Sociological Precedents and Contributions to the Understanding and Facilitation of Individual Behavioral Change: the Ac Se for Counseling Sociology Clifford M

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The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare Volume 7 Article 3 Issue 5 September

September 1980 Sociological Precedents and Contributions To The Understanding and Facilitation of Individual Behavioral Change: The aC se for Counseling Sociology Clifford M. Black North Texas State University

Richard Enos North Texas State University

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Recommended Citation Black, Clifford M. and Enos, Richard (1980) "Sociological Precedents and Contributions To The ndeU rstanding and Facilitation of Individual Behavioral Change: The asC e for Counseling Sociology," The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare: Vol. 7 : Iss. 5 , Article 3. Available at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol7/iss5/3

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SOC OGICAL PRECE-DENTS AND CONT,,'s IN. 2iE . NDERC'TNDThC .n-DFACIITATICN OF I.DIVIDUAL S -..2R... CNGE: "- CASE FOR COUNSELING SOCIOLOGY liffordd .. . I-1 N. . r BlaCp 0 Richard Enos, D .D..

Department cL Sociology and Anthropology Social Work Program North Texas State University North Texas State University

ABST RC

This article clarifies the distinction between clinical and counseling sociology and provides some direction for the practice of counseling sociology. This is accozplishedb-. a ansideration firs, cf scaiolotcC. :o..ribu:n-.s . the understanding and faciizaition of indiiCUa zeav'.'or and its change, and second, of historical precedents in the Cield.

CURRENT STATUS OF COU'SELING SOCIOLOGY

Several articles in the professional SocicIia2al literature have focused upon the concept of clinical sociology (Gardner, 1973; Glass, 1978; Straus, 1978; Schwartz, 1978; Glasser and Freedman, 1979: Lee. 1979). These -riters re.crc that: (1) this is no: a net. sieciant "i scciology; (2) it has been and is bei-.nz practiced; (3) it is an emerging and timely specialty; (4) it is viewed as applied ociology; (5) the common focus is upon the role of social factors in i _dividual behavior anc inciCi, be.avior charseM, even .hen it .cilizes sociological rr- spectives with the intent or altering social structures; (6) it ca. be defined broadly as the utilization of the sociological perspective, concepts, and methods ift problem solvie intervent .s at the level of individual, grup.crsaniza:io. or communitv; (7) it can he viewed narro-:1. withn resect to the involvemant professional sociologists in therapeutic problem solving for individuals and 1 tamilies; and (8) both types of situations require appropriate internships. Data about counseling sociology are mere ntied ta- are care abcut clizal Seciology. !.hnle Glass (1978), Gardner (1978), Straus (1078), and Glassner and freedman (1979) all touch upon the role of clinical sociology in individual therapy, ,Only the latter crovide a ver- extensive treatment of this aspect of clinical socio!- O0Y. Even they cc not consider it under the concet o counse~inQ socio0og. Both concepts are made clearer in the process of differentiating clinical il.fclology from applied sociology. Glass (1978) and Glassner and Freedman (1979) *,re particularly heloful in this task. Glass defi-es the aDnlied sociologist as 'ilga researcher of social problens, quite possibly in non-academic settings and b£ a policy nature, and views the clinical sociologist as an intervener who has :bthavioral and oreanizational change as an end. Like Glass, for Glassner and ft~edman, a key factor in differentiatine these twc concepts seems to be th criCaz iZ- ni -yr- :;r- - - - A AtSAV A-i -! A.-:5 l ci

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H:iSTORICAL BACKGROUND

Current literature quite correctly points to the first use of the concept, clinical sociology, as being that by Louis Wirth (1931). e defines it as the application of scciologi-al kno.;1ldae and .r-echodoov_ :-cf-drstcnd nd rreatin sn - Cb-.s of these who C=- tc the Z!fiic. 7he ziinac rrovirc scc0ol- @ists an o:orunJ-: for caref-ai':czr~roiled ctsor:-ior, In addition. he its- tuSses the COnt1.bt-iOf C ., Thomas ania Drc-r': Wain hoaas to rae .riel. Cpecificall., Wirth notes their idea of the "beneficient framing" method of social therapy and their sociological approach to behavior problems outlined in The Child [t!.America (1928). Aside from current literature, two other writers discuss clinical sociology. Argow (19&l) reaFfirns .itch's contention that apotcation of the "academic orinci- 3iesof sociolo-)', zc 'ytz: oractice: i e tti -z is a realsc fl ibility. Observ.e:cr ato'mcu resno.nse" :z tn:erareutat effcr'-s iFfirs: han-..-

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mak.es 5.e poi:nt chat if --.- !',: has soaethin1C unioue&y its :),-n as a field o? or acZce,ZaC -s shoui-Ic be speciticcd and eni." t-at restriced. In other words. psycholoev...... zAhas no unique' claim-Olt on ~icnn .je: i "ivit:asu,,elts,:l-, behavicravoro or oouseALcounseli; - 7: .. ,: " z -.-tn ': ..-e o ss. ..L,'""eb'o as -sucessn!i -= .. nn. t o an jndi,:idua-i oaviorai prob ebi as will p-sycholoist s a n their araivsisa1ill nt be less sigrifiant. !%Ihirte, . (I947) emphasizes that cuiturol'ocal_ zx:zcna. tc scme :-aic:a --. s are :mo re. etreccive than -svz.cloica- aro'caches wise, Link (1948) feels that the sociologist tends lu relincuish his or her rigtAuA role i" w-crking with indiduals scking help for D LrscnaL7rooiet'.

THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO COUNSELING SOCIOLOGY

Sc-- - []ys COfl~riuL n to counseling lies .r- onlyv in use socioto0 by separate disciplines in their counseling, or in the nu1narrus stuelae .n.:'..- ehat. ' = " a- s -e iz-_i ant in r-esolvinir__ incitv..i:- i .;-.-c-naI 'r.C4 sC.... 2 raci.Eat ing behavioral c Sl indIIi theorists nave -ade ccntrib,3tion8 paralleling, and in some cases -nti i. at i.., the counseli m ,. an.-otc-es :evel.rec i' cter :-ezzs. Such t-2r-zica- the sz.a' :- t-icalo ase unC.- lying much individual and group counseling. Some of these contributions have heen directly ackn-'wleded by other counselin stecia:.-:is. 3c!h -.Lee (-55)(cu-3e: (17)_ consider Vr i as one of t-i -re 'i2po- taut early and major theorists for (1893) clinical socLolugy. SiiLiarly. Durkhein is clearly an i1-cr -a.ntt contribu-or to use o'C-E.fsoC l i,.seli:.e. "ricitt about the influenca of soce.: upon individual beon reu 1 "p!t~errs : conformity, he utilizes -he concept, "collective -!-aa-'Qr Lusn2SSei" - ale10) f.4..- :- r; - m L - - :Tctn J g'_' _e---oes" ard nenr CTof tnIhrea''a. Fco i.rL-~ un iu.7-s I:A.- 1 - ___ unconsoious 1 (Progofe 1973). Both e press roide a that societv is m-ore than the sum of the individuals in it. T1he idea that society and histor': are cn- extricablv bound to each other is cor.on to both. 7i e:-ressed b,- th idea that society is a realizy in itself which influences the individual's behavior. For Durkheim the influence is the collective consciousness, for Jung, the archety'-e. Snat nartcuir schoo cr sozioiogical theory', Iabe ed slmbolic inceractionism, provides singularly fruitful parallels for counseling. Cooley's (1902 treatment of the development of the self, as exoressed in the conceot "lookn_ rins- self."s (in- Volv_ cn.e imannaicns OPeopl a7 or one another [-artindale, 1960; 347, de - serves as serious consideration as that of Freud's (1.924) hvnothesis of the importance of tLbe ego and supereg i- the develonment of self- r 3erne's (1961) or Harris' (1967) paradigms of parent, child and adui stages. Goffian' s "situational propriety" (1961. 1963) and Garfinkel's "degradation cerzoniesr (1956) ?rovide Analysis of rituaitic behavior w,.hich is ec ual s in unce'scara'ng Individual behavior and behavioral change as Freud's (1924) trea-m.ent of ritualistic behavior. Dranaturaicai sociology as developed by Goffman (1959, 1963) fiads a Counterpart in Be r-.'a (196A) axt-es. The focus of s'ccic interactionism upon the importance of the symbolic nature of human interactio n has much to contribute to an aareness of insights into individual behavior exorassed in s-oti 4 actions and Perceptions as outlined b bo-:h r (l2-4) and 7urc (i92'). The latter of whom contends that the link between society and psychic energv is the :tmbol. 653

That branch of symbolic interactionism labeled phenomenological sociology, including Weber's verstehen (the consideration of the meaning of action and social!i structures for actors [Martindale, 1960; Kando, 1977]), is an essential complement: to Frankl's logotherapy (1962, 1965) or "meaning" therapy, Reik's (1948) "third car," gestalt psychology's emphasis upon perception, configuration, dissonance and.- mcanzng (Kando 1977), Lewin's (1972) field theory wi-h e.phasis upor. motivation an meaning (Kando 1977), Per~s' gestalt therapy (1969a, 1969b) which emphasizes self-.. ac.cualization and meaning, and Rogers' (1961) client centered therarv. All of thcse, like phenomenology, pcsits the importance of empatherically understanding the meaning of a specific experience for the actor. Thomas and Zrnaniecki's (1918-2) analysis of motivation parallels Maslow's (1955) hierarchy of needs and Perls' (1969* 1969%) self-actualization. Schools of role and labeling theory have also crntZributed to counseling sociology. Thomas' (1918-20, 1923) definition of rhe s:ieoarcn, orton's (l94) restatemeng as st±:-fulfilling prcphecy, Marxian conflict theory .19331), and 3i=-ff's (1966) re- ridual deviance all merge :ihthe .:of OS-ai:ists5 w'o have re--ected the con-; cept o mental illness: Evsenck (1960), Lairs (195C) Szasz (1961, 170) and a variety .f radical therapists such as Jaffe (1975). Labeling theory also has parallels with a more traditional figure in the field such as Menninger (1963) in his significant discussion on tne history of psychiatric classification. Mention should also be made of the meuhodoloz2es used by _- .tb 1ic inreractio- ists Such as participanto. .. :', nersonal re--_ds and dczurent= ,.d -he arts ...--o --, drama an..-ei:. whica . ore .< ' _ crec:2--.ounseling -aproac' such as that op ::: pira. as as ::or- :radi-ional therapies. Finally, mention should he made of studies in Lhe area of sociobiology which have similarities with and make contributions to behaviorist approaches in psycholoy and the uses of behavior modificiation in counseling. Kemper (1973) points to the legitimate role sociologists make to the inderstanding of emotions. While Michaels and Green (1978) do nor explicitly contend that st'ciclov has a !eitimate role in ccunseling, their diefi-ilon of behavioral sociology would seem to imply it. A1- thougrh t -eir main cm:n" Is to indicate the use of cneran: conditioning in understanding and altering human behavior, perhaps equally important is their documenta- tion of the failure of sociologists to become involved in or give consideration to applied behavioral analysis. Baldwin and Baldwin (1978) report that, in the past decade, behaviorism has moved toward recognition of the importance of private behavior, cognition and emotion. In discussing the behaviorist view on verstehen and erklaren, they indirectly support the contention of the present research that sociOl- ogy (particularly as expressed in the symbolic interactionism school) has a legitimate claim to individual and persona! counseling for individual change. A MODEL FOR COUNSELING SOCIOLOGY PREDICATED UPON CULTURAL RELATIVITY

While a number of contributions and parallels between sociology and other disciplines practicing clinical work and counseling can be identified, sociology, at present, has made no concentrated effort to present a theoretical formulation 65-I

for utilization of tae sociological perspective in counseling, nor in developing models ouz of which counseling socicicists -it Dractice. -E.essence, any of me theoretical approaches previously discussed could provide an underlying theory for 0ounseli sociology and contribute one or more counLseling models. At the same tine. it is important to reccrnize -hat sociolog'. contributes a viewnc-int w ich unitas several of the theoretical insights presented here that would be fruitful for developing modes for anDiication :in counselin2. 71-is ccnsruct mter,[es ftron historical discussions in the field of cultural relativity (Lee 1966) and finds current expression in what Kando (1977) labels cultural sociology. Kando con- ceives of cultural sociology as a unifying approach in social psychology. -ile he includes cu!lural-bumaisr_ svool ic interacrionism, phenomenology, ethno-methodology and existential-humanistic sociology as contributors to cultural sociology, function- alisf, conflict theory. ac sociosoV of krcwledre also contribute to tfle .orocass of cultural relativity. i t needs to be emphasized again that the cultural relativity perspective is offered on_> as directional, both in terms of theory and models. rather than exhaustive. AS t"L-previous discussion should have -made clear, one coul use for exanpie, a sociobiology modl, a dramaturgical model or a symbolic interaction model. Other models basecd . on sociological theory, but not ioni Liec jn t- previous discussion could alsc be devaloned for example, a scructura-funcmional model. With resoect to the node_ suggested here, chat of rul-uralrelativi_, deal of literature nosirs ,che importance of culture upon personality and individual behavior. Both Kando (1977) and W hite (1947) cite Durkheim (1938) with respect to this, ennhasizing his view of sciecy as sui generis reaL-icz .±.: -ich the7 ideerCran existence of social structure and culture is assumed, and individual and inter- personal behavior is considared to be determined by the former. Sumner's (1940) contention that "The mores can make anyth-ing right" (Chri-sensen, 160; 31)' 1s sar to demonstrate the importance of culture for individual behavior. It is argued by Christensen that Sumner's idea challenges the notion of absolute standards of Judgment to be applied uniformly regardless of time or place. -arx (1930) and Mannheim (1936) indicate that everything one believes or knows is colored by one's culture, class, social position, and environment. Thius, no one is right or no one is wrong (Kando, 1977; 289). Wirth (1931) documents XC. I. Thomas and Dorothy Swain Thomas' view that behavior is a cultural product. Likewise, Berger and Luckman consider culture to be a significant determinant of huran behavior (Kando, 1977; 100). Lee (1966) outlines four cultural models important in understanding an individual's Opinions, emotions and actions. Zola (1966) raises the issue of relativity with teference to social patholcgies in his discussion of the rol e of culture in i-.as Link (1948) emphasizes culture as important in human behavior in a discussion on t oOCio-somatics. Since the paradig offered here for counseling sociology is t or4a: cuirurca Telativity, it should be acknowledged that it has recently been stated that cultural .thlativity has fallen into disrepute among sociolooists (Spencer 1977). However, Sseveral writers have still pointed to the producing of a mild culture shock among introductory sociology students, researchers and others as a legitimate goal .-Arensberg and Niehoff, 1964; Bock, 1970; Lee, 1973; Spencer. 1977). Recocnizin that culture shock is, at least in part, a result of an awareness that others to 655 not hold one's own culture or social struczures as absolute in their appropriateness, one is brought quickly back to the issue of cultura relativity.' Wooiward (1938) no.es that cultural anth-opclogy ale has this effect of undarinn one's ethno- centrism. It is both culture shock and this effect of undermining one's own world view which is the foundation of a sociological counseling model based upon the idea of cultural relativity. Berger (1963) and Lee (1966) are particularly helpful in bringing this counseling model into focus. If, as Berger contends, one task of soziolo. is :o create recon-i:ion of the rela:iri:y cf one's awni culture, society, anE 'f stz-le, then cbis "task" can be x-iewed as ;resentinc an oppnC=uni Y for socioogists to become involved in activities, such as counseling, :hat pronoe individual behavior change. If, in fact, this is a legitimate goal ijn the teaching of sociology to groups of students, there is no logical reason to assume it is not an equally legitimate goal in working in a one-co-one situation. If, as Lee claims, sociologists can first, help the lonely and tense people of the twentieth century,

"5v interpreting social realicos as data with w'hich . .. marntee deal . . a:d . .St-ii accept the cha2.enges and opportunizies of those raalities - ." and seconC, :o "assist people to nkze their o - asses en:;s -f social mynthology . (what treasured anc preserved, wha: discarded what irreverently and experimentally probed," (Lee, 1966; 3601-), then this presents the sociologist with the occasion for individual behavioral change. Once again, as with Berger, assuming that this is a legitimate goal in the teaching of sociology, there is no logical reason to assume i- is nor a legitimate gtoal in workina with a in i n .n-o:-enes:ua:-on. The Mode. foDr canseln so--iolo.7 which er-:es .ram :,h Cf these perceptions of :he task c- soc.clor is ao'sisen: .wit- ge' S (1961) charac-erlza:icr of counseling as an ducat ional or earninz arocess. -4-s is also consisten- u-h,,zhein's (Glass, 1975; 6) descrtption of soctotheraov with respect to organizations. It consists of enabling a "client to learn self- diagnosis and self-intervention." in essence then, counseling sociology based upon cultural relativity is teaching sociology one-on-one, with relativity of cultures and societies as the focus. i: is Important to recognize that other models can be and -"_z.-aossilv Sre being e-_ oyed in counseling sociology. Severai sc--iolorri t_ prcvi-e alternative models and methodolozical variazions crom the cul-tural relna:!iit " vantage point of counscing sociology. Marx ('933) exlains behavior in terns of class conflicts. Much individual behavior labeled deviant and/or antisocial is rational and moral when perceived in light of persons dominated by those in power in a capitalist society. This behavior does not indicate an emotional or psychological problem of the individual, but ra7her is a resulc of a hasic nroblem in the social structure. The approach or methodology ta ,,de- or this Ind4vtual_,n..avedicr in resclving the -proh'e. 's cli:ica] ac-icn rr -! reverouton. Thomas (Wir:h, 1931: 65) offers "modifica-ion and mania:tla:_on a Child's social world" (re-defining the sizuation) as a means of chanv;Ing beh,"nvior harmful to the child. This method of social Lherapy is labeled "bene.iciee fra--ning." As an attempt to resolve the struggle with tho mulRiplicty or conflicting ideologies which confront an individual, Mannheim (1936) sets forth the process of "dynamic relationise." The process involves a recognition that first, all ideologids clai: absolute val.ditv -rec. are "reIa-ed to a .arciclar 'os,icn: and -are:' adecuaZt only 656 to that one." Second, the individual must assimilate "all the crucial motivations ad viewpoints, whose internal contradictions account for . . [one's] social- political tension [i] the . . . individual is tc bel in a Pcsition to arrive at a solution- adecuare to our oresent A te-sizua-r-"... (Lee. 173; ). lee (-966 outlines the method of "cultural muliivaJance as the ites:: hepful an heaIh1 f I approach ." to enable individuals to alter old routines and deal with anonymity and anxieties. Cultural multivalence is the ability to be of many minds, to be many things to many people, and to perceive it as normal (1966; 79). "Sociol- ogical lachiavellianisn" is the technique developed by Berger to assist individuas "weak!y, hesi:a:iigly, somei-:es assic:natelv trvnc to be someh es:' (:; 156). The :echnicue is Z=sizned to helo indiviiuals understand ":he rules of the game • - so tha: one might be in a position co cheat." SociolOw: can serve as "a course in how to beat the system" (1963; 152). . The additional and unifying element which the cultural relativity viewpoint for individual counseling sociology brings to each oC these varied methodologies is the idea that if an individual, through the one-ct-one tease-ning cf socilcy, t becomes aware of the ?rocesses labeled "cthe Co'kin- 'ss se G ," i:ua icna ?ro- prierY," "dezradaion aeremonies," The r . t '' . . " . and "idec1 o: "the definition of the situation," "self-fulfiling prophecies, labeling," and ,!'class conflict," and alternatives to these, he or she may decide to alter his or iier perception or meaning of culture, roles, statuses, groups, institutions, symbols, 4Jteraction, and self. If, in fact, these perceptions or meanings are altered to :1clude the recognition of the relativity of these elements, there is then, signift- cant opportunity for inividual behavioral chance. -.: Labeling theory prcs a helpfu, if very general, ex'ple of the applicaticn of this model. This approach hypothesizes that by enabling the individual to perceive that his or her behavior is determined by these labels, and exploring alterna- .tives, individual behavioral change is a possibility. If Thomas' "definition of the situation," and Merton's "self-fulfilling prophecy" represents role theory (Kando 1977), rather than labeling theory, they too provide interestina aithou h general examples fro_ a somewhat different t-eortira $flpecti-Ve, Cha.e the defini:ionor. he situation for an individual, or for those 4uteracting with an individual, and it is possible that the prophecy inherent in tbt original definition may not be fulfilled. ' , In other words, sociology taught one-on-one from the construct of cultural itativity, offers an opportunity for an individual to become aware of the relativity *d effects of the forces and processes of society, culture, and self upon himself flherself. This knowledee creates the noss:biliry that the i±notv-ua 1il alter .Ubor her percention of the imuortance and meaning or nest, Dresent, and future ifpOnses to these Forces and processes. Such an approach facilitates the possi- 4Uty of individual behavioral change.

SUbIAAY AND CONCLUSION What the current research demo-nstrates is first, the need to cifferen-tate 1; eling socio-o:3y frcm clinical sociology. Clinical sociology is definec as ,se Practices which deal with organizations and/or the largest social groups, have an essentially indirect role in izounscliing1 , and usu a team approach. Counseling7 sociology, then, describes those piofessional sociologists involved in counseli4 . with one Person, i or in ersmal. group situations. Second, there is historicj.l rrecedert in socio;ZY: Cr the appiication of sociological knowledge tb. ssport e : ar&soczoIoizZal cla-- to a ro1 .- .he counselinZ :o-es :our,Z. :'t consru7 c:-- .u vre-a-vit_orovide.-- -or e Ift ana ..eth c o~igcr4:-_tio for -= cou-seaiin so _ioo. y, V.:hilh Consi*. o a one-:o-one :eachir, of socicloz: or th- teachin:: of sociology to a small gro. wich facilitacion of individual bchavior ch..nge as a goal.

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'ii.e .zhe .crican 4 ssaiazi? : of' Marriage n- F-en.iiv Counselors and :he utrnational Association ot Applied SocLaJ Scientists provide sociologists the upportunitv to ennzage in counseling, they do not, nor were they meant to, embody a .trictly sociological aoproach to counseli.ng. Thus they do not lead to recognitit -d thisax, ro er by the -public or hr the lecal system.

-. - --- *- -r anl £-Xflu- .. '-.e rnu-o.. toe resarc!- :n these areas.

LT- oth er words, a socioloist need not be trained as a psychcogis- or social psychologist to utilize his expertise in facilitating individual behavioral change (counseling). Nor, on the other hand, if counseling is a process uLilizing a variety- of perspectives. does a psychologist..need -- aining as a sociologist or &o. iL-D.SV2I1Co~oiSt o enee in counselint. atouq*? miny .rerson-.l oI±Cfls may be -Cf-.....- U- s--.-e- - -- r .- -o i l ' i a-. .-..--* >..n

.-.-.Bri.eraist ,.',2and -ee (iX 6) alsC Z.er--e .:L2C th ,-:o-[o0 -'

6 Even Freud recognized the significance of culture in individual behavior and particular>y with reference to what some societies tend to label aberrant or deviant behavior, sea Civilization and its Discoients (London: r Press, .I --' •

-- in r.ac: .-- o-o i 7 sInciccis~s c-i, me - stuentsr awareness or tac oi-versity of.-_cuzitures u- sotiteties. at.! Or de.-C.'eU±..... c the validity of such diverse cultures and societies. The issue of "'vaiu free", sociology is not a new one (Couldnur 1970). Even today some contemporary sociol ogists teach with the aim of expanding students' knowledge and acceptance of other @ultures and socities (?crger, 1963; Lee, 1973; Couldner, 1970). In some instanefo S,

miere are even Latent hopes thaz s:ucents will embrace and er-mouroe otners . so'.evad~usr~ to=i~''n zi e -'. 9-.. '- - SO~iev to aECart S n1"-. ...C- n. C zulAre.z 0Z010y SoCa_ st. E C -"onaS 658

8Essentially, what this recognizes is that education is itself a process of Iuman growth and development. Any discipline with appropriate internships in counseling and human growth and development has a valid contribution to make to this developmental process. This has been the thrust of humanistic and liberal arts education from time to time throughout history. This was the original focus of the concept of the "well rounded" person. It was an attempt to facilitate the development of whole personalities.

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