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Traditionally Protected Forests' Role Within Transforming Natural 2011 D R This thesis provides an outlook on the traditionally E P protected forests and sites in Taita Hills, Kenya. A It examines their ecological characteristics and T how they relate to social dynamics, explores their MEN ideological aspects, and analyzes them as sites for conservation of cultural and biological diversity. T These areas are important components of a O F larger complex socio-ecological system, which G has symbolical status and sacred and mystical E elements within it. In turn, this contributes to AND OSCIENCES the connectivity of indigenous remnant forests in the agroforestry dominated landscape. Sacredness, however, enhances but, it does not equal conservation. Various social, political and economic arrangements further affect the integrity of the forests, control of witchcraft being one of them. The Taita people have a rich traditional G ecological knowledge base which they apply to E natural resource management, health care and OGRA social welfare. P H Y A 14 DR EPA TMENT OF GEOSCIENCES AND GEOGRAPHY A14 N NA MBERG D epartment of Geosciences and Geography A 14 I ISSN-L 1798-7911 ISSN 1798-7911 (print) H ISBN 978-952-10-7282-6 (paperback) I ISBN 978-952-10-7283-3 (PDF) TRADI TIONALLY PROTECTED http://ethesis.helsinki.fi FORESTS´ROLE WITHIN TRANSFORMING Helsinki University Print Helsinki 2011 NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REGIMES IN TAITA HILLS, KENYA N INA HIMBERG Traditionally Protected Forests´ Role within Transforming Natural Resource Management Regimes in Taita Hills, Kenya NINA HIMBERG ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Science of the University of Helsinki, for public examination in Auditorium XV, University main building, on November 25th 2011, at 12. DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES AND GEOGRAPHY A14 / HELSINKI 2011 Cover photo: Nina Himberg Author´s address: Nina Himberg Office of the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry P.O. Box 62 00014 University of Helsinki Finland [email protected] Supervised by: Professor Petri Pellikka Department of Geosciences and Geography University of Helsinki Reviewed by: Professor Jarkko Saarinen Department of Geography University of Oulu Environmental adviser Dr. Matti Nummelin Department of Development Policy Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland Opponent: Professor Kimberly E. Medley Department of Geography Miami University, Ohio Publisher: Department of Geosciences and Geography, Faculty of Science, P.O.box 64, FI-00014 University of Helsinki ISSN-L 1798-7911 ISSN 1798-7911 (print) ISBN 978-952-10-7282-6 (paperback) ISBN 978-952-10-7283-3 (PDF) http://ethesis.helsinki.fi Helsinki University Print, Helsinki 2011 Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements List of tables and Figures Abbreviations 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Status of traditional ecological knowledge and the fundamental role of “sacred” ................................................................................................................... 2 1.2. Recent trends in Sub-Saharan African forest management - from the fines and fences-approach towards decentralization and participatory forest management .. 5 1.2.1. Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) ............................... 6 1.2.2. Participatory forest management (PFM) and governance of commons ............. ...7 1.2.3. Fines and fences in Kenya ..................................................................................... 9 2. Theoretical framework ................................................................................... 12 2.1. Human relation and attitudes towards nature .................................................. 12 2.2. Traditional and local ecological knowledge ................................................... 14 2.3. Ethnodevelopment as a sensitizing concept .................................................... 17 2.4. Development bewitched .................................................................................. 18 3. Traditionally protected forests in Africa .................................................... 20 4. Research setting and justification of the study .......................................... 24 4.1. Research aims ................................................................................................. 25 4.2. Methods .......................................................................................................... 26 4.2.1. Farmer interviews and participatory mapping of forest reserve values ........... 27 4.2.2. Household survey of traditional ecological knowledge and participatory group sessions .......................................................................................... 27 4.2.3. Participatory mapping of traditionally protected forests and sacred sites ........ 30 4.1. Data analysis ................................................................................................... 32 5. Geography of Taita Hills ............................................................................. 34 5.1. Landscape and its transformation ................................................................... 34 5.2. Traditional land use and ownership patterns in Taita Hills ............................. 39 5.3. Economical realities in Taita District .............................................................. 41 5.4. The bewitching of Taita development ............................................................. 42 6. Human-nature relationship in Taita .......................................................... 43 6.1. Livelihoods and world-views .......................................................................... 43 6.2. The evolution of Taita political culture during the land reform ...................... 44 6.3. From traditional agricultural practices to modern agroforestry ...................... 45 7. Results .............................................................................................................. 48 7.1. Traditional ecological knowledge of Wadawida ............................................. 48 7.1.1. Local land use categories versus scientific land use categories ..................... 48 7.1.2. Traditionally protected forests (TPF) and sites (TPS) in Taita Hills .............. 54 Sizes and categories ................................................................................. 54 Description of various TPF/S categories ...................................................... 58 Size patterns by TPF/S categories ............................................................... 78 7.1.3. Traditionally protected forest condition assessment ................................... 79 Change in the condition and use of TPF/S in last 10 years ............................. 80 7.1.4. TPF/S tenure distribution and size ............................................................. 80 7.1.5. Managers of the traditionally protected forests and sites .............................. 81 7.1.6. Differences between areas in the occurrence of traditionally protected forests and sites in the landscape ............................................................... 83 7.1.7. Current uses of plants found in traditionally protected forests and sites according to the tradition experts ................................................. 88 Technical solutions and construction ............................................................ 88 Pest control and food ................................................................................ 88 Firewood and charcoal ............................................................................. 88 Environmental services ............................................................................. 89 Medicines for human use ........................................................................... 89 Veterinary medicines ................................................................................ 90 Magical medicines for ritual purposes ........................................................... 90 7.1.8. The knowledge transfer according to village elders ..................................... 92 7.1.9. Traditional ecological knowledge of Taita households ............................... 92 Uses of beneficial plants and traditional methods on farms .............................. 93 Medicines for human use .......................................................................... 93 Veterinary medicines................................................................................ 94 Magical medicines for ritual purposes ......................................................... 94 Pesticides, herbicides and wildlife combat .................................................... 94 Timber production and environmental services on private farms ........................ 95 Species for firewood, charcoal and food ....................................................... 96 Species and methods for soil and water management ....................................... 96 Historical farm transect portrays the change of preferred tree species ................ 96 Tree management as a joint activity in households .......................................... 99 Tree management as a joint activity in the community ................................... 100 7.1.10. Applicability of existing TEK according to the farmers ............................. 101 Domestication of forest trees .................................................................... 101 Indigenous species with
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