ) 6.8 ± 1.1 7.8 ± 0.9**

vmax (5%) (%) 100 115.0 ± 1.5** * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

Table 2. Selected anthropometric and functional variables collected before and after a movement intervention in seniors

Variables Before After BM (kg) 69.9 ± 7.9 70.4 ± 7.8 BM (%) 100 100.7 ± 5.9 FFM (kg) 43.7 ± 6.8 45.9 ± 6.7* FFM (%) 100 105.0 ± 5.2*

Fatabs (%) 37.5 ± 5.1 36.9 ± 4.8

Fatrel (%) 100 98.4 ± 3.9 BCM (kg) 22.8 ± 5.0 25.1 ± 4.8** BCM (%) 100 110.0 ± 2.7** ECM/BCM 0.92 ± 0.03 0.82 ± 0.02** ECM/BCM (%) 100 89.2 ± 3.6**

–1 HRmax (b · min ) 134 ± 6 133 ± 5

–1 VO2max · kg (ml) 17.5 ± 3.0 19.0 ± 3.2** –1 VO2max · kg (%) 100 108.6 ± 3.7** –1 %VO2max · kg (%) 67.4 ± 3.2 67.8 ± 3.0**

–1 vmax (5%) (km · h ) 4.4 ± 3.1 4.7 ± 3.4**

vmax (5%) (%) 100 106.8 ± 3.3

%vmax (%) 73.3 ± 2.9 72.3 ± 3.0 * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

– 67 – Václav Bunc

Table 3. Selected anthropometric variables collected before and after a movement intervention in children differing in body mass state

Variables Before After

BM (kg) (N) 44.0 ± 3.8 45.4 ± 3.7* BM (%) 100 103.2 ± 5.2*

BFabs (%) 19.7 ± 3.9 17.0 ± 3.0**

BFrel (%) 100 86.3 ± 3.6**

BM (kg) (OV) 52.6 ± 3.0 48.4 ± 2.3** BM (%) 100 92.1 ± 2.0**

BFabs (%) 24.6 ± 3.1 20.8 ± 2.5**

BFrel (%) 100 84.6 ± 2.4**

BM (kg) (OB) 63.2 ± 3.6 54.3 ± 2.8** BM (%) 100 98.4 ± 3.9

BFabs (%) 28.3 ± 3.1 23.9 ± 2.9**

BFrel (%) 100 84.4 ± 3.1** * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, N – normal body mass, OV – overweight, OB – obesity

speed on the treadmill was in range of 3–5 km · h–1 [44]. The BCM is the sum of oxygen-using, calcium (in dependence on physical fitness state) and was in- rich, glucose-oxidising cells. This variable may in- creased each minute by 1 km · h–1. The cardiorespirato- directly characterize the ability of human to sustain ry variables were measured in an open system using an a mechanical work. on-line method by TEEM 100 (Aerosport). All analyzers Numerous tools and methodologies have been were checked before and after each test by a calibra- developed to measure various BC parameters. The tion gas of known concentration. bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) seems to be Time duration of intervention was 5 months. The among the most used methods in the field of conditions program was realized in spring or autumn. [45]. Regardless of instrument chosen to assess BC, The energy outputs were on the level of 1000 kcal the method happens to be as good as the measure- (4180 kJ) per week in seniors, 1500 kcal (6270 kJ) in ment technique and prediction or conversion formula adults and 2000 kcal (8360 kJ) in children in accord applied. To remain valid, the conversion formulas and with the construction of individual moving programs prediction equations selected must be restricted to the [42]. populations from which they were derived [43–45]. Age-related changes in body composition (BC) One of the basic themes in exercise science re- have implications for physical function and health. The search has focused on the relation of exercise on redistribution and increase of fat and the loss of muscle improvement of physical fitness, usually measured as mass result in substantial decrease in functional capac- maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Physical fitness is ity. Although BC, as well as the age-related changes in a broad concept, encompassing several specific types it, has a strong genetic component, it is also influenced of fitness including strength, flexibility and balance [46]. by environmental factors. The primary influences are The actual physical fitness state of subjects is not only nutrition, disease and physical activity [43]. the predisposition of better physical performance but Clinically, BC is viewed in terms of two compart- also the significant basis of their working capacity and ments: fat and fat-free mass [43, 44]. Fat mass (FM) (especially in seniors) of independency. plus fat-free mass (FFM) are made of proteins, water, When evaluating the influence of physical activity in and minerals, equal to the total body mass. humans it is important to know the energy requirements Beginning in middle adulthood, FFM tends to [47]. Positive influence is exerted only by physical ac- decline gradually both in men and women, primarily tivities, which guarantee that a minimal threshold is ex- due to the wasting of muscle tissue [43]. Similarly the ceeded. The level depends on the purpose for which amount of FFM decreases with age the body cell mass these activities are performed. (BCM) in subjects without of systematically physical The body cell mass is calculated using the FFM training. This similarity is confirmed by a high signifi- and phase angle between whole impedance vector cant positive correlation between these both variables and resistance α [44]. The extra cellular mass (ECM)

– 68 – Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence is the difference between FFM and BCM – ECM = FFM (20.2 kJ · min · l–1) was used, neglecting the contribu- – BCM. The FFM was calculated according to modified tion of protein (about 15%) to the total metabolism [42]. formula of Deurenberg et al. [47]. Resistance and reactance were measured at four Results and discussion frequencies – 1, 5, 50 and 100 kHz (B.I.A. 2000M, Data Input, Germany) on the right side of the body by All participants were able to perform the recommended tetrapolar electrode configuration in accordance with content of intervention. The minimal volume of walking manufacturer’s specification. For the calculation of ranged from 82% in children to 88% in seniors. body fat content we used the prediction equation that Basic data on the implemented intervention pro- was validated in senior women by DEXA method. The gram: energy demand of physical exercise was collected ac­ • the amount of time spent on exercising at intensity cordingly to Caltrac accelerometer readings together range of 80–90% HRmax in weekly volume ranged with the assessment of the energy cost of exercise between 90–250 min; walking time ranged between from general relationship between the exercise inten­ 80 and 220 min: sity and energy that he/she needs to cover this activ­ • the amount of time spent on performing other form ity [47]. The differences between both methods were of physical activity ranged between 10 and 30 min; lower than 12%. rest exercises: home gymnastics, swimming, jog­ According to our measurements, made in children ging, cycling, etc.; (n = 320), adult men (n = 154), adult women (n = 86), • the mean volume of daily steps ranged from and senior women (n = 106), the general dependence 9 700 ± 310 steps/day in seniors to 11 250 ± 408 of oxygen consumption on walking speed on flat sur- steps/day in children with normal body mass. face in range of intensities 3–9 km · h–1 was established in the below form: Mean values of selected anthropometrical and functional variables are presented in Tables 1–4. The –1 –1 –1 VO2 · kg (ml · kg · min ) = initially values of BC and aerobic fitness were practi- =5.7488* v (km · h–1) – 6.0561 cally identical with the Czech population standards for this age. After the 5-month aerobic training, both values

r = 0.872, p < 0.005, SEE = of aerobic fitness and BC were significantly better than –1 –1 –1 –1 = 1.49 ml · kg · min , TEE = 1.74 ml · kg · min the Czech population standards [46]. The energy output of performed moving activities For calculation of energy cost from oxygen uptake in seniors ranged from 650 kcal (2675 kJ) to 1780 kcal mean energy equivalent for oxygen 4.83 kcal · min · l–1 (7740 kJ); mean: 950 ± 230 kcal (3970 ± 960 kJ). The

Table 4. Selected anthropometric variables collected before and after a movement intervention in children differing in body mass state

Variables Before After

–1 vmax (km · h ) (N) 12.5 ± 1.8 13.9 ± 1.7*

vmax (%) 100 111.2 ± 4.2** –1 VO2max · kg (ml) 44.6 ± 3.9 51.2 ± 3.0** –1 VO2max · kg (%) 100 114.8 ± 3.6**

–1 vmax (km · h ) (OV) 11.8 ± 1.1 12.8 ± 0.9*

vmax (%) 100 108.5 ± 0.9* –1 VO2max · kg (ml) 33.1 ± 5.3 38.7 ± 4.8** –1 VO2max · kg (%) 100 116.9 ± 1.5**

–1 vmax (km · h ) (OB) 9.8 ± 0.3 10.4 ± 0.4*

vmax (%) 100 106.1 ± 2.2* –1 VO2max · kg (ml) 24.5 ± 3.2 27.7 ± 3.3** –1 VO2max · kg (%) 100 113.1 ± 3.6**

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, N – normal body mass, OV – overweight, OB – obesity

– 69 – Václav Bunc energy output in adults ranged from 1020 kcal (4264 kJ) such figures toward higher values are due either to the to 2250 kcal (9045 kJ); mean: 1500 ± 290 kcal (6270 erosion of BCM (catabolism) or to fluid expansion in ex- ± 1212 kJ). tracellular spaces (edema). In the case of dehydration, Results of the intervention with this energy content we can observe the opposite phenomenon where the were presented in Tables 1–2. Majority of followed ECM/BCM ratio is reduced [44]. Because the diet of fol- variables were better after the intervention programme lowed subject remained practically without any signifi- than at the start of evaluation. cant alterations during the whole 6-month period, the In children we assess the effect of walking interven- significant increase in both FFM and BCM was prob- tion in subjects differing in body mass state. Movement ably caused by imposed training program. program developed among children with normal body The changes in VO2max induced by endurance walk- mass concerned energy content ranged from 1360 kcal ing program were practically consistent with those (5685 kJ) to 2620 kcal (10952 kJ); mean: 1980 ± 310 registered by Proper et al. [49], who found in group of kcal (8276 ± 1296 kJ). senior men and women of similar age a 14% increase In overweight children energy content ranged from in aerobic fitness, and significant increase in FFM, and 1650 kcal (6897 kJ) to 2310 kcal (9656 kJ); mean: significant decrease in BF and total body mass. These 1920 ± 230 kcal (8026 ± 960 kJ), and in children with results were confirmed by our data but the changes in obesity energy content ranged from 1940 kcal (8109 kJ) BC variables were not so high. to 2550 kcal (9045 kJ); mean: 2260 ± 290 kcal (9447 There was clear evidence to show that the magni-

± 1212 kJ). tude of the increase in VO2max was dependent on total Results of these interventions are inserted in Tables energy expenditure of exercise, and thus on frequency, 3–4. The changes of majority variables are presented and duration of exercise. As previous investigations in relative description non-dependent on body mass have shown, the improvement is in direct proportion to state, which means that the walking program causes the number of weekly sessions [42, 49]. According to practically the same changes in BC and in physical fit- the results of previous studies, VO2max as measured ei- ness state. Of course the above values, recalculated ther in laboratory or in field was generally improved dur- suitably to body mass, were worse in subjects with ing the first months of conscription among non-trained higher body mass. subjects [46]. The proportion between the ECM and BCM ratio The minimum training energy expenditure, required may be used to identify fluid imbalance or malnutrition to maintain an elevated VO2max, was not clearly estab- and/or to assess the predispositions for muscular work. lished. For example the most recent ACSM prescrip- The term “malnutrition” refers to the loss of structural tion guidelines [50] recommended minimal energy ex- body components, which is most accurately reflected penditure of 300 kcal per exercise session performed by the BCM and an increase of the ECM [44]. three days a week or 200 kcal per exercise session The use of ECM/BCM for evaluation of physical ex- performed four days per week. ercise predispositions was confirmed by the significant Adequate energy output had its effect both on the dependence of VO2max on this variable. The relationship presence and on the absence of other influences, and between VO2max and physical performance was often the beneficial relationship continues with advancing presented in literature [e.g. 41]. In our group of subjects age. this dependence was significant too (ranged from r = 0.792, p < 0.01 in seniors to r = 0.720, p < 0.01 in chil- Conclusion dren). In practice this coefficient could be used as one of important criterions for exercise program efficiency. Physical activities based on walking could be imple­ The significant positive ECM/BCM dependence on mented without having to visit special sports facilities age could be helpful for assessment of actual develop- and often expensive equipment. A major advantage is ment state – biological age in seniors. In actual case we that it could be implemented in virtually any weather at compare real value of ECM/BCM with value that was the time acceptable by the individual. Walking could be calculated according to general relationship that is true realized either as an individual activity or as a group for senior women. activity [51]. It is also essential that walking could be In normal subjects of middle age, ECM/BCM ratios realized within the family as a joint activity of children, are recorded between 0.75 and 1.00. Deviations from parents and grandparents. It should be also noted that

– 70 – Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence walking at speeds higher than 6 km/h is already signifi­ three times a week, at least 30 minutes and more), 10 cant burden on the body and therefore it is necessary to 20 minutes daily is preferable. to precede all intensive intervention programs by the In conclusion it should be mentioned that walking in medical examination of participants. energy expenditure ranged from 1000 kcal in seniors The condition required daily volume of physical ac- to 2000 kcal in children per week may significantly im- tivity about 10,000 steps as a means to move in fulfilling prove the state of physical fitness, body composition everyday tasks such as working, leisure time activities, and motor performance (speed of running) in non- regeneration. Another success is the regularity (at least -trained groups of subject differing in age.

LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO

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