Medicinalan d poisonous plants of the tropics

Proceedings of Symposium 5-35 of the 14th International Botanical Congress, Berlin, 24July- I August 1987

A.J.M. Leeuwenberg (compiler)

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CIP-gegevensKoninklijk e Bibliotheek, Den Haag

ISBN90-220-0921- 1 NUGI824 ©Centre for Agricultural Publishingan dDocumentation , Wageningen, 1987

No part of thispublication ,apar t from bibliographic dataan dbrie f quotations embodiedi n critical reviews, may bereproduced , re-recorded or published inan yfor m including print, photocopy, microform, electronic or electromagnetic record without written permission from the publisher Pudoc, P.O.Bo x 4,670 0A A Wageningen, Netherlands.

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L. CONTENTS

Preface 7 Research onmedicina l and poisonous plants of the tropics -past , present and future - I.Hedber g 9 Medicinal plants in tropical areas of China -Pei Sheng-ji 16 Tropical plants used in Chinesemedicine :potentia l leads for pharmaceutical development -Pau l Pui-Hay But 24 Medicinal plants of wide use in Zimbabwe -N.Z .Nyazem a 36 Some common African herbal remedies for skin diseases: with special reference to Kenya -J.0 .Kokwar o 44 Plants as sources of antimalarial and amoebicidal compounds - J.D. Phillipson, M.J. O'Neill, C.W. Wright,D.H . Bray and D.C.Warhurs t 70 Plants in thehealt h care delivery system of Africa -Dawi t Abebe 79 The investigation and research onHseny i -natura l resources of Henan -Ga o Zengyi,Zho u Changshan,Cui Bo ,A n Zhuojun and / Tang Shian 88 Introduction to the ethnobotanical pharmacopeia of the Amazonian Jivaro of Peru -W.H . Lewis,M . Elvin-Lewis and M.C. Gnerre 96 Analysis of the volatile constituents of Piper betle L. cultivars - a chemosystematic approach -A.K.S . Rawat,Ush a Shome and V.R. Balasubrahmanyam 104 Medicinal and poisonous plants in the West Indies -C.E . Seaforth 109 Some Malvaceae of Mozambique with medicinal properties - Angelina L. Maite 116 Medicinal use of some Philippine plants -Ma .Agne s Abad Flores 119 Recent efforts ofpreservatio n and exploitation of medicinal and aromatic plants -J . Bernäth 121 Drumstick {Moringa oleifera Lam.) -A multipurpos e perennial Indian vegetable tree of considerable medicinal value -K.V . Peter 124 Glycoside formation in Digitalis lanata Ehrh leaves with special reference togrowt h hormones and mineral nutrients treatments - S.K. Chatterjee and R.P.Nand i 128 Plant remedies used against 'fevers' ina Mixe lowland community,Oaxaca ,Mexic o -Michae l Heinrich and Horst Rimpler 134 Indigenous medicinal plants of Garhwal Himalaya (India): an ethnobotanical study -R.D . Gaur and J.K. Tiwari 139 Index of chemical compounds 143 Index of scientific names 146 PREFACE

The presentpublicatio n contains theproceeding s of Symposium 5-35 "Medicinal and poisonousplant s of the tropics"hel d on 30Jul y 1987 during the 14th International Botanical Congress atBerlin . The contributions areb y experts from all over the world. The great diversity of their papers onplant s from differentpart s of the world makes itver y attractive.

The compiler wishes to thank Professor Dr U. Jensen and Professor DrN.G . Bisset for their advice;th e Central Congress Committee, especially Professor Dr W. Greuter and Dr B. Zimmer for their efficient organization and invaluable assistance with the symposium; Dr I.Hedberg , whokindl y replaced Professor Dr E.L.Ayensu ,wh o washindered , and chaired the symposium as symposium organizer.

A.J.M. Leeuwenberg RESEARCH ONMEDICINA L ANDPOISONOU S PLANTS OFTH ETROPIC S -PAST , PRESENTAN D FUTURE

IngaHedber g Department of Systematic Botany,Uppsal aUniversity , Uppsala, Sweden

Summary Plants have fed the world and cured its ills since timeimmemorial . Avas t knowledgeo f medicinal andpoisonou s plants musttherefor e have accumulated, especially in thetropics , where the large majority of allhighe rplan t species are found. But most of this knowledge onlyexist s asverba ltraditio n andonl y afractio n isye tavailabl et o science. Lesstha n 10% of all species have been subjected to investigations of secondary metabolites and their effects. Furthermore, the present trend is to concentrate the screening on relatively few species or groups of special interest. Sincepeopl e in the tropics willremai n dependent on herbal medicines for many years tocome ,th e growing interest in thoseregion s to savean d utilize the knowledge found in traditional medicine is of utmost importance. In this connection it is alarming that it has become increasingly difficult to find young people willingt otrai na straditiona lpractitioners ,an dtha tman yo fth eplant suse d arethreatene db y extinction through exploitation of natural vegetation. The most urgent tasks for the future musttherefor e bedocumentatio n of theknowledg e heldb ytraditiona lpractitioners , training of taxonomie botanists, development of tropical herbaria and conservation of ecosystems andmedicina lplants . Introduction Theus eo f plants in curing andhealin g is asol d asma n himself.Bu twhils t industrialized countries during the last hundred years have gradually reduced the use of plant remedies these stillpla y anenormou srol ei nth etropics . In tropical developing countries about 80%o f therura lpopulatio n dependfo r their health careo ntraditiona lpractitioners ,whic hals omean stha tth epeopl ei nth emai nhav et orel yo n medicinal plants for treatment. This fact, together with the WHO programme launched in 1976fo r the "Promotion andDevelopmen t ofTraditiona l Medicine"should ,i n myopinion , provide strong reasons for devoting considerable resources toresearc h on medicinal plants in the tropics. In the developed world the use of such plants in medicine in developing countries is, however, often looked upon as obselete and largely based on superstition. Scientists inth ewester n world workingi n so-called modern biology,lik emolecula r biology and biotechnology, as well as those concerned only with the study of the compounds or with medicine as such, seem tohav e littleunderstandin g of theresearc h need in this field. There are also strong antagonists toresearc h programmes on medicinal plants among the decision-makers andfundin g agencies. Thepas t In order to evaluate theprospect s of medicinalplant sresearc h we must know something aboutth eresult s already obtained.Histor y isimportan t sinceth epas t givesu sth eke y toth e present and should help planning for the future. Already many hundred years ago a vast knowledge had accumulated onplan t species used for medicinalpurposes . Iti s amatte r of definition to stateth e timewhe n the scientific research started onplant s usedi n traditional medicine. But it would probably be safe to date it back to the late 18th century when investigations werecarrie d outo n theeffec t of, e.g., Digitalis (Withering, 1785). Up toearl y 1800th edrug swer euse dra w ora s simple extracts.A ne w epoch wasinitiate d when for the first time morphine was isolated from opium and from then on the interest seems to have gradually diverged from research on medicinal plants toresearc h on plant medicines.I nothe r words,th eresearc h becameincreasingl y oriented towards the chemical aspects and the manufacturing of pure compounds (like strychnine, caffeine and quinine, etc.) and substancesfro m tropical plantscam et opla y amajo rrole . Theimprovin g possibilities to synthesize desirable substancesmean t that the searchingo f theplan t kingdom for remedies diminished, moreresearc h instead beingdirecte d towards the synthesizing of newproducts . This downward trend is seen in the continuous decrease in theimportanc eo f medicinaldrug so fplan torigin ,a fac t thati n 1941mad eth eDirecto ro f Harvard Botanical Museum, Dr. P. Mangelsdorf, predict that in another 25 years such drugs would beo f littlemor e thanhistorica l interest.I n the new era the scientists obviously often forgot that the starting material for their research was nearly always natural compounds from plants known tob e usedi n traditional medicine, and that their successi n creatingne wmedicine s thus shouldlargel yb eattribute d tosuc hsubstances . Iti spossibl etha tDr . Mangeldorfs prediction mighthav ecom etru e -a tleas t asfa r asth e most sophisticated developed countriesar econcerne d -wer ei tno tfo r awidesprea d tropical plant,extensivel y usedi n traditional medicinebu tunti labou t 1950ignore d byth escientists . Thediscover y ofpoten t substances in Catharanthusroseu si n 1957 (Bernard,1967 ) turned thewheel .Althoug h notexplicitl y stated,thi sdiscover y wasprobabl y amajo r reasonfo r the changes in attitude towards research on plants used in traditional medicine, so eminently illustrated by the above-mentioned Dr. Mangelsdorf, who at a symposium in 1968 on "Plantsi n thedevelopmen t of modem medicine" madeth efollowin g comment tohi s 1941 statemento n thedeclinin g interestfo r suchplants : "Twenty-seven yearshav eno welapse d sinceI mad e thisbol dpredictio n andi tturn sou ttha tI coul dhardl y havebee n morewrong " (Mangelsdorf, 1972). The discovery of oncolytic properties of the alkaloids in Catharanthus roseus hasi n 30 years resulted in hundreds of scientific reports and stimulated the search for other antitumour agents ofplan torigin . In this context it is of considerable interest to note that the first report on Catharanthus roseus dates back to more than three hundred years. The first printed information on the speciesi sgive n in 1658i nD eFlacourt' s "Histoired el a GrandIl ed eMadagascar " (Boiteau, 1972). The description runs asfollows : "Herbe ressemblante au Saponaria.qu i al a fleure comme celle du Jassemine, l'unees t blanche, l'autre est le coleur de pourpre, la racine est fort amère,d elaquell eil s se servent contrel ema ld ecoeu r &es t bonnecontr ele spoisons ; elle approche du Vincetoxicon ou Asclepias...." The comparison to the Asclepias is interesting sincethoug hi ti sobviousl y basedmor eo nmedicina lpropertie s ofth eplan ttha n on morphology, it nevertheless indicates a relationship that has later been confirmed by systematists.

Thecas eo f Catharanthusroseu si sb yn omean suniqu e -a smentione dearlier ,mos to fou r modern medicines are based or modelled on compounds occurring in plants which have been used for hundreds or thousands of years in traditional medicine. In China attempts have been made for many years to integrate traditional and modern medicine, and the screeningo fplant sfo r medical usei srestricte d tothos euse di nfolk-medicine ; according to Chineseresearcher srando mscreenin gi sno tfrequentl y used "sincei trequire smuc h sowing butyield slittl eharvesting " (XiaoPeigen , 1981). It has also been shown by Perdue (1970) that screening of plants used in traditional medicine gives a significantly higher proportion of interesting substances than random screening. Avas t amount of knowledge onmedicina l plants from the tropics has accumulated since ancient times.I wil lher eonl y mention thedocumente d knowledgei n theIndia n Ayurveda andth eol dMexica n herbals, and theknowledg e carried for centuries through oraltraditio n in Africa. Thepresen t Literature on medicinal plants used in the tropics has proliferated during recent years,

10 ranging from exhaustive books on practically all scientific and traditional aspects in a country or an area to those basedmainl y oninformatio n abouttraditiona l use.Example so f the first kind are the renowned "Medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and Eastern Africa" (Watt and Brandt Breyerwijk, 1962) "Spices,condiment s and medicinal plantsi n Ethiopia" (Jansen, 1981), "Medicinalplant si n tropicalWes tAfrica " (Oliver-Bever, 1986), "Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia (Perry, 1980) and encylopedias like "The wealth ofIndia " (1948-1976),.Example s of lessextensiv e surveys,usuall y giving onlyth e scientific and local names and accounting for reported local use are "Medicinal plants of West Africa" (Ayensu, 1978) and "Medicinal plants of East Africa" (Kokwaro, 1976). Furthermore,ther ear e severaljournal sdealin g largelyo rexclusivel y withmedicina lplants , like for example, Lloydia. This publication started in 1938 as "A quarterly journal of biological science", to be changed in 1961 (Vol. 24) into " A quarterly journal of pharmacognosy and allied sciences" and in 1970 (Vol. 33) into "A journal of natural products". Another relevant publication is the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, the first volume ofwhic h appearedi n 1980. Acomprehensiv e survey of thepresen t situation asregard sresearc h on medicinalplant si n the tropics is given in "A world survey on medicinal plants and herbs" (Marini-Bettölo, 1980). Poisonousplant s havebee n studied on andof f for many years.Als oi n thisfiel d therei sa considerable amount of literature;textbook s like "Giftpflanzen -Pflanzengifte " (Roth atal. , 1984) aswel l ashandbook s for certain areas,e.g. , "Plantas tóxicas de Mexico" (Contreras et al. 1982), "Poisonousplant s ofRhodesia " (Shonee tal. , 1965),an dth e above-mentioned volumeb yWat t andBrand t Breyerwijk. Obviously,loca lknowledg e aboutpoisonou splant si srathe r limited, exceptfo r thosewit h immediate effect, since plants known by scientists to be poisonous are used not only as vegetables but also for medicinal purposes. Thus, one reason for intensified research on poisonous andmedicina lplant si stha t attention wouldb edraw n tosuc hplants ,whic h could then bebanne d for further use. Comprehensive studies in this field would also be very important with regard to plants consumed by cattle. According to recent studies (Aleljung, unpublished; Mugera et al., 1979,th ehig h mortality especially inyoun gcattl ei sprobabl y often causedb y consumption of poisonous plants. The cause of serious liver damage in calves has been traced back to milkfro m cowswhic h haveeate n suchplants ,e.g. , Senecio spp.I ti s anintriguin g question how such milk affects the children to which it is given. The effect on breastfed babies of poisonousplant seate n by theirmothers ,wa sdiscusse d by Schoental alreadyi n 1955.

Therenewe d interest in the western world forplant s used in traditional medicine,an dth e rapidly growing interest in developing countries to startresearc h programmes in this area have, unfortunately, not emphasized the great importance of taxonomie botany and documentation for suchresearch .

Taxonomiebotan y Taxonomie botany often plays a significant rolewhe n itcome st o grouping theplant s for chemical analysis or to find a new source species for a desired substance. Presence or absenceo f acertai n substanceofte n coincides withmorphologica l differences, earlieruse d in separating between species or groups. This refers, for example, to the distribution (presence or absence) of yeuhchukene in species of Murrava (But et al., 1986) and of certain alkaloids in Veratrum (Kupchan et al., 1961). Taxonomie studies can thus be of greatimportanc ei npredictin gth epresenc eo f activesubstanc ei ncertai ngroups .

Scientific names Application ofcorrec t scientific namesfo rplant suse di ntraditiona lmedicin e alsocall s for botanical expertise. The WHO decision to adopt the most commonly used latin name for medicinalplant s ismos t unfortunate -i t goes without saying thati ti sessentia l tous ei n all contextsth ecorrec t scientific nameo fth eplants .

11 Documentation Proper documentation of any new phytochemical information requires that a voucher specimen is deposited in a public herbarium, so that the determination can be checked whenever required - erroneous namings, unfortunately, are quite common. Striking examples are given by Farnswort h and Morris (1976) of very expensive and elaborate research turningou tt ob ea complet efailur e becauseo f inadequatedocumentation . Onlyte n years ago Farnsworth and Bingel (1977) reported thefollowin g from a survey of the 1975 literatureo nth eisolatio no fne wchemica lentitie sfro m higherplants : "Only 160o fth e239 9 novel chemical compounds reported were isolated from plants for which the author(s) indicated that a voucher specimen was available for reference to the plant material investigated. There is even a 1975 paper, published in a reputable chemical journal, in which a new compound was reported isolated from a plant that was identified only as 'probably belonging toth e Menispermaceae'" Indocumentin gth einformatio n onplant suse di ntraditiona lmedicin eth eblessin go frecen t decades, the computer, is of course of immense importance. However, when it comes to searching for literature, computertechnique s have aconsiderabl e drawback in theirlimite d possibilities totrac einformation . Onlyliteratur epublishe d after 1965i s available from data bases,whic h meanstha tinformatio n publishedbefor e thatyea r stands agrav eris k ofbein g neglected. One important difficulty in assembling and utilizing information on medicinal and poisonous plantsi s the uneven quality of existinginformatio n and the "spotty" charactero f scientific literature, as emphasized for poisonous plants by Kingsburg (1979). There has been toomuc huncritica l compilation ofpoorl ydocumente d data. The future Judging from the large amount of useful substances already obtained from plants, and in view of the fact that only 7% of those now known to science have been properly investigated, research in thisare aoffer s awid e scopefo r thefuture . Asmentione d earlier, programmes have been or are being elaborated in most developing countries and collaboration isno westablishe d between scientistsi n suchcountrie s andi n developedones . The fact that WHO encourages and supports such programmes should also be a stimulus towardsextende dresearc h inthi sarea .Unfortunately , therear eseriou sobstacle s andthreat s tosuc h ädevelopment .

Constraints Onegrea tproble mi sth elac ko fcompeten t taxonomiebotanist s indevelopin g countriesa s well as in developed countries. It is obviously very difficult to compete for funding with new ormor edirectl y applicablefield s of biology.Th e situation iseminentl y summarized in arecen tlette rfro m one of myAfrica n colleagues: "Iti sdifficul t putting across convincing evidence for training oftaxonomist s but Iwouldn' t expect you to havetha t much difficulty in anenlightene d and advanced societylik eyours .Researc h proposals arerejecte d because the benefits or endresult s of such proposals cannot bemeasure d in money. The authorities havefaile d torealiz e that the knowledge of variation ordiversit y and the identification of wild species are of considerable potential to usi n the tropics, where resources are diverse andprobabl y still available."

Another profound difficulty is the lack of herbaria in many tropical countries. Quick and adequate namingo fvouche r specimens requires notonl y qualified botanists with access to relevant literature but also the availability of areferenc e herbarium, where determinations can bechecked .Man y developing countries stilldepen d on theearlie rcolonia lpower s -o r neighbours like south Africa -fo r such services,bu tdependenc e of thiskin di s athoroughl y unsatisfactory solution. According toFairbair n (1980)ther ear eals oa numbe ro ffactor s which atpresen t hampera

12 wider approach from the chemical side. One is the fact that scientists tend to look for compounds which are fairly easily isolated and crystallized, the very high proportion of alkaloidstha tfigur e in listso f activeprinciple s from plant sourcesdurin g thelas t 150year s isprobabl y duet othei r ability todissolv ei n polar and non-polar solvents according topH , which makes them easy to isolate, purify and produce in crystalline form. Isolation of the many other active principles in plants involves much more complicated processes, which meanstha tphytochemica lwor ko nplant s containing themi srathe r seldominitiate d orma y quickly be abandoned. Another factor isth equantitativ ebiologica l techniques -i f aherba ldru gdoe sno tproduc ea well-marked pharmacological effect which canb emeasure d in animals,i twil lprobabl y not be investigated scientifically (Fairbairn, op. cit.). This means of course that several traditional remedies that should be investigated are ignored because of lack of suitable techniques. Alsoth erequest s from developed countries for clinical tests,toxicit y testing andth e study of possible side effects, which are very expensive and often take aconsiderabl e time, are factors which couldeasil y turn awayeve nth emos tdevote d scientist. Needs Ihav ementione d earliertha t screening ofplant suse di ntraditiona l medicine yields amuc h higher output of interesting substances than do plants sampled at random. From this it is obvious that a very important issue would be to inventorized the vast knowledge of the traditionalpractitioner s in thetropic s andt odocumen t iti n aneasil y available system. This is an urgent task, often overlooked by scientists, sincewit h thepresen t rapid acculturation most of thepresent-da y practitioners seem tob eunabl et o find successors. This means that when they die their knowledge is lost forever. To quote a scientist who worked for many years in South America: "Each time a traditional healer dies it is as if a library has burnt down". Iti sfrightenin g thati n most developing countries thehalf-lif e of existing local knowledge oftraditiona l healersi sprobabl y notmor etha nte nyears . Still more important is, however, to take steps towards a wiser use of the biological resources of thetropics .Plant s havefe d theworl d andcure dit sill s sincetim eimmemoria l- now wear edestroyin g theirprincipa l habitatsa tth erat eo f 50acre sever y minute -o rmor e than 100000 squarekilometer spe r year. Inthi ssimpl efac t lieson eo f themai n threats for future development ofresearc h on andus eo f themedicina lplant so f thetropics . Gone are the days when lack of knowledge and understanding made it possible toregar d the tropics as an inexhaustible source of new plants for food, medicines and technical products.Unfortunatel y theda yha sye tt ocom ewhe n governments and aid agenciesrealiz e thedisastrou s consequences of thepresen t devastation of naturei nth etropics . For this the biologists are partly to be blamed since they should have the background knowledge tojudg e the effects of whati s happening to thevegetatio n in tropical countries. The efforts of the few who, already twenty-five years ago, tried to influence aid agencies and governments were,unfortunately , left unheeded likevoice scryin g inth ewilderness . Today, too many scientists are concerned only with their own very narrow field. It is extremely important for the future of research, not only on medicinal plants, that the scientists leave theirivor y towers andmak econtact swit h colleagues in other areas,a swel l asestablishin g betterlink swit h society. In thisconnectio n it is essential todra w attention toon eparticula r field, which is seldom regarded asscientific ,viz .conservation . Thefac t thatconservatio n ofvegetatio n and species isimpossibl ewithou t scientific studies still seemst ob edifficul t to graspi n mostcountries , be they developed or developing. The situation is already alarming in, for example, some parts of India where plants used for centuries in traditional medicine are on the verge of extinction (Jain andMehar , 1980). Without comprehensive effort toconserv e thevegetatio n overlarg earea si nth e tropicsno t only species already known to be useful, but also many species not yet known to science,

13 willbecom eextinc ti nth enea r future. Certainlynon eo f uswoul dlik et ose etha thappen ,bu tthe nw eal lhav et omak eth eneed s for the future - not only our own sometimes very narrow ones - clearly visible to governments andt o aidagencie san dothe rfundin g bodies. Forfa r tooman y years theneglec t in thefiel d of conservation hasplaye d havocwit h the biological resources in the tropics.W ehav eno wreache d afor k inth eroad : Do wewan t to save what remains for the future use of mankind -o r do weignorantl y allow it to be lost forever? Thechoic ei sours ! References Aleljung, S-0.1987. Poisonousplant s- a possibl ecaus eo fhig hmortalit y in calves.A cas e studyfro m Tanzania.(Manuscrip ti nSwedish) . Anonymous, 1948-1976.Th ewealt h of India. Vols.I-IX . Ayensu, E. S. 1978. Medicinal plants of East Africa. East African Literature Bureau. Nairobi. 330pp . Bernard, J. 1967. Treatment of leukemia, Hodkins disease and allied diseases caused by naturalproducts .Lloydi a30:291-323 . Boiteau, P. 1972. Sur la première mention imprimée et le premier échantillon de Catharanthus roseus (L.)G . Don. Adansonia, sèr. 2, 12(1):129-135. But, P. P. H., Kong, Y. G, Ng, K. H., Chang, H. T., Li, Q., Yu, S. X. , & Waterman, P. G. 1986. A chemotaxanomic study of Murraya (Rutaceae) in China. Acta Phytotax. I Sin. 24:186-192. Chopra, R. M., Badhwar, R. L. & Gosh, S. 1949. Poisonous plants of India. Delhi. 762 PP- Contreras,A .A .& Zolla , C. 1982.Planta s toxicàsd eMexico .Mexico ,D .F .27 1pp . Fairbairn, J. W. 1980.Perspective si n research on the activeprinciple s of traditional herbal medicine.Journ .Ethnopnarmacolog y2:99-104 . Farnsworth, N. R. & Bingel, A. S. 1977. Problems and prospects of discovering new drugs from higher plants by pharmacological screening. In: H. Wagner & P. Wolff (eds.):Medicina lplant sresearch .Berlin ,pp . 1-22. Farnsworth, N. R. & Morris, R. W. 1976. Higher plants - the sleeping giant of drug development. Am. J. Pharm. 148(2):46-52. Husain, A. 1983.Conservatio n of genetic resources of medicinal plants in India In: S. K. Jain &K . L.Mehr a (eds.):Conservatio n of tropical plant resources. New Delhi. 253 pp. Jansen, P. M. S. 1981. Spices, condiments and medicinal plants in Ethiopia, their taxonomy and agricultural significance. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. Wageningen. 327pp . Kingsbury, J. M. 1979.Th eproble mo f poisonous plants.In :A . D.Kinghor n (ed.):Toxi c plants. Columbia University Press.Ne w York. 195 pp. Kokwaro, J. O. 1976. Medicinal plants of East Africa. East African Literature Bureau. Nairobi. 384pp . Kupchan, S. M., Zimmerman, J. H. & Alfonso, A. 1961. The alkaloids and taxonomy of Veratrum andrelate dgenera .Lloydi a34:1-26 . Mangelsdorf, P. C. 1972. Introduction. In: T. Swain (ed.): Plants in the development of modern medicine.Cambridge .Mass . Marini-Bettölo, G. B. (ed.). 1980. Traditional medicine. A world survey on medicinal plants and herbs.Journ .Ethnopnarmacolog y2:1-196 . Mugera, G. M., Bwangamoi, O., Wandera, J. G. 1979. Diseases of cattle in tropical Africa. KenyaLiteratur eBureau .Nairobi . Oliver-Bever, B. 1986. Medicinal plants in tropical West Africa. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 375pp . Perdue, R. E. Jr., Abbott, B. J. & Hartwell, J. L. 1970. Screening plants for antitumour activity. II. A comparison of two methods of sampling herbaceous plants. Lloydia 33:1-6. Perry,L . M. 1980.Medicina l plantso f East and South East Asia: Attributed properties and uses.Th eMI TPress , Cambridge,Massachusetts . 620pp . (A4) . Roth, L„ Daunderer, M. & Korman, K. 1984. Giftpflanzen - Pflanzengifte. 2nd ed.

14 T

ECOMED.München . Schoental,R . 1955.Kwashiorkor-lik esyndrom ean d otherpathologica l changesi nrat s asa result of feeding with Senecioalkaloid s (Isatidine).Woedin g 16:268-285. Shone, D. K. & Drummond, R. B. 1965. Poisonous plants of Rhodesia. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 62:(4):l-64. Watt, J. M. & Breyer-Brandwijk, M. G. 1962. The medicinal and poisonous plants of Southern and Eastern Africa. 2nd ed. E. & C. Livingstone Ltd. Edinburgh & London. 1457 pp. Withering, W. 1785. An account of the Foxglove and some of its medicinal uses, etc. Birmingham. XiaoPeigen , 1981.Traditiona l experience of Chineseher bmedicine .It s application in drug research and new drug searching. In:J . L., Beal &E .Reinhar d (eds.):Natura l products asmedicina l agents.Stuttgart .

15 L MedicinalPlant sI nTropica lArea so fChin a

PeiSheng-j i

KunmingInstitut e ofBotany ,Th eChines eAcadem y ofSciences . Kunming,Yunnan ,Chin a

Summary

Chinai son eo fth eworld' sleadin gcountrie si nth eus e ofmedicina l plants.I tha sa lon ghistor yi nth eus eo fherba lmedicin e-mor etha n fourthousan d years.Today ,medicina lplant san d theirpreparation s arever ypopula ri nChina .Chines eherba lmedicin eplay sa nequall y important rolealon gwit hth eus eo fsyntheti cdrug san dantibiotics . Thecomple xan ddivers eflor ai ntropica larea so fChin aar eimportan t sourceso fChines eherba lmedicine .Th emulti-ethni c culturalback ­ groundsi nth eus eo fplant sfo rprevention san dremedie sar ea nim ­ portantmedica lheritag e ofChina .A genera lintroductio n onmedicina l plantsi ntropica lChin aan da specifi cdescriptio nabou ttraditiona l useso fDa iherb si nsouthwes tChin awil lb epresente dusin gethnobo - tany Keywords :herba lmedicine ,Na nYao ,Da ipeople ,ethnobotany ,ethno - pharmacology.

Introduction

Chinai son eo fth eleadin gnation si nth eus eo fmedicina lplants . Chinesemedicin e isconsidere d anintegra lpar to fChines ecultures . Thistraditiona lknowledg ebase d onhuma nclinica ltrail san dmainl y derived fromplant swa ssystematicall y documented ina serie so fBen - cao (Herbals)compile d throughout thelas ttw omillenni aan drefine d inman ybook spublishe d inth elas tthirty-od d years.I nChina ,Sheng - nongsHerba li ssuggeste d tob eon eo fth eearlies tsource so ffol k knowledge inth eus eo fherb ssinc eth eperio d ofSheng-non g(3,00 0 B.C.). Howeverth epresen tliteratur evalidate stha therba lmedicin e canb etrace d backt oth eZho udynast y (1,100t o25 6 B.C.). Anexampl e isth eboo kShan-hai-Jin g (Classicso fth emountain san d seascompile d duringth eperio d fromZho ut oth eforme rHa ndynast y (403t o22 1 B.C.) and annototed byGu oP uo fQi ndynasty .A larg eportio no fth eChines e populationtoda ystil ldepend so ntraditiona lChines emedicin efo r theirhealt hcare .Thi svas t experienceha sfrequentl y demonstrated conspiciouseffect so ncertai ndisease ssuc ha sles stoxicit yan dun - desired sideeffect softe nencountere d inmoder nmedicine .Toda yme ­ dicinalplant san d theirpreparation sar ever ypopula ri nChina . Chineseherba lmedicin eplay sa nequall yimportan t rolealon gwit hth e useo fsyntheti cdrug san dantibiotics .Chines eherba lmedicin ei s estimated toamoun tt o30-50 $o fth etota lconsumptio no fmedicine , whilei nth eremot emountai narea san dminorit yregion sth erati oma y be70-80$ .Eve ni nHongkon gwher ewester nmedicin e isreadil yavailable , a socialstudie ssurve yi nHongkon g conducted byth eChines eUniversit y ofHongkong ,indicate d thatove r60 $o fth erespondent softe nchos e Chinesemedicin e asa nalternativ e towester nmedications .I neac ho f thelas t fewyears ,Hongkon gimporte d overon ebillio nHongkon gdollar s wortho ftraditiona lmedicine .

16 Thetota lChines emedicina lplant snumbe rsom e513 6 specieso fwhic h nearly 1,000 are commonllyuse damon gdifferen t ethnicgroups .Th e latesteditio n (1977)o fChines ePharmacopoei acontain s64 1 listings ofcurd edrug sderive d frombotanica lorigins .Fro mfloristi can dphy - togeographic pointso fview ,nearl yhal fo fth emedicina lplant sar e fromth etropica larea so fChina ,includin gYunnan ,Guangdong ,Guangxi , Fujianan d Taiwan,mainl yi nth earea swher eth elatitud e isbelo wth e Tropicalo fCance ran d thealtitud e extendsfro m sealeve lt o 1,400 meters (Yunnan).Th etota llan d areao ftropica lChin ai sabou t540,00 0 sq..km .o fwhic hmountainou san dhill y terrainoccup ynearl y70$ .I n thisare aliv esom e2 6differen tethni cgroup swit ha populatio no f approximately fortymillion .Eac hgrou pha sdevelope d itsow nherba l medicinea spar to fit straditiona lculture .Th erichnes si nth eflor a andth ediversit y inth eethnogeograph y oftropica larea so fChina , providesu swit ha uniqu enationa ltreasur e ofplan tlor efo rethno - botanicalan d ethnopharmacological studies.Fundamenta l investigations onmedicina lplant si ntropica lChin ahav ebee ncarrie d outi nth epas t twodecades ,usin gth efollowin gmethodologies :ethnobotanica lfiel d studiesi ndifferen t areas;taxonomica lidentification s onvoucher si n theherbariums ;vita lchemica lcompound sinvestigation sa tlaboratories ; and,pharmacolog ytestin ga tmoder nstandar d levels,a numbe ro fne w drugs,ne wplan tresource sfo rChines emedicine ,an dne wrecord sfo r medicinaluse shav ebee nobtained .I nthi spape rth eantho rattempt st o discussth etropica lcomponent s ofChines emedicina lherbs ,an da brie f introductiont oth etraditiona lherba lmedicin e ofth eDa iminorit y pepole inXishuangbanna ,Yunna nProvince ,a sa nethnobotanica lcontri ­ butiont oth eCongress .

TheTropica lComponent so fCommercialize d ChineseMedicina lHerb s

InChina ,a specifi cter mHa nYa oha sbee nextensivel yuse d inclas ­ sifyingthos e commercialcrud edrug sfro mth esout hfo rthousand so f years.Na nYa o canb eexplaine d asth etropica lcrud edrug scomponent s ofcommercialize d Chineseherba lmedicines .I nth eChines elanguag e ManYa omean s "drugsfro mth eSouth" .A sChines e civilizationbasicall y originated from centralChina ,a relativ e concepto fgeographi cloca ­ tiont oindicat e locationso fobject swa sextensivel yuse damongs t Chinese culture sinceancien ttimes .Na nYa ono t onlymean scommercia l crudedrug sfro m southernChina-th e tropicalarea so fChina-bu tempha ­ sizes moreth eimporte d drugsfro mtropica lAsi aan dAfrica ,whic h reached Chinab yse arout evi asoutheas tAsia ,Thus ,Na nYa o isiden ­ tifieda scommercia lcrud edrug sfro mth etropic ai nChines emedica l culture.

Han Yao is comprised ofabou t8 0differen t species,5 0hav ebotanica l originswhil eth eres tar efro manima lpart so rproducts ,Na nYa omake s upone-sixt ho fth etota lcommercialize d Chineseherba lmedicine s (about50 0species )tha tfreguentl yar euse d byChines e traditional hospitalsan d solda therba ldrug sstore so rmarket si nth ecountry . Thesam ecircumstance s canb efoun d inTibeta nmedicine ,Yang' srepor t (1979)indicate d thatther ear ea tleas t4 0type so fTibeta nmedicin e used thatar ederive d fromtropica lplants ,occupyin gabou tone-tent h ofth etota lTibeta nherba lmedicine .

Sofar ,ther ear eabou t4 0specie so ftropica lplant stha tca nb e used asNa nYao .Thes ehav ebee nrecorde d intropica larea so fChina , andar eliste dbelow : fable1 TropicalComponent so fCommercialize dChines eHerba lMedicine s inTropica lArea so fChin a

HerbalNam e Botanical Constituents Main Name Compounds Indications Distribu­ tion Yangchu n 1.Amomum essential Bornyl stomachal cult. sha villosum oil acetate distention Guangdong "Chinese lour. camphor Guangxi Cardamom" Yunnan Fujian Sushami 2.A.villosum u u u Yunnan "Wild var.xanthoi- Siamese desT.L.W u cardamom" etSenze n Rougui 3.Cinnamomum diterpenes cinazeylanol promotes cult. "Cassia cassia tannin cincassiol absorption Guangxi bark" (Nees)Blume cinnamtannin Yunnan procyanidin Guangdong Ercha 4.Acacia tannin melacacidin astringent cult. "Catechu catechu Yunnan gum" (L.)Will Tanxiang 5.Santalum essential santalen analgesic, cult. "Sandal albumL . oil santalol stomachal Guangdong wood" Guangxi Yunnan Maqianzi 6.Strychnos indole- strychnine antineop­ cult. "Nux- nux-vomica alkoloid brucine lastic Yunnan vomica" 1. (Substi­ 7.S.wallichia- ti u tt Yunnan tute) naSteud .e x DC. Jiang 8.Dalbergia quinone Dalbergin injury, Guangdong zhenxiang odorifera Nordalbergin stops (Substitut a)T .Che n Isodalbergin bleeding, "Sissooo f anti­ India" rheumatic Baidoukou 9.Amomum essential lineole relieving cult. "Krervanh" kravanh oil carvone dampness Yunnan Pierree x andstoma ­ Guangdong Gagn. chal Caoguo 10.Amomumisao - essential eucalyptol anti- cult. "Tsao-ko" koCrevos t oil geraniol rheumatism ,Yunnan etlemari e stomachal Guangxi Guangdong u Caodoukou 11.Alpinia cardamomin relieving Guangdong "Tsao-kou" katsumadai alpinetin dampness, Guangxi Hayata stomachae Dafengzi •12.Hydnocarpu s fatty chaulmoogric antiseptic »Guangdong (Substitute) hainanensis acids acid, antipruri­ "Chaulmoogra"(Merr.)Sleu m Hydnocarpic tic acid Garlicaci d Maboluo 13.H.merriliana " Yunnan (Substitute) Li Shijunzi 14.Quisqualis ammo acidquisquali c digestive,Yunna n Cri» lndieaL ' acid vermifuge

18 HerbalNam e Botanical Constituents Main IndicationsDistribu ­ Harne Compounds tion

Bxbo 15.Piper alkaloid pipenin stomachal Yunnan "Jaborandi longumL . piplartine stop-hiccup Pepper" sesamin Louye l6.P.betle L. essential chavibetol diaphretic, cult. "Betel oil chavicol stopcoug h Yunnan leaf" Guangdong Guangxi Hujiao 17.P.nigrumL . alkaloid piperme stomachal, cult. "Pepper" piperitone corrective. Guangdong Yunnan Shihu 18.Dendronbium alkaloidesdendrobin e nourishing Yunnan "Dendronbium"nobil e polysacha-nobilonin e toth elun g Guangxi Lindl ride Guangdong Téngdou 19.D.monili- " unknown nourishing Yunnan "Fengdou- forme (L.)Sw. toth e dendronbium" throat Bajao 20.Illicium essential anethol stomache, cult. "Staranise " verumHk.f . oil expectorant Yunnan Guangxi Bichengqie 21.Litsea essential Citral indegestion,Yunna n "Cubebaseed "cubeb a oil limonene gastric Quangxi (Lam.)Pers pain Guangdong Qiannian- 22.Homalomena „ linalool anti- Yunnan jian occulta rheumatica "Homalomena (lour.)Schott rhizome" Xuejie 23.Dracaena chromene dracorubin traumatic Yunnan "Dragon's cambodiana dracorhodininjur y Blood" Pierree t Gagn. Sanqi 24.Panaxnoto - saponin ginsenoside traumatic cult. "Sanchi" gin-seng Rb1,Rg1 , injuryan d Yunnan (Burk)F.H. etc., tonic Guangxi Chen Chenxiang 25.Aquilari a essential agarospirolpromote s Yunnan "Aloeswood " sinensis oil circulation,Guangdong (lour.)Gilg analgesic Anxixiang 26.Styrax phenol benzoic promotes cult. "Benzoin" tonkinensis acid circulation,Guangxi (Pierre) oinnamicacid expectorant Craib Binlang 27.Areca tannin arecatanninsvermifuge ,cult , "Betelnut " catheculim .alkaloi d arecoline and diges- Yunnan arecaidiac tive Guangdong Luhui 28.Aloever a1 .anthroqui - barbaloin laxative cult. "Curacao none Guangdong Aloe" Guangxi "Chinese 29.A.vera1 . „ „ Yunnan Aloe" var.chinensi s (Haw)Berger Sumu 30.Caesalpinia flavonoid brazilin promotes Yunnan "Sappan sappan1 . circulation wood" andanal ­ gesic

19 L HerbalNam e Botanical ConstituentsMai n IndicationsDistribu - Käme Compounds tion Kezi 51.Terminalia tannin chebulinic astringent Yunnan "Chebula" chebula fatty acid tonic Retz. acids chebulagic acid Maokezi 32.T.belerica tannin palmitic astringent Yunnan "Myrobalam L. fatty acidlino - acids leicaci d Yuganzi 33.Phyllanthus tannin ascorbic antipyretic Yunnan "Emblica" emblicaL . vitamin acid Huhuanglian34.Picrorhiza phenol picroside relieving Yunnan "Shensi" kurroaRoyl e glycoside Apocynin heatan d Tibet exBenth . iridoid cathartic dampness glycoside acid Yadanzi 35.Brucea alkaloid bruceantarinantimalaria,Yunna n "Bruceaseed "javanic a Bruceantin diarrhoea Guangdon g (I.)Merr. wart Guangxi Fanxieye 36.Cassia dianthrone sennosideA . sennoside cult. "Sennaleaf " angustifolia B.C.D.Rhei nA.B.CD . Yunnan Vahl Rhein Guangdong

it 37.C.acutifolia it H H « Delile Dingxiong 38.Eugenia essential eugenin aching cult. "Clove" aromatica oilchromen e eugenitin teeth. Guangdong Baill. acetyleugen 3lstomacha l » carminative, andcorre c tive, Dayeding- 39.E.caryophyl- Chromene eugenin cult. xiang la(linn. ) essential eugenitin H Guangdong "Broadleaf Thunb. oil acetyl Yunnan Clove" engenol Pangdahai 40. Schaphiu m polysacha- Bassorin throat- Guangdong "Schaphium lychnophorum ride arabinose sore Yunnan seed" Pierre

Inth elis tabove ,man y speciesar ene wrecord si ntropica lChina , resultingfro mth ebotanica lan dmedica lresearc hconducte db yth e authoran dhi sassociate sove rth epas ttw odecades .Th eresult so f thisstud yo nbasi cmedicina lplan tresource so ftropica lChin awil l providea nunderstandin g ofth evalu e oftha tresourc e toth eChines e medicalsociety ,an dwil leventuall yreduc eth etraditiona lnee dfo r imported crudedrug sfro mabroad .

Theorigi no ffla nYa oi nChines emedica lcultur ei sparticularl yin ­ terestingt oethnobotany .Fro m Table 1above ,w elearne d thatmor etha n half ofth eplant s (28spp. )i nth elis tar enativ e toChina ,man yo f themtraditionall yuse da sherb sb yaboriginal s forgeneration si ntro ­ picalChina ,suc ha sSushami ,Bibo ,Xuejie ,Keze ,Qiannianjian ,etc. , butunknow nt oth eChines edruggist sunti lth e 1960's.Botanica linve ­ stigationsan dethnobotanica lfiel dstudie sreveale d theirdistributio n andmedica luse si ntropica larea so fChina ,an dethnopharmacologica l testingprove d thesespecie sworth yo fmedica lvalue .Ethnobotanica l speaking,i ti simportan t tokno wwhe nan dho wth eimporte dplan t materialsinvolve d inChines eherba lmedicine sbecam ea par to fth e Chinesemedica lculture ,becaus e thisreflect sbot hth eancien t

20 culturalexchange san d tradingrelationshi pbetwee nChines ean dpeopl e intropica lAsi aan dAfrica ,an d itreveal sdifferen t stageso fhuma n interectionswit hthos eexoti c species.Fo rinstance ,som edyein gma ­ terialsfro mtropica lplant si nth earea swher ethe yOriginated ,suc h asDracaen adraco .Daemonorop sdraco .Caesalpini asappan .an dGarcini a hanburyihav ebee nuse d asChines eherba lmedicine sfo rthousand so f years.Th ehistor y ofapplianc e ofthos eplant sfro mdyein gmaterial s amongnativ epeopl e toherba lmedicine si nth eChines emedica lcultur e shouldb estudie d inth e context ofethnobotany .

TraditionalHerba lMedicine so fTh eDa iPeopl e inXishuangbann a

Xishuangbannacover s19,22 0sq. .k mi nth esouther npar to fYunna n within2 1 10'—22 40'nort hlatitud ean d9 955'—10 5 51'eas tlongi ­ tude.I tha sa tropica lmonsoo nan dhot—humid—rive rvalle ytyp eo f Climatewhic hi stypica lo fSouther nYunna nProvince .Lik e otherpart s oftropica lChina ,Xishuangbann ai sinhabite d bya numbe ro fdifferen t ethnicgroups ,i nadditio nt oth eHa nChinese .Thes egroup sconsist s ofth eDai ,Hani ,Yao ,Jinuo ,Bulong ,Lahu ,lisu ,Mia oan d othersmal ­ lergroup si nth emountai narea swit ha tota lpopulatio no f683,00 0o f whichth eDa ipeopl e compriseabou tone-thir d ofth etota lpopulation . Xishuangbannaa sa nautonomou sprefectur e ofth eDa iwa sestablishe d in1952 .Th eDa ipeopl ehav ethei row ntraditiona lmedicin e called DtttirtHa-YaXishuangbann ai nth eDa ilanguage .Accordin gt orecord sfro m China's "AHistor y ofY iZho uExplaine d byWan gHui, "th eDa imedicin e hasbee npu tt opractica lus efo rmor e thanon ethousan d years.The y developed specialmedica lskill san dals omor e 500prescription swhic h werelargel ymedicine stake nfro mabou t52 0medicina lplant sunavai ­ lablei nothe rdistrict so fChina .Thes eprescription shav ebee npu t intoa fou rvolum e set,Da iMedicin eHerb so fXishuangbanna .jointl y publishedb yth eYunna nInstitut e ofTropica lBotan yan d theloca lgo ­ vernment ofXishuangbanna .Accordin gt oDa itraditiona lherba lmedici ­ neprescriptions ,han dwritte no ndrie dPalipot-pal mLeave san dmul ­ berry-paper,ther ewer e 111 ancientprescription srecorded .Thes econ ­ sisted of10 5plan tan danima lspecie sbelongin g to6 7familie san d9 7 gênerasfrequentl yuse d byDai' sherba ldoctors .Thes eprescription s havebee ntranslate d andpublishe d inbot hChines ean dmoder nDa ilan ­ guageb yth eloca lgovernmen t ofXishuangbann ai n1985 .

Asa recen tdevelopment ,carrie d outb yresearcher sa tKunmin gInsti ­ tute ofBotany ,ove r52 0specie so fmedicina lplant sus eb yth eDa i peoplehav ebee nidentifie d botanically,an d someo fthe mar ebein g examined forchemica lconstituents .A numbe ro f.ne wdrug san dsom e siginficant compoundswit hbiologica lactivitie shav ebee ndiscovere d fromDai' sherba lmedicin e inth epas ttw odecades .Liste d belowar e some ofthem :

VernacularMarn e BotanicalNam e MainCompound s Indications Yahulu Cissampelos hayatine, Hallucinogenic, pareiraL . curine muscle-relaxation Masangduan Rauvolfia reserpinine hypertension yunnanensis ajmalicine Tsiange tP.T.L i Menghuo Kopsia kopsinine throat-sore officinalis A.B.C. Tsiange tP.T.L i

21 L VernacularNam e BotanicalNam e MainCompound s Indications Maidingbie Alstonia alstonine coughher h scholaris(L.)R.Brakummidln e Gaohahom Stelmatocrypton 2-hydroxy-4- Coldherb , khasianum methoxyl, tonicherb . (Benth.)Baill. benzoaldehyde Maidinglan Maytenushookeri i maytansine herbtea . Loes maytanprine antineoplastic maytanbutine Mihuowa Taccachantrier i taccanoside antipyretic, Andre antidote Mahan Michelia safrole stomachal hedyospermaLa w Maliang Amomum nerolidol stomachal. aurantiacum linalool distention Tsaie tS.W.Zha o Mazhong Cinnamomum camphor stomachal. glanduliferum cold. Meissn. Heihauhong Marsdenia tenacigenin Cold. tenacissima A.B.C. antipyretic Wighte tArn . Maguihua Embelia embellin vermifuge oblongifolia Hemsl. Maguilan E.ribe sBurm.f . embellin vermifuge

Herbalmedicine samon gth eDai ,ar emainl y collected fromwil d tro­ picalplan tspecie si nth eloca larea .Da ivillager sals ogro wsom e herb-foodplant si nthei rhom egarden sfo rfamil yuse .The yd ono tsel l herbsa tthei rloca lmarkets ,bu tthe yd otrad ecertai nmedicina l plantswit houtsid evendor sfo rothe rethni cgroups 'needs .Mos tDa i villagersar efamilia rwit hher bspecie suse d forfood ,bu therb suse d fortreatmen t ofspecifi c illnessesar enormall yknow nonl yb yvillag e herbaldoctors .

Acknowledgement

Theautho rwishe st othan kProf .W uChengwyi hfo rreadin gth emanusc ­ ript.Th eautho rals owishe st othan kDr .Yan gChongren ,Mr .Lu oTian - gao,an dDr .Judit hMont e forthei rassistanc e onthi spaper .

Refereences

BeijingColleg eo f TheHistor y ofChines eHerba lMedicin e ChineseMedicin e Sciencean dTechnolog yPublishin gHouse . 1957 Beijing,Chin a JiangsuColleg eo f TheComplet eDictionar y ofChines eHerbal . NewMedicina lScienc e VolumeI .II . 1975 ThePeople' sPublishin gHous eo fShanghai , Shanghai,Chin a LingQi-sho u TheChemica lCompound s ofChines eHerba l 1977 Medicine Sciencean d TechnologyPublishin gHouse , Beijing,Chin a

22 luoTianga oan d PresentCondition san dProspec t forth eMedicina l ZhangTingxian g PlantResource so fYunnan' sTropica lan dSubtropi ­ 1987 calRegions ;Selecte dPaper so fRationa lExploita ­ tionan dUtilizatio no fYunnan' sBilolgica lResour ­ ces. P.48-53 YunnanScienc e and TechnologyPress ,Kunming ,China . peiSheng-j i PreliminaryStud yo fEthnobotan yi nXishuangbanna . 1985 Journalo fEthnopharmacology ,13(1985) ,121-137 . Elsevier-scientific Publishers.Irelan dLDT . WuCheng-yi h TheTropica lAfinitie so fChines eFlora :Contribu ­ 1964 tionsa tth e196 4Pekin gSymposium ; Kexue Tongbao, Sciencean d TechnologyPress ,Beijing ,Chin a XiaoPei-ge n RecentDevelopmen t onMedicina lPlant si nChina , 1983 Journalo fEthnopharmacolog y 7 (1983),95-105 , Elsevier-scientific PublishersIrelan dLD T YangJingshen g ThePlam tResour ao fImporte d TebetanMedicin ei n 1979 Chinapresente d atSymposiu m 1979,Yunna nBranc ho f ChinesePharmacolog y Society,Yunnan ,Chin a ZengYuli n Deriviationo f NewDrug sFro mEthnodrugs ,Selecte d 1987 Paperso fRationa lExploitatio nan dUtilizatio no f Yunnan'sBiologica lResources ,Yunna nScienc ean d TechnologyPress ,Kunming ,Chin a TheTraditiona lPrescription s ofTh eDa iYunna n ZhaoShiwan gan d r ZhouChaoku i EthnicPublishin gHouse ,Kunming ,Chin a 1985 ZhouJu nan d PhytochemicalStud yo nsom eMedicina lPlant so f YangTsungre n Yunnan,Chin a 1982 Kagaken oRyoi k 36(9): 625-632.1982 .

Sketch Map of Tropical Areas of China 5 \ rTJ ) L, s/? J k V ? \ *-•••-— Beinm g / ) 7

V. Southern sub-tropical area *

0 #3 À'*

JßW^X,•^/^rxropiea l / Xlshuangbanna \ *——-~—~

23 L TROPICAL PLANTS USED INCHINES E MEDICINE: POTENTIAL LEADS FOR PHARMACEUTICAL DEVELOPMENT

Paul Pui-Hay But

Chinese Medicinal Material Research Centre,Th e Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T.,Hon g Kong

SuMary

Scientific studies onman y tropical plants used in Chinese medicine, including those employed by ethnic minorities in southern China,hav e confirmed their reputed values and identified the active components, some of which have good potentials for pharmaceutical development. Our experi­ ence tends to support this observation. Selected leads based onethno - medical information have helped us discover new bioactive compounds. For example, from Murraya paniculata was isolated a potent anti-implantation agent named yuehchukene (I). Further chemotaxonomic surveys on related species showed that yuehchukene ispresen t only inmember s of Murraya section Murraya and inMerrlllia . Similarly, abortifacient proteins are found in species of Momordica. To helpu s further advance in this field, a computer database isforme d in collaboration with IBM, and amuseu m is established todocumen t and verify thematerial s on themarket . Keywords: ethnopharmacology, Chinese medicine, tropical plants.

Introduction

Traditional Chinese medicine isa summation of over four thousand years of human experience in the selection of plants and other natural products for preventive and curative purposes inhealt h care. This knowledge has been recorded systematically, inth e last twomillennia , in some 330 editions of bencaos (Chinese herbals). A unique feature of this series of bencaos is that they copied verbatim theke y descriptions of each entry printed in preceding editions. This practice makes it possible for us to trace thedevelopmen t of Chinese medicine and identify the plants recorded in the bencaos with some certainty. A search through the major editions of bencaos indicated agradua l increase in the number of tropical plants, mainly through two channels: inclusion of medicinal materials selected by inhabitants in ornea r tropical parts of China and adoption of foreign medicines encountered in international trade and military expansion.

The oldest bencao known today is 'Shennong Bencao Jing', compiled around 100-200A.D . Itcontain s 357-367 entries (varyingwit h different ver­ sions), of which 251-254 are plant materials. A few of the articles were derived from tropical plants,an d they were available further north from the tropics mainly through cultivation, e.g., Benincasa hispida. Cinnamo- mum cassia,Dimocarpu s longan. Lagenaria siceraria,Sesamu m indicum, Zanthoxylum nitidum and Zingiber officinale. A fewmor e are of rather wide distribution found also intropica l areas,e.g. , Arthraxon hispidus, Centella asiatica,Cibotiu m barometz, Citrusmaxima ,C_ .reticulata . Coix lachryma-.jobi,Croto n tiglium. Cucumis melo,Dlchro a febrifuga. Imperata cylindrica,Rostellulari a procumbens.Vign a umbellata and Vitex trifolla.

Inbencao s of the Tangdynast y (589-907 A.D.), therewa s a substantial

24 L T increase in the number of tropical elements, e.g., Abrus precatorius, Adenanthera pavonina,Alo e vera,Alpini a officinarum,Amomu m villosum var. xanthioides,Anacardiu m occidentale,Aquilarl a agallocha,Arec a catechu, Blumeabalsamifera , Caesalplnia sappan, Canarium album, Cassia fistula, Cocosnucifera , Curcuma aromatica. C_.longa ,Ç_ .zedoaria ,Daemonorop s draco,Dalbergl a odorifera,Dolicho s lablab,Dryobalanop s aromatica,Gar - cinia morella, Ipomoeaaquatica , Ixora chinensis,Luisi a morsei,Metroxy - lon sagu,Mus a sapientum,Myristic a fragrans, Nephellum lappaceum, Phoenix dactylifera,Phyllanthu s emblica. Piper betel, P_.longum ,P_ .nigrum ,Pogo - stemon cablin,Pterocarpu s indicus,Ricinu s communis,Santalu m album, Sapindus mukorossi, Styrax benzoin,Syzygiu m aromaticum. Terminalia belli- rica,T_ .chubul a and Uncaria rhynchophylla.

Bencaos of the Song dynasty (960-1279A.D. ) listed Alpinia galanga,A . oxyphylla,Amomu m kravanh,Areng a pinnata,Baphicacanthu s cusia, Litchi chinensis,Mangifer a indlca,Momordic a cochinchinensis,Pipe r cubeba, Quisqualis indica and Vigna radlata.

InMin g dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), the famous 'BencaoGangmu 'an d 'Bencao Pinhui Jingyao' registered Acacia catechu,Alocasl amacrorrhiza ,Artocar - pusheterophyllus ,Averrho a carambola,Bomba xmalabaricum , Clausena lansium,Jasminu m sambac,Dracontomelo ndupereanum , Elephantopus scaber, Garcinia mangostana,Hydnocarpu s anthelmintica,Kaempferi agalanga , Luffa acutangula,L_ .cylindrica ,Momordic a charantla, Pandanus tectorlus, Tamarindus indica,Strychno s nux-vomica and Uncaria gambier.

InQin g dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.), the 'BencaoGangm u Shiyi'a swel l as the 'ZhiwuMingsh i Tukao' and 'ZhiwuMingsh i Tukao Changpian' further added Acalypha australis,Afzeli a xylocarpa,Annon a squamosa, Brucea javanica,Capsicu m frutescens. Carica papaya,Cinchon a succirubra, Cycas revoluta, Eleusine indica,Homalomen a occulta,Lantan a camera,Melastom a dodecandrum,Mirabili s jalapa.Moghani a philippinensis,Myroxylo nperei - rae, Opuntia dillenii, Oroxylum indicum, Phyllanthus urinaria,Plumeri a rubra cv.acutifolia , Pratia nummularia,Psidiu «gua.iava .Rhodomyrtu s tomentosa. Scaphium wallichii (Sterculia scaphigera), Spatholobussuberec - tus. Strychnos Ignatii,Toddali a asiatica and Zehneria indica.

Since the 1930's,man y Chinese pharmacognosy publications have appeared inmoder n formats,addin g information on the binomials,chemistr y and pharmacology of the medicinal plants. This trend reached its climax in the last three decades. By thedirective s of the Chinesegovernment ,a massive movement todocumen t and utilize all themedicina l resources in Chinawa s organized. Detailed studies and extensive surveys were conducted ineac h province and by major institutions. The resultswer e published in an array of monographs,handbooks ,pictorials ,floras ,textbook s and phar­ macopoeias. A preliminary analysis of these results revealed that a total of 1544gener a and 4941 species of vascular plants,a swel l as 171 genera and 332 species of nonvascular plants areknow n tob e used in Chinese medicine (But et al., 1980,1985). Roughly two-thirds of the plantswer e not recorded in the major bencaos issued before the end of the Qingdynas ­ ty, and about half of theseplant s are found intropica lareas .

Biological activity

Among the tropical plants used inChines e medicine,quit e anumbe r of them had their reputed values confirmed by scientific evaluation and the corresponding active constituents isolated. Some of the findings are L 25 briefly summarised below:

1)Antineoplasti c agents

Indirubinwa sisolate d from thepigmen t refuseo fth elea f ofBaphica - canthus cusia. Ina clinica l trial of31 4case so fchroni c myelocytic leukemia,8 2achieve d complete remission,3 8partia l remission and8 7 beneficial effects;th etota l effective ratewa s87.3* . Indirubin showed similar therapeutic effecta sbusulfan ,bu tlowe r toxicity (Xiao, 1981). Twomor e active minor constituents,tryptanthri nan dqingdainone , from this plant were found active against melanoma B16. Qingdainone also showed inhibitory action against Lewis lung carcinoma inmic e (Zou & Huang, 1985).

A number ofquassinoid s were isolated from thefrui t ofBruce a javanica. Someo fthem , including bruceolides,bruceantin ,an dbruceantinol , showed significant inhibitory action againstP 388 lymphocytic leukemia,L121 0 lymphoid leukemia,Lewi s lung carcinoma andB 16 melanoma. Bruceantin has entered Phase IIclinica l trials inth eU.S .Nationa l Cancer Institute (Cassady etal. ,1981 )

Perforatie acidwa sisolate d from theroo t ofHarrisoni a perforata. Preliminary tests revealed that this compound markedly inhibitedth e incorporation of3 H-TdR intoMous eascite shepatom a cells invitro ,th e inhibitory rate being 91.19* (Wange tal. , 1984).

An emulsion ofth erhizom e ofCurcum a aromatlca (C.wenyu.jin )ha sbee n used extensively inth eclinica l treatment ofcervi x cancer inChina . Curcumol, curdione andß-elemen e isolated from therhizom e oilwer e identified asth eactiv e components (Anon., 1976a;Shi ,1981 ;F ue tal. , 1984).

Two cytotoxic germacranolidesname d molephantinan dphantomoli nan da sesquiterpene lactone named molephantinin were isolated from Elephantopus mollis (E.tomentosus) . Molephantinin showed significant inhibitory activity against Walker 256carcinosarcom a inrat sa t2. 5mg/kg , T/C=397* (Leee tal. , 1975).

Maytansine,whic hha sentere d Phase IIclinica l trial inth eU.S . National Cancer Institute forit santineoplasti c activity, isfoun di n many tropical andsubtropica l species ofMaytenu s inChina . (Lie tal. , 1982). Nitidine chloridean d6-methoxy-5,6-dihydronitidine , fromth e root ofZanthoxylu m nitidum, exhibited antileukemic activity against leukemia L1210an dP 388 inmic ean dinhibite d Lewis lung carcinoma. Allamandin from Allamanda cathartica,asperuloside , paederosidean d deacetyllasperuloside from Oldenlandiadiffusa ,oldenlandosid e from Hedyotis corymbosa,an ddaphnoreti n fromWikstroemi a indica also showed various degrees ofantineoplasti c orantileukemi c effects (Lien &Li , 1985).

2)Parasiticida l agents

1'-Acetoxychavicolacetat e fromth erhizom e ofAlpini a galangawa s identifieda sa fungicid e against specieso fTrichophyto n andEpidermo ­ phyton (Janssen& Scheffer, 1985).

Quisqualic acid wasisolate d from thesee d ofQuisquall s indica forth e

26 T

treatment of ascariasis. L-an d DL-quisqualic acids are the activeforms , whereas the D-form has little effect (Gu et al., 1985).

Several quassinoids, isolated from the fruit of Brucea .javanica, e.g., bruceantin, bruceantinol,bruceine s and brusatol,showe d invitr o and in vivo antimalarial activities against Plasmodia (O'Neill et al., 1987).

Yingzhaosu A and yingzhaosu Bar e probably artefacts formed in the root ofArtabotry shexapetalu s (A.uncinatus )durin g storage in shade for two months. Both compounds have significant antimalarial activity inmic e (Liang et al., 1979a,1979b).

Zincopolyanemine from the root of another member ofAnnonaceae , Polyal- thia nemoralis. also showed antiplasmodial activty (Han et al., 1980).

Additionally, Dichroa febrifuga, awide-sprea d species also found in tropical Asia, has been used for treating malaria for over twomillennia . Theactiv e component was identified as febrifugine (dichroine),whic h has an anti-malarial activity about 98-152 times as strong as quininehydro ­ chloride (Xiao, 1981).

3)Anti-inflammator y and antimicrobial agents

1'-Acetoxychavicol acetate and 1'-acetoxyeugenol acetate,from/th e fruit and rhizome ofAlplni a galanga,exhibite d significant inhibitory action against ulcer in rats induced by pyloric ligation (Mitsui et al., 1976).

Good anti-inflammatory activity was exhibited by curcumin, isolated from the rhizome of Curcuma longa. This compound has entered phase II clinical trial in the Central Drug Research Institute, India (Rastogi & Dhawan, 1982).

Various preparations of Andrographis paniculata have been used in treating 7143 cases of bacterial infection; the total effective rate was 90.5%. The active componentsar e andrographolide, deoxyandrographolide and neoandrographolide (Deng, 1978).

Pibraurea recisa has a high content of palmatine. Preparations of the plant and palmatine were used to treat over 1500case s of infections; the total effective ratewa s 90* (Anon., 1977).

4)Cardiovascula r agents

Rhynchophylline from the thorns of Uncaria rhynchophylla has antihyper­ tensive effect (Anon., 1974). Recently, 3«-dihydrocadambine was isolated from the thorns ofU_ .sinensis ; itshypotensiv e activity was much stronger and longer lasting than that of rhynchophylline (Endo et al., 1983;Aisak a et al., 1985).

Dipotassium magnesium dioxalate dihydrate from the aqueous extract of the rhizome of Curcuma aromatica (C.wenyujln )exhibite d significant antl- arrhvthmiarrhythmia effecpffp.r.tt (Zen(Zentg ert e al.t al., 1982). 19R21. .

Four naphthalene derivatives from Eleutherine americana, namely, eleu- therol, eleutherin, isoeleutherin and hangconin, increased coronary flow in isolated guinea pig hearts (Chen et al., 1984)

27

il L Nootkatol from the fruit ofAlpinl a oxyphylla hascalcium-antagonisti c and vasodilating activities (Shoji etal. , 1984b). Another component of the fruit,yakuchinon e A, showed cardiotonic action (Shoji etal. , 1984a). Additionally, the latter compound strongly inhibites prostaglandin synthe­ tase; its ID50 is0. 5 pMan d thus its potency isabou t ten times stronger than that of indomethacin (Kiuchi etal. ,1982a,1982b) .

The total alkaloids ofRauvolfi averticillat a have been used asa seda ­ tive and hypotensive inChina . Reserpine, spegatrine and vertlcillatine exhibited acute hypotensive activity. Spegatrine was shown to bea n a- adrenergic blocker,wherea s verticillatineexhibite d ganglionic blocking activity (Lin et al., 1985). Clinical application of verticillatine showed significant therapeutic effects in treating severe cases ofhyper ­ tension,wit h little side effect (Zeng& Kao , 1986).

A synthetic derivative of febrifugine,changrolin ,wa s found tohav ea n anti-arrhythmia activity stronger than that of quinidine but lower toxici­ ty. Clinical studies on 489 cases of arrhythmia showed an effective rate of 80.8* (Anon., 1978;She n et al., 1983).

A number of cardiac glycosides,suc ha s peruvoside,neriifolin ,stro - phanthin and cerberin,wer e isolated from apocynaceous plants including Thevetia peruviana. Strophanthusdivaricatus ,an d Cerbera manghas. Various preparations, such as thevetoside which iscompose d of neriifolin, cerberin and peruvoside,ar e used to treat cardiac failure (Anon., 1976b).

5)Agent s acting on thenervou s system

l-Curine,homoaromoline ,methylcurine , hayatine andd-isochondodendrin e were isolated from Cyclea barbata or Ç_.hainanensis . Aderivativ e of I- curine, l-curinedimethiodide ,wa s tested in 210cases ;it s muscle-rela­ xing effect was found comparable to that ofa-tubocurarin e (Tang et al., 1980). Dimethyl-I-curinedimethochloride ,anothe r derivative,wa s tested in 1252case s of surgery, and showed satisfactory muscle-relaxing activi­ ty, with negligible adverse effect (Anon., 1981). Related taxa inMeni - spermaceaehav e also yielded an array of analgesic,muscle-relaxin g and anti-arrythmia compounds,e.g. , l-stepholidine,daijiso n and tetrandrine.

Piperine from the fruit of Piper nigrum was identified as an anticon­ vulsant. A series of derivatives of piperine were synthesized, and one of them, antiepilepsirine, was found to possess strong anticonvulsive action in clinical application (Pei et al., 1978,1979).

The aqueous extract of the stem of Erycibe obtusifolia caused strong miosis in rabbits. Themioti c principle,baogongten g A, was subsequently isolated (Yao& Chen,1979 ;Ya o et al., 1981). A 0.025* solution of its benzoate was used as an eye drop in the treatment of over 350 cases of glaucoma,an d itsmitoti c effectwa s equal to that ofa 2%pilocarpin e nitrate solution (Zhang et al., 1981;Anon. , 1982).

6)Miscellaneou s agents

Clinical evaluation of the root ofPrismatomeri stetrandr a confirmed significant therapeutic effect against silicosis. Theactiv e component was identified as an organic aluminum compound (Tue t al., 1981).

Rhizome of Costus speciosus contains significant amounts of diosgenin,

28 useful as a rawmateria l for the production of steroidal hormones (Das- gupta & Pandey, 1970).

Gomphrena globosa,originall y from tropical America, isuse d clinically to treat chronic bronchitis. 4',5-Dihydroxy-6,7-dioxomethylene-flavone-3- O-ß-D-glucosidewa s isolated from the plant and shown tohav e remarkable expectorant activity (Liu etal. , 1981).

The polysaccharides from the bagasse of Saccharum sinense showed a range ofnonspecifi c immunopotentiating activities by prolonging the survival time of mice irradiated with 8G y ofX-rays , stimulated the phagocytic activity of macrophages,an d antagonized the immunosuppressive actiono f prednisolone and cyclophosphamide (Jine t al., 1981).

Methyl helicterate,methy l helicterilate and hellcterilic acid from the root ofHelictere s angustifolia, exhibited hepatoprotective effect against SGPTelevatio n induced by CCi4 (Liu& Wang , 1985).

The above list of bioactive constituents from tropical plants used in Chinese medicine isno t exhaustive,bu t serves to illustrate the rangeo f potential therapeutic values of these agents. Indeed,a numbe r of these compounds have been approved for commercial production as either fine drugs or semi-purified preparations inChina ,e.g. , indirubin,antiepi - lepsirine, andrographolide, thevetoside,Curcum a oil,Prismatomefi s tablet,an d Uncaria alkaloids (Jiang, 1984;Xiao , 1983). Some of them have entered various phases of clinical trials inChin a and abroad, e.g., bruceatin,maytansine ,nitidin e chloride and curcumin. Although notal l of them may pass the acid test of Western clinical scrutiny, theirpoten ­ tials inne w drug development deserves further attention, either inth e original or modified forms.

Besides the few examples cited here,ther e areman y tropical plants included inChines e medicines,waitin g for chemical and pharmacological analysis. Inm y opinion,Chines e medicines derived from such tropical families asAcanthaceae ,Annonaceae ,Apocynaceae ,Asclepiadaceae , Cucurbitaceae,Menispermaceae ,Rubiaceae ,Rutaceae ,Simaroubacea ean d Zingiberaceae are some of the best candidates for further studies,a s they have a track-record of offering awid e variety of active components.More ­ over, items employed by ethnic minorities insouther n China have provided interesting leads,sinc e some of their applications are different from those practiced inorthodo x Chinese medicine. Some ethnic communities intentionally choosematerial s different from thoseuse d in orthodox Chinese medicine but retain thedru g nameuse d inth e orthodox system, such as the substitution of Euphorbia ebracteolatawit hAlocasi a macro- rrhiza,an d Albizia .julibrissinwit hMagnoli acoco . They areheadache s to pharmacognosistsworkin g on standardization and quality control,bu tma y also be leads tobioactiv e components of totally different structural designs from the onesknow n inth e orthodox items. With the continuous progress in the development ofne w instruments,technique s and animal models, it is likely to increase theyiel d from suchanalysis .

Our experience

In 1979,Chines eMedicina l Material Research Centre was established in our University for organized multidisciplinary research onChines e medi-

29 eines. Strategie programs conducted in the Centre can be graphically and symbolically presented in the following figure:

The supporting triangles represent the twoke y areas of devotion undertaken by the Centre,namely , auniqu e computer database on Chinese medicines and amuseu m of Chinese medicines. The computer database started in 1980wit h thegenerou s support from IBMwhic h supplied both hardwares and softwares toth e project, including the program STAIRS which isa ver y powerful and versatile system for information retrieval and matching. Thedatabas e stores information on Chinesemedicine strans ­ lated in English and MESH terminology. It iscontinuousl y updated with new translations and abstractions of relevant papers on Chinese medicines published inChines e (Lee et al., 1985). With thisdatabas e and other international databases,w e are able to screen published results and select the most promising and tangible leads for both chemical andbiolo ­ gical assays. To share this database with colleagues interested inth e subject,sinc e October 1986w ehav e been issuing aquarterl y journal in English,Abstract s of ChineseMedicines ,whic h contains both abstracts of biomedical articles published in China (including Taiwan), aswel l as reviews on such topics asChines e medicines with anti-atopy, anti-arrhyth­ mia, anti-ageing, and radioprotective effects. TheMuseum , on the other hand, collects,document s and conducts research on the authenticity and standardization of Chinese medicines. For projects of the Centre,i t helps tomak e sure that the correct material isuse d asdecide d byth e project leaders. Thediamon d sitting on top of the two supporting trian­ gles represents the research projects aiming at biological activity and bioactive components inChines e medicines, including those derived from tropical plants. Projects currently undertaken include the search for bioactive agents for fertility regulation,heptati c diseases,cardiovascu ­ larmalfunction s and immunopotentiation.

Some of our projects involved Chinese medicines derived from tropical plants. For example,th e root ofMurray a paniculata was noted tohav e been used asa n ecbolic for delivery inwome n at full term (Anon., 1977b). Pursuing along this lead,Kon g etal . (1985c)foun d adifferen t fraction with strong anti-implantation activity. A chloroform extract of the root was shown tob e 100%activ e in preventing pregnancy at 0.6 g/kg ina dose - dependent manner,whe n given to rats for ten consecutive days (PDi-PDio) right after successful mating and then autopsied on PDie. Subsequent fractionation led to the isolation ofa nove l dimeric indole alkaloid, yuehchukene (I) (Kong etal. ,1985a) . Configuration of this compound was

30 confirmed by biomimetic synthesis (Cheng et al., 1985)an d crystallogra­ phy (Kong et al., 1985b). The pure compound was 100%activ e at 2.5 mg/kg dosing on PDi_2 or PD3_4. Subsequent experiments pinned down the single dose/single day combination to 3 mg/kg on PDÎ. Preliminary results with other bioassay models indicated insignificant estrogenlclty, if any at effective dose levels (Kong et al., 1985c). It is safe to conclude that yuehchukene could be of tremendous value for further development as an oral-active postcoital interceptive (Kong et al., 1986a).

A search for yuehchukene and related analogs in other species of Murraya revealed that the distribution (presence or absence) of yuehchukene in members of the genus correlated with other morphological and chemical differences, for which reasons the genus was divided into two sections to reflect their infrageneric relationship (But et al., 1986; Kong et al., 1986b,c). The yuehchukene group was placed inMurray a section Murraya, and the carbazole group inMurray a section Bergera. This classification of Murraya into two sections has practical significance. Further search for the anti-implantation agent should concentrate on plants of section Murraya, but exploration for cytotoxic carbazole alkaloids should focus on taxa of the section Bergera.

Qu s^/s^

(II)

Further taxonomie analysis led us to predict that the anti-implantation agent might be present also in Merrillia caloxylon, a plant belonging to a different subtribe of the Clauseneae. This tree is endemic to the Malay Peninsula and northern Sumatra. Subsequent analysis of the root and stem barks of the plant, indeed, showed the presence of yuehchukene and also its precursor, 3-(3-methylbuta-l,3-dien)indole (II). The yield of yuehchukene from this plant ishigher than samples from Murraya studied. This exercise opens up an additional economic value of M_.caloxylon , and helps to clarify the taxonomie relationship among Merrillia and the two sections of Murraya (But et al., 1987;Kon g et al., 1987).

Similarly, in a study on trichosanthin, an abortifacient protein from Trichosanthes kirilowii which is extensively employed in China for popu­ lation control, it was necessary to look into related species and genera for similar properties, with the hope that other abortifacient proteins may be present and offer clinical alternatives. Several new abortifacient proteins were thus isolated, including momorcochin from the seed of Momor- dica cochinchinensis and a- and ß-momorcharin from the seed of M_.charan - tia (Yeung et al., 1980,1985,1987). These proteins were shown to prevent implantation and induce abortion in animal models (Chan et al., 1984,1985; Tam et al., 1984a,1984b,1985; Yeung et al., 1985). Moreover, these abor­ tifacient agents from Momordica do not cross-react with the antibodies induced by trichosanthin, thus bypassing the hypersensitivity problems of the latter protein (Yeung, per. comm.).

31 As can be judged from the above two examples of thewor k done inou r University, ethnopharmacological information serves as the basis of our selection of promising leads. Taxonomy often comes in to help usma p the possible groups of plants for further analysis. This approach often opti­ mises the yield of our search for bioactive agents. Itals o leads us to plants not previously known tohav e any medicinal value and new analogs with biological activity, such as in the case of Merrillia caloxylon. While along this subject, it should be mentioned that M_.caloxylo n isn o longer available in thewil d (D.Jones ,per . comra.). This adds another example calling for proper conservation of the tropical flora and vegeta­ tion, especially when ahig h proportion of tropical plants have not been subjected to critical analysis and may thus offer new leads of pharmaceu­ tical value.

References

Anonymous, 1974. Isolation and pharmacology of the hypotensive components inUncari a rhynchophylla. Zhongcaoyao Tongxun (4):216-227. Anonymous, 1976a.Antineoplasti c activity of the active components of Weneshu. Xinyiyaoxue Zazhi (12):556-560 . Anonymous, 1976b.Treatmen t of heart failure due to chronic pulmonary heart disease with thevetoside. Nat.Med . J. China56:36-37 . Anonymous, 1977a. Fibraurea recisa. Nat.Med . J. China57:499 . Anonymous, 1977b.Encyclopedi a of Chinese Materia Medica. Shanghai People's Press,Shanghai . 1:47-48. Anonymous, 1978.Clinica l observation on changrolin, an anti-arrhythmia drug. Nat.Med . J. China58:84-86 . Anonymous, 1981.Laborator y and clinical study ondimethylcurin e dimethochloride -a neuromuscula r blocking agent. Nat.Med . J. China 61:617-619. Anonymous, 1982.Clinica l trials of alkaloid II from Dinggongteng (Erycibe obtusifolia) in the treatment of primary glaucoma. Chin. Trad.Herb . Drugs 13:164-167. Aisaka, K., Y. Hattori,T .Kihara ,T . Ishihara,K . Endo & H. Hikino,1985 . Hypotensive action of 3a-dihydrocadambine,a n indole alkaloid glycoside of Uncaria hooks. Planta Med.424-427 . But, P.P.H., S.Y. Hu& Y.C. Kong, 1980. Vascular plants used in Chinese medicine. Fitoterapia 51:245-264. But, P.P.H. & Y.C. Kong, 1985.Chines e medicinal plants and their uses. Hamdard 27(3):47-52. But, P.P.H., Y.C. Kong,Q . Li,H.T . Chang,K.L . Chang,K.M . Wong,A.I . Gray & P.G. Waterman, 1987. Chemotaxonomic relationship between Murraya and Merrillia (Rutaceae). Acta Phytotax. Sin. (in press) But, P.P.H., Y.C. Kong,K.H . Ng,H.T . Chang,Q . Li,S.X . Yu & P.G. Waterman, 1986.A chemotaxonomic study of Murraya (Rutaceae) inChina . Acta Phytotax. Sin.24:186-192 . Cassady, J.M., C.J. Chang & J.L. McLaughlin, 1981.Recen t advances in the isolation and structural elucidation of antineoplastic agents of higher plants. In:Beal ,J.L . & E.Reinhar d (Ed.): Natural Products asMedici ­ nal Agents.Hippokrate s Verlag, Stuttgart, p. 93-124. Chan, W.Y.,P.P.L . Tam & H.W. Yeung, 1984. The termination of early preg­ nancy in the mouse by ß-momorcharin. Contraception 29:91-100. Chan, W.Y., P.P.L. Tam,K.C . So& H.W. Yeung, 1985.Th e inhibitory effects of ß-momorcharin on endometrial cells in the mouse. Contraception 31: 83-90. Chen, Z.X., H.Z.Huang , CR. Wang,Y.H . Li,J.M . Ding,U . Sankawa,H . Noguchi & Y. Iitaka, 1984.Hongconin ,a newnaphthalen e derivative from

32 the rhizome of Eleutherine araericana (Hong-cong). Heterocycles 22:691- 694. Cheng,K.F. , Y.C. Kong & T.Y. Chan, 1985.Blomimeti c synthesis of yuehchu- kene. J. Chem. Soc., Chera.Comm .48-49 . Dasgupta, B.& V.B. Pandey, 1970.A new Indian source of diosgenin (Costus speciosus). Experimentia 26:475-476. Deng,W.L. , 1978.Clinica l and pharmacological studies on Andrographis paniculata conducted in China. Zhongcaoyao Tongxun 9:459-463. Endo, K., Y . Oshima, H. Kikuchi, Y. Koshihara & H. Hikino, 1983. Hypo­ tensive principles of Uncaria hooks. Planta Med.49:188-190 . Fu,N.W. , L.P. Quan,Y.T . Guo & J.H. Shi, 1984.Antineoplasti c effect and pharmacological actions of ß-elemene isolated from the rhizome of Curcu­ ma aromatica. Bull.Chin .Mat .Med . 9:83-87. Gu, X.Q., B.C. Pan & Y.S.Gao , 1985.Th e synthesis of quisqualic acid. Acta Chim. Sin.43:675-679 . Han, G.Y., B.X. Xu,X.P . Wang,M.Z .Liu ,X.Y . Xu,L.N . Meng, Z.L. Chen & D.Y. Zhu, 1980. Isolation and structure determination of zincpolyane- mine from Polyalthia nemoralis. Kexue Tongbao 25:285-286. Janssen,A.M . &J.J.C . Scheffer, 1985.Acetoxychavico l acetate, ananti ­ fungal component of Alpinia galanga. Planta Med.507-511 . Jiang, J.W., 1984.Achievement s in the development of new drugs from Chinese medicinal herbs in 35 years since the founding of the People's Republic of China. Trad. Chin.Herb .Drug s 15:433-451. Jin, Y.F., H.Z.Liang , C.Y. Cao, Z.W. Wang,R.S .Sh u & X.Y. Li, f981. Immunological activity of bagasse polysaccharides. Acta Pharmacol.Sin . 2:269-275. Kiuchi, F., M. Shibuya & U. Sankawa, 1982a. Inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis from ginger. Chem. Pharm. Bull.30:754-757 . Kiuchi, F., M. Shibuya &U . Sankawa, 1982b. Inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis from Alpinia officinarum. Chem. Pharm. Bull.30:2279-2282 . Kong, Y.C, P.P.H. But,H.T . Chang & W.S.Kan , 1986a.A case study on the multi-disciplinary investigation on yuehchukene, the anti-implantation agent of Murraya paniculata. Fitoterapia 57:387-396. Kong, Y.C, P.P.H. But,K.H . Ng, K.F. Cheng,K.L . Chang, K.M. Wong,A.I . Gray & P.G. Waterman, 1987.Th e biochemical systematics of Merrillia; in relation toMurraya , the Clauseneae, and the Aurantioideae. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. (in press) Kong, Y.C, K.F. Cheng,R. C Cambie& P.G. Waterman, 1985a.Yuehchukene : a novel indole alkaloid with anti-implantation activity. J. Chem. Soc, Chem. Comm. 47-48. Kong, Y.C, K.F. Cheng, K.H. Ng, P.P.H. But,Q . Li,S.X . Yu,H.T . Chang, R.C. Cambie,T . Kinoshita,W.S .Ka n & P.G. Waterman, 1986b. A chemo- taxonomic division of Murraya based on the distribution of the alkaloids yuehchukene and girinimbine. Biochem. Syst. Ecol.14:491-497 . Kong,Y.C , C.N. Lam, K.F. Cheng & T.C.W.Mak , 1985b.Th e structure of yuehchukene: a novel bis-indole alkaloid from Murraya paniculata. Structural Chemistry 4:30-33. Kong, Y.C, K.H. Ng, P.P.H. But,Q . Li,S.X . Yu,H.T . Chang, K.F. Cheng, D.D. Soejarto,W.S .Ka n & P.G. Waterman, 1986c. Sources of theanti - implantation alkaloid yuehchukene in the genus Murraya. J. Ethnopharm. 15:195-200. Kong, Y.C, K.H. Ng, K.H. Wat,A . Wong, I.F.Lau ,K.F . Cheng, P.P.H. But and H.T. Chang, 1985c. Yuehchukene:a novel anti-implantation indole alkaloid from Murraya paniculata. Planta Med.304-307 . Lee, K.H., T. Ibuka, H.C Huang & D.L. Harris, 1975.Antitumo r agents XIV: Molephantinin, ane w potent antitumor sesquiterpene lactone from Ele- phantopus mollis. J. Pharm. Sc.64:1077-1078 .

33 Lee, W.S. &H.M . Chang, 1985. Computerized Chinese medicinal database. In: Chang, H.M., H.W.Yeung ,W.W . Tsao &A . Koo (Eds.)Advance s in Chinese Medicinal Materials Research. World Scientific Publ.Co. , Singapore, p. 97-107. Li, CM., B.J. Li,C .Wang ,W.D . Wang,C .Yu ,Y.H . Li & S.J. Pei,1982 . Study on the antitumor effects of several Maytenus in China. In:Anony ­ mous (Ed.): Collected Research Papers on the Tropical Botany. Yunnan People's Press,Kunming , p. 33-41. Liang,X.T. ,D.Q . Yu,W.L .W u & H.C. Deng, 1979a.Th e structure ofying - zhaosu A. Acta Chim. Sin. 37:215-230. Liang,X.T. ,D.Q . Yu &W.D . Pan,1979b .Th e structure of yingzhaosu B. Acta Chim. Sin.37:231-240 . Lien,E.J . & W.Y. Li,1985 .Anticance r Chinese drugs: structure-activity relationships. In:Chang ,H.M. , H.W. Yeung, W.W. Tso & A. Koo (Ed.): Advances in ChineseMedicina l Material Research.Worl d Scientific Publ. Co., Singapore, p.433-452 . Lin, M.,D.Q . Yu,X . Liu,F.Y . Fu, Q.T. Zheng,C.H . He,G.H . Bao& CF. Xu, 1985. Chemical studies on the quaternary alkaloids of Rauvolfia verticillata (Lour.)Baill . f. rubrocarpa H.T. Chang mss. Acta Pharm. Sin. 20:198-202. Liu, X.J.,D. C Zhang & Z.Y. Chu, 1981.Expectoran t component of Gomphrena globosa - structure determination of a new flavonoid glycoside. Chin. Pharm. Bull. 16:55. Liu, W.G. &M.S .Wang , 1985.Structur e determination of three new triter- penoids from Helicteres angustifolia. Acta Pharm. Sin.20:842-851 . Mitsui, S.,S . Kobayashi,H . Nagahori & A. Ogiso, 1976.Constituent s from seeds ofAlpini a galanga Willd. and their anti-ulcer activities. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 24:2377-2382. O'Neill,M.J. , D.H. Bray,P . Boardman,K.L . Chan,J.D . Phillipson, D.C. Warhurst & W. Peters,1987 .Plant s as sources of antimalarial drugs, Part 4:Activit y of Brucea javanica fruits against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum in vitro and against Plasmodium berghei invivo . J. Nat. Prod. 50:41-48. Pei, Y.Q., J.S. Li,B.H . Zhang, Z.J. Cao,C . Tao &B.S .Ku , 1979a.Pharma ­ cological study onTabletta e Antiepilepticae: I. Its effect on theCNS . Nat. Med. J. China 58:216-219. Pei, Y.Q., J.S. Li,B.H . Zhang, Z.J. Cao, C. Tao & B.S.Ku , 1979b. Other pharmacological effects ofTabletta e Antiepilepticae. Nat.Med . J. China 59:223-225. Rastogi,R.P .& B.N. Dhawan, 1982.Researc h on medicinal plants at the Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow (India). Indian J. Med.Res . 76(Suppl.):27-45. Shen,Y.T. ,N.S .Xu ,S.L . Gu,P.M . Wu & W.Z.Chen , 1983.Effect s of intravenous infusion of changrolin on cardiac function of patients with arrhythmia. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 4:251-253. Shi, J.H., 1981.Pharmacologica l study on the volatile oil of Wen-E-Zhu (Curcuma aromatica Salisb.)- Stud y on the antitumor activity ofß - elemene. Bull. Chin.Mat .Med .6(6):32-33 . Shoji,N. ,A . Umeyama,Y . Asakawa,T . Takemoto,K . Nomoto& Y.Ohizumi , 1984a. Structural determination of nootkatol,a new sesquiterpene isolated from Alpinia oxyphyllaMique l possessing calcium-antagonistic activity. J. Pharm. Sc.73:843-844 . Shoji,N. ,A . Umeyama,T . Takemoto & Y. Ohizumi,1984b . Isolation of a cardiotonic principle from Alpinia oxyphylla. Planta Med. 186-187. Suffness,M . & J. Douros, 1979.Drug s of plant origin. Methods in Cancer Research 16:73-126. Tam, P.P.L., W.Y. Chan &H.W . Yeung, 1984a. Viability ofa-momorcharin -

34 treated mouse blastocysts in the pseudopregnant uterus. J. Reprod. Fert.71:567-572 . Tara,P.P.L. , W.Y. Chan & H.W. Yeung, 1985. Effects of two forms ofmoraor - charins and a-trichosanthin on early pregnancy in the mouse. In:Chang , H.M., H.W. Yeung,W.W . Tsao &A . Koo (Eds.): Advances in Chinese Medicinal Materials Research. World Scientific Publ. Co.,Singapore , p. 335-350. Tam,P.P.L. , L.K. Law& H.W. Yeung, 1984b. Effects ofa-momorchari n on preimplantation development in the mouse. J. Reprod. Fert.71:33-38 . Tang, Z.J., A.N. Lao,Y . Chen,X.X . Zhang, CG. Wang & F.D. Zhong,1980 . Studies on the active principles of neuromuscular blocking actions of Cyclea barbata (Wall.)Miers . Acta Pharm. Sin.15:506-508 . Tu, D.J., Z.H. Pang & N.J. Bi, 1981.Studie s on constituents of Prisma- tomeris tetrandra (Roxb.)K.Schum . Acta Pharm. Sin.16:631-634 . Wang,M.X. , M.S.Zhang ,W.Z .Li u & Y.L. Zhu, 1984. Isolation and struc­ tural determination of perforatie acid from Chinese folk medicine Niu- jin-guo (Harrisonia perforata). Acta Pharm. Sin. 19:760-763. Xiao, P.G., 1981.Traditiona l experience of Chinese herbal medicine, its application indru g research and new drug searching. In:Beal , J.L. &E . Reinhard (Eds.): Natural Products as Medicinal Agents.Hippokrate s Ver­ lag, Stuutgart. p.351-394 . Xiao, P.G., 1983.Recen t developments on medicinal plants in China. J. Ethnopharm. 7:95-109. Yao, T.R. & Z.N. Chen, 1979. Chemical investigation of Chinese medicinal herb, baogongteng I.Th e isolation and preliminary study on a new myotic constituent, bao gong teng A. Acta Pharm. Sin.14:731-735 . Yao, T.R., Z.N. Chen,D.N . Yi &G.Y . Xu, 1981.Chemica l investigation of Bao gong teng (Erycibe obtusifolia Benth.) II.Th e structure of baogong­ teng A -a new myotic agent. Acta Pharm. Sin.16:582-588 . Yeung, H.W., W.W. Li,L.K . Law &W.Y . Chan, 1985. Purification and partial characterization of momorcharins, abortifacient proteins from the Chinese drug,Kuguazi (Momordica charantia seeds). In: Chang, H.M., H.W. Yeung, W.W. Tsao & A. Koo (Eds.): Advances in Chinese Medicinal Materials Research. World Scientific Publ. Co.,Singapore , p.311-318 . Yeung, H.W., T.B. Ng,W.W . Li &W.K . Cheung, 1987.Partia l chemical characterization of alpha- and beta-momorcharins. Planta Med. 164-166. Yeung, H.W., D.M. Wang & N.S.Wong , 1980. Isolation of an abortifacient protein from the Chinese herb,Mubi e (Momordica cochinchinensis). Proc. 1st Res. Conf. Hong Kong Biochem. Ass.Hon g Kong,Ma y 16,1980 . Zhang,M.H. ,D.S . Chen,J.T . Li,N.Z .Wu , Z.R. Zhu, Z.H. Deng,N.Z .He , Y.F. Wu,X.Z .Gao , Z. Sun& F.L. Qian, 1981.Compariso n between bao­ gongteng A and pilocarpine in the treatment of primary glaucoma. Shanghai Med. J. 4:716-719. Zeng, G.Y. & S.J. Kao, 1986.Effect s of verticillatine on the cardiac hemodynamics in anesthetized dogs and cats. Acta Pharm. Sin. 21:881- 885. Zeng, L.L., G.Y. Wang, D.X. Wang, C.H. Chen & S.Y. Xu, 1982. Studies on the active ingredient of Curcuma aromatica Salisb.an d itseffects . Acta Pharm. Sin.17:946-950 . Zou, J.C. & L. Huang, 1985.Mino r constituents of qingdai,a traditional Chinese medicine. I. Isolation, structural determination and synthesis of tryptanthrin and qingdainone. Acta Pharm. Sin.20:45-51 .

35 MEDICINAL PLANTS OF WIDE USE IN ZIMBABWE

i'/B.Z eÏTiS,

Jniversity of Zimbabwe, Department of Clinical Pharmacology, *vondale, Harare, 2imbabw e

bummary

information on Zimbabwe plants and their medicinal applications are presented. Botanical names, part used and manner of using preparations are described. Poisonous plants and their chemical principles are also given. Keywords: traditional healer, disease, plant remedies.

Back; suna

In Zimbabwe, as in most developing countries, the useo f indigenous natural drugs is common place because modern life-saving drugs are beyond the reach of most people living in rural areas where the most accessible source of health care is the traditional healer. Indigenous plant remedies, whether prepared at home or prescribed by a traditional he a! e r th e r e f' wi d e1 y n the treatment variety of disorders in such areas in ema n a , et al =,i ige The reasons why many peopl op1 e in Africa tend tocon ; traditional healers have been enumerateen enu m e r a .t e d (t' dan n e (Banner-man rm a .n < , et al 1983). Unfortunately, acute poisoning has at times followe a visit toa +•r- . iH i aler (Joubert, I9ö4). History taking by the healer has s often been unreliab] e and incomplete or non-existent

.materi a ! mig ht established, (Uelimir &:M e1 im i ro vi c , 1980). An attempt has been made to provide information on indigenous plant remedies and some poisonous plants of wide use in Zimbabwe. This communication tries to answer- the question, ^How can the well be dry when it is fi11ed with watery, (rarnswor 84). In Zimbabwe, we can say there is before us, awe l led with very clear water; only the 36 disinterested, i! 1 - i n form ed or nai v e scI e r; ti s t or healt h professional can look into the well and conclude that it is dry. Information on the medicinal use of niants has. been obtained from oyer 250 traditional healers practising in most parts of Zimbabwe and also from a household survey carri e d out in 1985= Most of these plants have been colle eted j prepared and depo s ?d in the National Herbarium (Gelfand, et al 100=;, t -al. , 1985). The sci e nti - fi c name 0+ th>: se pi! an t, its 1oca ! name, col1 e cto r and region it grows in Zimbabwe have been recorded. A reference of plants said or known to be poisonous is also available in, ''The Poisonous Substances File'', at the Herbarium. Inform ati o n on plants co nti nues to be collected and the necessary phytochemical and ethnopharmaco]oqical studies on some of the plants have been started. The flora in Zimbabwe contains more than 5000 species of f1 ow erin g plants and ferns, of thes e not more tha n i00 0 ha ve vernacular names. A vernacular name imp!ie s that the plant has some use and the lack of vernacular name indicates possibly, that it is not used for medicinal purposes. A number of plants may not have any vernacular name because they are not in di g eno us . Howeve r , some medicinal pia nts in tr odu ced into 2i mbabw e now hav s ver-nac u1 a r names. ' As a rule, the traditional healers collect herbs per s ona. '! y fro m rurs t or ps -urban areas and ei the n use them soon afterwards or dry and then pulverise them for easy sto rage . So me p1an t s are season a 1 , ra re or gro w at great distances. Often more than one plant will be used as a remedy by the traditi iA 1 hp '1e a re ; soked with food such a.s meat and beans. Wild animals parts and some insects mi* also be included in the mixture. A plant may be used more than one disease as can be seen in the catalogue t-t f o1 !ows. For ex an-!f jCassia Äbb££üiı^ bot' ïe bark and root are used for abdominal pains, •constipatio n and gono rrh o ea , This imp 1i e s that the plant co nst i tuen ts ha ve both 1a xat i v e and anti ba cte r : a 1 pro per t i e s. iûoadls. uihlls.1 used for abdominal pain-; anore x si a and consti pa ti o mea n1 n o :hat the plant has snr.et it e stimu1 atinq , approdisiac and laxative properties. Most of th. make oeopî e :onsu1t traditional healer are symptoms of disea; One tradi t i o na l heale r may prescribe a cer ta in herb fo r a pa rti c u!a r disease, whereas the same herb is given by another healer from another region of the country, for a very different complaint. For example, some healers use aloe. Sfxp. for diarrhoea whilst others employ it as a purgative. The later would be more in line with the chemical constituents of Ô1.OÉ ap.p.^.+ a1 o i n and methy 1 anth r a qui n o ne ,

Catalogue of medical problems and mediciana l plants used,

Abdomi na 1 pai n s

ia t a 31 iv . in-fus io n or deco cti o n tak en Dra!l y

37 Alo e spp . iea yes , in fu •= .i o n ta ke n ora ! ! y . Mondi a whitei n tak e n ora ! ! y . Dicoma anomala Sond, tuber, in-fu sio n taken orally.

Abort i - fa ci e nt s

Gnidia kraussian a Meisn. tuber, infusio n taken orally, A1o e spp . lea ue s , dec o ct i o n ta ke n ora .1 1y , !r i c h i 1 i a emet i c a ya h1 , bark , in fu s i o n ta ke n '\r- a =, i i • Ri c in us comm uni s L, lea yes , crus he« v-jarme d and inserted in t o vag i n a in is t trime ste r on1 y « Indogo fe ra . a rre c t a A• Ric h. ro ot , ins ert ed into va gi n a

Abort i o n, auoi danc e of

Ozo roa in s i g ni * . Subsp. reticulata, Del, root, infusion taken or -al1 y . Trium-fetta we!iwitsc hM Mat, tuber, powder taken orally. Terminal ia sericea DC, root, powder taken orally. Pelt op h o r u m afr i c an um Sorid . roo t , powd e r tak e n ora 1 ! y . Maytenus senega!ensis (Lam) Exell, root, powder tak« orally . Ameno rrho ea

Vernoni a amygdalina Del. root, infusion tak*n nraiw, Steganotaenia ara.liacea Höchst, root, infusion"taken'oral! ytr y chn os co ccu 1o i d es Bak . root, deco c t i o n tak en ora! 1 y .

Ant i —em et i c

Termina1 i a ser i c ea DC, root , deco c t i o n tak e n nr.= ,1 1 •>•• , Doli eho s ki1imandscharieu s Taub, tuber, ntu s i o n taken oral1 y , Dicoma anomala Sond, tuber, taken orally, Ansel lia a-fri cans Lind!, s terri, decoction taken orally. Anno n a stenophy!!a Engl. & Diels., root, infusion tak^n orally,

Aphrodi s i ac

Albizia antunesiana Harms, root, infusion taken orally. Mondia whitei

Dat ur a str ammo ni u m L, 1e a yes , smoke inhaled. My ro thamnu s f! a be! ! i f o1 i u s

Bi 1har zi a

Ui g na ung u i c u 1at a (L.> Walp . seeds coo k e d wi t h Euc 1ea di y i n o ru m ro ot, the n tak :en ora1 1 y , Lanne a ed u1i s (Sond. ) Engl. ro ot , infusion or deco ct i o n taken oral1 y . Te rm i n a 1 i a ser i c ea DC. r oot s coo k e d wi t h see ds of v'i g na ungu ic u 1a ta and taken ora1 1y . Ci s sa mpe 1 o s muc r o n a t a A. Ric h. roo t , int "us i o n take n ora i 1 y .

Consti pa ti o n

Gni d i a kra us si a na Mei sn . tuber, intus i o n taken ora1 1y . Mondi a whi t ei root, in-fusio n taken orally, s Cassia abbrev iat a Oliy . bark, root and -fruit, in- fu sion , decoction or powder taken orally. Elep h a nt o rrh i z a goet ze i (.Harm s) ro ot, in fu s i o n ta ken ora1 1 y .

ConM U1 s ion s

Chen o po di m ambro si o i d es L. leav es , rubbed on face. Acacia amythehophy11a Steud, exA . Rich. root, infusion tak e n orai ly and was h e d wi t h in fu s i o n . Acacia karroo Hyne, root, infusion taken orally and face aise was he d wi t h in fu s i o n . C1er o d e n d r - um myr i c oi d es

E1e ph a nto rrh i z a goet ze i '•.Harm*. ', roo t infu si o n taken orally. Termi na1 i a seric ea DC, bark , in fu s i o n ta ken ora1 1y . Ari s to 1o ch i a hep p i i Marxm . ro ot , in f u s i o n ta ken ora 1 1y . Alepidea amatymbica Eek!. & Zeyh tuberous root, infusion taken oral1 y . Combretum molle G. Don, root, infusion taken by mouth.

Fey er - Ar t emi s i a af r a Jac q, le aves, dec o c t i on t ak en or a1 1 y. B1urn ea a1 a.t a ( D. Do n ) 1e a y es, us e d as an en em a , L i pp i a j ay an i ca C Bur m .f , ) , Sprang. le a v es , a little sugar- added to decoction taken orally. Elephant or-r -h i za goe t ze i (Harm s ) r oo t , i nf us i on t ak en or a 1 1y and patient sits in infusion.

39 headach e

Clematopsis scabiositol ia (DC; Hutch, root, powder sniffed, Securi dac a 1onqepeduncu1ata Fresen, root, powder- sniffed. Zanha afri cana "

1n fe r t i 1i ty

've!r n o n i a amyg d a 1 i n a Del . roo t in -f u s i o n tak e n ora ! 1y > Ci s sa mp e1 o s mu cro n at a A. Rich, root , in tus i o n ta ken ora 1 ! y . Cyp h o s t em ma ju n c eu m (Webb ) Wi! d & Dru m mo nd , roo t tak en oral1 y . Hetero mor p ha tr i - fo1 i a ta (We n d ! . ) Eck ! & Zehyh . roo t , po wde r taken oral! y , 2e mi n ca f- fra Sond , le

Madness

Securidaca- !ongepeduncu1 at a Fresen, root )ciled and pati e nt inh a1 e s ste a m. Cheno podiu m ambrosioides, leaves, burnt and smoke inhaled. Dios eo rea spp, tuber, powder or infusion taken orally in food. Tulbaghia 1eu ean th Bak. whole plant, powder taken orally.

Malar- ia

ocni a peters i a na K.i o tz s c h nfus: o n taken

Measli

Di eer oca r y u m i zan g u e ba ri u rn dy washed and decoction taken orally. Ri c i n us comm un i s L seed, oi n tm en t app "i i e d to who! e body. Gre w i a f! a ve sc e n s Jus s . leav e s , nos e and ear drop , in f u s i o r taken oral1 y .

r'a! n s

Securi dac a 1ongepeduncu1ata Fresen. oi n tme nt app body. Zanh a afr i c ana (Rad1k ) root powde r sniffed. Aspi !i a p1uri s et a Se! hwsi i n i root, body washed in infusion. Dicom a anomala Sond, body washed wi th infusion.

Rheumati s m

Secu r i da ca . 1o ng epe d unc u ! a ta Fres en . ro ot, applie d to 'nyo ra "' made on painful pa rt . Albuca melleri Bak bulb, juice rubbed on body. Urg i n ea a1 ti s si n a (L.F,) bulb, juice rubbed in 'nyo ra ' made on pai nfu 1 part .

40 Dios eo rea s-pp. tuber, appli e d on 'nyora' made on painful part, C1emato ps is scab io si f o !i a

Cassia abhreuiata 01iy . root, infusion taken by mouth. Alo e spp , lea ves , inf u s i o n ta ken ora1 1 y. Me 1 i a aze da r a .ch L. 1e av e s , dec oc t i o n tak e n or- a 1 1 y. St aga no ta en i a ara 1i a cea Hochs t . ro ot , in -f us i o n ta ke n ora1 1 y . Schkuhria pinnata (Larm) The'! , leaves, decoction taken oral1 y.

Syphi11 is Anno na stenophyl1a Engl, Diel s ro ot, in -f us i o n ta ken ora 1 1 >' . Trieh od s e m a amba c e n s e Welw tub e r , app 1 i e d into "'n yo r a ' . Dichrostachys cinerea

Eals,onnu£, fil&n±s .and IJaaic pol^annus £.nnç,±j.±u&n±s

Elaai Eac± Coasiiiuaals

Abr us pr ec a t or i us L seed abr i c acid & abr i n

Al oe s-p p • le av e miet hy 1 an t hr aqu i none

Boop ha ne distich a bu 1b alkaloids Herb.

Bow i ea volubilis bu ! b bufadi eno li de s Har M.

Capf su1phu r oi1 Lam.

Cheno po di u m 1eav i ambrosiode s L 41 Table 1 (continued) Combr-etum p!atypeta!um -fruit Laws

r pho rbo l esten Cro ton megalob ut r y s ba -k •- Mue l1 . Ar-g. r-o ot Cucu mi s spp, -fr u i X :ucurbita ci n s

Dalbergie 1 1a sp p r-c ot

Da t u ra . st r -a mon i m um L leav e • ; be!ladona aïkalo id s t'ru it

Di c h ap e t a 1 u m cym o s um 1e ay e - uoroacetät e Eng!.

'loseo rea spp tuber hi s ta mi n e - 1ike , sub st a r Ca oxa 1 a te

Eryt h r - o ph e 1 u m at"r- i c a nu m bar-k muavin , ca rdi o tox in (Beth) Harms

Eupho bi a spp iu ge n o 'I der-i y .

S! o r- i o sa sup e r - ba L tuber- colchicine

Gn id i a kr -a us s i a nn a mezer e in

Man ih ot esculenta tuber- mia ni h ot o xi n e, and Crant z hydr-o cya ni c aci d

Me1 .i a azedar-ch L -fr -u i t oi 1 & azedar -a ch t i n

Mon a d e n i u m lugard u, hole toxic 1e ct i n s N.E. Br-, p 1a n t

Nerlum oleander- L 'A ho 1 e car-deno l ide s P 1 an

Ni c ot i a na gla uca R. 1e a ! nicotine Gr-ah

Ped di e a at"r i c a na Harv who!e p1 a nt mezer ei n

Ph>- 1o1 a cca dodeca nd ra •seed £ 1emmatoxi n L'Heri t, 1eayeç

Ri c i n us comm un i s L seed ye i n Secur -i da ca 1o ng epe d u- r-o ot met hy 1 s a1i c ylat e nc u 1a t a Fre se n .

Sola nu m spp -fruit sola ni ne s

42 Table 1 (continued)

Sp i ro stac ys af r i ca n a who l e d i t er pe n e es t er < Sond plant

St r yc hn os co c cu 1 o i de s frui t strychn i ne Eak .

Tri chi 1 i, =.pp bark

Ur g ine a san guin ea who! e card i oa.c t i ve Schinz. plant glycosides

Za n t ed e se h i a al borna- r h i zo n '' yo l at i 1 e acr i d cul at a (Hook) Bai 1 1 substances

uaa.cu.Ls.Laa

People in rural areas o-f Simbabwe will continue using herbal medicines as long as they are available because they hsv e str o ng faith in them. Medi c i n a1 pia nts may be analys ed for va ri o us constituents but there is no cer tain ty as to which are the effective principles. It will obviously require painstaking sci en ti-fi e research to test' the va1 i d i t y o-f thes e pa1 a ti v e rern edies . Ulhethe r thes e medi c i n a1 p1 a nt remedies wil l eve n t u a 1 1 y be -fo und to be e-f-f e cti M e or not, is o-f course, quite defensible -from the eth n o pharma co1o gi c a 1 pers pec t i v e ,

Banner-man, R.H. (1982). Traditional medicine in modern health care. World Health Forum 2, 8 - 26. Banner-man, R.H., Burton, J, et al. (1983). The role of tra di t i o na1 medicine and hea1 th ca re coverage , WHO, 'Jeneva. . Chi nema na , F., Drummond , R,B., et al., (1985). în di q eno us plant remedies in Zimbabwe. J. Ethnopharmacoloqy là, 149-172. Farnsworth, N. (1984). How can the well be dry when it is filled with water'? Econ. Bot . 38 (1),4 - 3.

Fro hne , D. and Pfa nd er, H. (i 98 5) . Pc,i so no us p1 a nts . W o1 f e Publishing Ltd. London, pp 25 - 29. Gelfand , M., Mavi , 8. et al., (1985). The traditional medical practitioner in Zimbabwe, Mambo Press, Gweru, Joub er- 1, P. (1984 ). Acut e poi so ni n g wi t h trad; t i o na l afri c a n medicine. Medicin s Inter na ti o na1 , Dec . 5925 - 5926. Nyazema, N.2. <19Si). Herbal toxic i t y in Zi mbabwe , Transae ti o ns Roya 1 Society Tropical Med i c i n e & Hygi e ne 80, 448 - 450. Me1i m i r ov ic , H, and Me1i m i r o vi c , B. (1980). Do tra di t i o na1 p1 a nt remedies ha ve a future in thi r -d wor1 d co unt r i e s ? Curare 3, 73 - 191. Wa1 1, J.M . and Brey e r -Br -a nd wi j K, M . 8 . (196 2) . The medi c i n a1 and poisonous plants of Southern and Eastern Africa. Edinburgh and London. E & S Livingstone Ltd.

43 SOME COMMON AFRICAN HERBAL REMEDIES FOR SKIN DISEASES: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KENYA

J.O. Kokwaro

Department of Botany, University of Nairobi, Kenya

ABSTRACT

Kenya like many other African countries, has a

long history of traditional medicine which has been

practised for many years and continue to play a major

role in our primary health care. Before the arrival

of the European missionaries and explorers with their

modern medicine, our ancestors continued to live in

this country, and naturally they would fall sick or

get injured at certain times. There is no doubt that

the largest human organ and the most susceptible to

both diseases and physical attacks is the skin. I

am therefore, going to discuss in this paper those

indigenous drug plants used by Kenyans for the treat­

ment of different skin diseases. Since not all skin

diseases mentioned would always respond positively to

traditional plant therapy, I am applying the term

treatment in a broader context and avoiding the

time curing. A disease such as Leprosy is even known

to the herbalists as a difficult one to cure, however,

the various plants listed under it are the ones which

have been tried for treating it.

INTRODUCTION

The skin is the membranous covering of the body which can be summarised into one medical term, cutis.

44 Starting from without moving inwards, the skin has the following layers:- horny layer (stratum corneum), clear layer (stratum lucidum),granular (stratum germinativum) and basal-cell layer (stratum basale), the last two layers being referred to as the germi- native zone. All these layers collectively form what is known as the epidermis. The skin is the largest organ of the body, and apart from being the protective cover of the body surface, it also acts as a regulator of body temperature, controls excess­ ive loss of water as well as organic and inorganic materials, and synthesizes several important subst­ ances used in the body. The outer cells of the skin are constantly being shed. But below the epidermis is a tough, flexible and elastic layer called the dermis which contains many blood vessels and is thicker than the epidermis. There are a variety of pigments in the skin, while skin colour is largely due to the presence of melanin and carotene. Melanin is a yellow to black pigment located in the basal epidermal layer found in all epidermal layers in all

Kenyan of African origin. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation increases the amount and darkens the colour of melanin, thus leading to tanning and protection against radiation. Carotene, a yellow orange pigment is found in the fatty areas of the dermis and outer epidermal layer in Kenyans of Asian origin.

There are many kinds of diseases affecting the skin and some of the related terms are:- skin bleeding

45 (dermatorrhagia) blistering (epispastic, vesigatory),

deficiency of pigment (albinism, alphosis, leucopathia),

disease (dermatosis, dermatopathy), dryness (xeroderma),

inflammation (dermatitis, dermitis), pain (dermalgia,

dermatalgia) and many others. In modern medicine, the

science of skin diseases is called dermatology or

dermatopathology, while any relations to it is dermal

or cutaneous or integumentary. Following closely the

classification of skin diseases outlined in chapter 10

of the "Medicinal Plants of East Africa" (1976), we will now look at specific diseases and include some

recent information I have gathered in this field.

Wounds caused by snake bite and ectoparasitic diseases

are not however, included in this discussion. The vernacular names following each scientific name are

from the tribes who supplied the information about the plant.

There are four major groups of skin diseases to be covered in a tabular form as follows: Section A:

Wounds (including sores and ulcers), Section B: Der­ matitis, itches and rashes, Section C: Leprosy and

Section D: Ringworm, Each section has a brief des­ cription of the disease concerned, and is followed by a table giving the botanical and local names of the plant used, part of the plant used, the preparation of the plant drug and how it is dispensed.

46 SECTION A. WOUNDS (INCLUDING SORES & ULCERS)

A wound is a breach in the continuity of body

tissue, and is usually accompanied with bleeding due to

the rupture of blood vessels. Most plants used in

traditional medicine against wounds are of certain balsams and resins to stop bleeding and to help the wound heal. The other plants used for this purpose have astringent (binding) properties possibly due to

the presence of such compounds like tannin. Both wounds and bleeding are common body problems, and have a wide range of plant remedies. The list being too long, I have decided to cover mainly the dicotyledons used in

this purpose.

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57 SECTION B. DERMATITIS, ITCHES AND RASHES

Dermatitis is broadly the inflammation of the skin,

but strictly speaking, they can be of many types. Itch

is a common symptom of many skin conditions, and refers

to a peculiar irritating sensation in the skin. Rash

is a lay term used for any skin eruption, but more

commonly for acute inflammatory dermatoses. Rashes

and dermatitis due to allergic or other causes are

frequently treated with antihistamines which suppress

histamin release. We also know that most antihistamines

also relieve pruritus (itching). I have also found

that a traditional remedy for itches are similarly used

for rashes and other kinds of dermatitis. Drugs for

traditional treatment of these diseases are often mixed

with some oil or fat, notably ghee. This gives it

both anti-inflammatory and cooling effects.

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62 SECTION C. LEPROSY is a chronic disease which affects primarily the nerves and skin but other organs can also be affected. It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae, and occurs in two forms: Tuberculoid leprosy, affecting the skin and nerves mainly; and Lepromatous leprosy. The two major types of leprosy: Tuberculoid and Lepromatous can occur in four forms depending on the individual resistance or tissue response to the bacilli. The four forms are Indeterminate, Tuberculoid,

Borderline and Lepromatous. It is endemic to tropical and subtropical areas, and is an old diseasementione d in the biblical times. Although leprosy has not been easy to cure, the traditional medical practitioners have also played their part. Plant extracts, parti­ cularly oils have long been used to treat leprosy, though with limited success.

63 r

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65 SECTION D. RINGWORM is a fungus infection of the

skin and its appendages, and comprises infection by a

number of genera of fungi of class Hyphomycetes. Some may only affect the skin e.g. Malassezia furfur and

Cladosporum werneckii, whereas others go to the hair

e.g. Piedraia hortai and Trichosporon beigelii.

Cutaneous mycoses involving the hair and skin are produced by species of Microsporum and Trichophyton,

and this is the group of various types of ringworm.

The traditional treatment of the commonest type of ringworm which affects chirldren's head, is done by first shaving the head and thereafter apply whatever herbal medicine is prescribed.

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The lore of the herbalist is unquestionably the

treasure of Black African as a whole, a patrimony which we as modern scientists should preserve, propa­

gate and improve on at all costs. We are currently

experiencing a fast disappearance of the genuine

traditional herbalists and a decline of authentic

knowledge in traditional medicine. It is therefore,

for the modern Kenyan biologists, chemists and doctors

to find out the active principles contained in these

plants and suggest how best such compounds can be made

into modern medicines. In fact, these are the kinds '

of research which are giving the American and European

scientists new discoveries in modern antibiotics and drugs,

ABBREVIATIONS

Bor. = Boran Kips, = Kipsigis Seb. = Sebei Dor. = Dorobo Mar. = Marakwet Som. = Somali Elgy. = Elgeyo Mas. = Masai Swa. = Swahili Gir. = Giriama Nan. Nandi Tai. = Taita Kik. = Kikuyu ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to my two research assistants, M/s Simon Mathenge and Onesmus Mwangangi for their continuous assistance both in the field and in the herbarium.

REFERENCES

Kokwaro, J. 0., 1976,Medicina l Plants of East Africa, E. A. Literature Bureau, Nairobi. Lindsay, R. S., 1978, Medicinal Plants of Marakwet, Kenya,African Inland Church Hospital,Kapsowar , Kenya.

69 PLANTS AS SOURCES OFANTIMALARIA L AND AMOEBICIDAL COMPOUNDS

J.D. Phillipson1, M.J. O'Neill ,C.W . Wright1,D.H . Bray2 and D.C. Warhurst

Department of Pharmacognosy, The School of Pharmacy, University of London, U.K. Department of Medical Protozoology, London School ofHygien e and Tropical Medicine,Universit y of London, U.K.

Summary

A range of plant species isuse d in traditional medicine for the treat­ ment of malaria and of amoebiasis. Invitr o testswit h Plasmodium falciparum and with Entamoeba histolytica have been used as a guide to the fractionation of active principles from anumbe r of suchplants . Some recent findings are reported and discussed. Keywords: traditional medicine,malaria , amoebiasis,i n vitro tests, active principles,Plasmodiu m falciparum, Entamoeba histolytica.

Introduction

In the struggle for survival,ma nwage s constant war on awhol e series of infectious diseases caused by viruses,bacteria , protozoa and fungi. Natural products,derive d either from micro-organisms or from higher plants, have provided awid e range of drugswhic h are useful for the treatment of many of these infections. Chemotherapeutic pharmaceuticals are not necessarily available or affordable for the majority of the world's population and recourse ismad e to traditional remedies, pri­ marily those derived fromplants .

Twomajo r diseases encountered in the tropics aremalari a and amoebia­ sis, both due to protozoal parasitic infections. Higher plants provide the potent drugs quinine and emetinewhic h are used for the treatment of malaria and amoebiasis,respectively . Eradication of malaria seemed to be practicable in the mid 1950sbecaus e of the introduction of a series of synthetic antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine,primaquin e and pyrimethamine. Inaddition , the use of the potent and cheap insecticide DDTmean t that itwa s possible to kill the anopheline mosquitoes which act as vectors for the malarial parasite. Since the mid 1960s there has been a dramatic change in the fight against malaria because multi- drug-resistant strains of parasites have emerged on aworldwid e scale whilst the vector mosquitoes have developed resistance to insecticides (Nickel, 1983).

Today, malaria remains the single greatest infectious disease threat to the health of theworl d (Anon., 1984). In 1986,i twa s estimated that 400 million people live in countries where malaria is endemic and that 1600 million people may be exposed to the disease (Targett, 1986). There are four species of Plasmodium which are the causes of human malaria,P_; _falciparu m (malignant tertian malaria, often fatal), P. vivax (benign tertian malaria), I\ ovale (ovale tertian)an d I\ malariae (quartan malaria). Inrecen t years, strains ofP_ ^falciparum , which are resistant to the commonly prescribed drug chloroquine and also to

70 other antimalarials,hav e spread throughout Asia,C . And S.Americ a and parts of Africa.

Amoebiasis is caused by infectionswit h the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica which exists in the large intestine as either mobile tropho­ zoites or as cysts. Invasive trophozoites cause localulceratio n in the large intestine with dysenteric symptomswhic h may lead toperfor ­ ation and fatal peritonitis. If trophozoites move to other organs such as liver, they form abscesses and suchwidesprea d infections may be fatal. It has been estimated that inAsia ,Lati n America and Africa for 1977-1978 therewer e 400 million infections annually with 30,000 deaths and 1.5 million cases of the disease (Warren, 1986). A series of pharm­ aceuticals is available for the treatment of amoebiasis including emetine, chloroquine, diloxanide furoate,paramomycin , 8-hydroxyquino- lines andmetronidazole . The latter drug is currently the drug of choice but it does have some disadvantages in that it is not well toler­ ated by some patients and has been reported to cause tumours in experimental animals.

Plants and malaria

Quinine, from the bark of Cinchona species,wa s considered tob e an obsolete drug in the 1950sbu t due to the current resistance crisis it has been re-introduced into malaria treatment. In addition, the/suc­ cessful clinical use of Artemisia annua (qinghau)an d its active prin­ ciple, artemisinin, for the treatment of cerebral malaria inChina ,ha s alsohelpe d tohighligh t the role of plants aspotentia l sources of new antimalarials. Species from some 152 genera of higher plant are listed in the natural product data baseNAPRALER T for their use in the treatment of malaria by traditionalmedicin e (Farnsworth, 1985). These medicinal plants are not restricted to anarro w geographical range but aredist ­ ributed pantropically.

Despite thewidesprea d use of plants as antimalarials,ther e has been only one extensive research investigationwhic h has attempted to assess their activities against Plasmodium species (Spencer et al., 1947). Some 600 different plants representing 123 families of flowering plants were selected largely on thebasi s of literature references to their use as antimalarials or as febrifuges. Specieswer e collected from tropical countries throughout theworl d and extracts were prepared using either water, methanol or ethanol. The antiplasmodial activity of the extracts was estimated by comparing their ability toreduc e infections of P. gallinaceum in chicks and ofP ^cathemeriu m andJ\ _lophura e in ducklings in comparisonwit h quinine. Two families,i nparticular , produced a series of active extracts. Some 68 different plant collections from the Simaroubaceae were investigated and notably activewer e Castela tortuosa, Simaba cedron and Slmarouba amara. However, the antiplasmo­ dial activity was generally associated with toxicity to the avian hosts and hence the therapeutic usefulness inma nwa s questioned. TheAmaryl - lidaceae yielded anumbe r of active extracts from the 48 plantswhic h were tested and of specific interest was the activity of Cooperia pedun- culata andHymenocalli s caribea. Inbot h cases,activit ywa s associated with alkaloidal fractions but the lowyield s and somewhat erratic results hampered amor e definitive exploration. Active extracts were obtained from leaves,root s and stems of Dichroea febrifuga and the bark of Cornus floridawherea s varying degrees of activity were reported for extracts of Aristolochia species,Cissampelo spareira , Croton species,DatisC a

71 r glomerulata, Eryngium foetidum, Gentiana species,Remiji a peruviana and Schultesia lisianthiodes.

The conclusion was made (Spencer et al.,1947 ) that none of the plants offered unqualified therapeutic promise for malarial infections inman . However, itwa s noted that the projection of results of treatment of experimental malaria infections in poultry to the clinical treatment of malaria infections in man is difficult and requires extensive experimen­ tation. Thus itwa s pointed out that further research into the structu­ re determination of isolated compounds, their synthesis and synthetic modificationswer e needed and might lead to useful drugs for parasitic infections.

The study of Spencer et al. (1947)reveale d that several plant extracts possessed antiplasmodial activity in birds and that these plants deserve further detailed study. It should be emphasised that,whe n this work was undertaken 40year s ago,ther e was no good model for testing activity in vitro against human malaria and that the chromatographic techniques which are now invaluable for the separation and isolation of natural products were only in their infancy whilst spectroscopic methods for structural determination of active compounds were merely flights of fancy.

We have undertaken aprogramm e of research which follows directly from thewor k of Spencer et al. (1947). Inrecen t years,wit h the successful cultivation of malaria parasites (Jensen and Trager, 1977), in vitro antimalarial tests have been described which have made it possible to assess the ability of compounds to inhibit the growth of P_^falciparu m by measuring the reduction in incorporation of [H]-hypoxanthin e into the parasite (Desjardins et al., 1979; Fairlamb et al., 1985). We have used this test successfully with crude extracts of plants in order to determine their activity against amulti-dru g resistant strain of P. falciparum and have shown that the test system differentiates clearly between the Chinese antimalarial plant Artemisia annua and the British mugyort, A^vulgari s (IC,_ values of ethanolic extracts 3.9 and 250y g ml ,respectively ) (O'Neill et al., 1985). Three species of Simaroub- aceae, Brucea javanica from Thailand, Simaba cedron from Panama and Ailanthus altissima introduced into the U.K. from India,wer e extracted sequentially with light petroleum, chloroform and methanol and the ext­ racts evaluated for their in vitro antiplasmodial activity. In each case, themos t active fraction proved to be that extracted by chloroform; elution on polyamide columns resulted in a series of fractions which were monitored by the invitr o antiplasmodial test (O'Neill et al., 1985). Active compoundswer e isolated and identified by means of their spectral characteristics. All of the active compounds were quassinoids which are bitter terpenoids derived biosynthetically by the degradation and re­ arrangement of triterpenoids.

The in vitro antiplasmodial activity of quassinoids has been reported independently from several laboratories (Trager and Polonsky,1981 ; Guru et al., 1983; O'Neill et al., 1985,1986 , 1987; Chan et al., 1986; Pavanand et al., 1986; Bray et al., 1987). The average in vitro IC values of the three major quassinoids obtained from the fruits of Brucea javanica, namely bruceines A,B and C, against at least 4 natural isolates of E\ falciparum have been reported asbein g 8.66, 8.15 and 1.95 ngml , respectively (Pavanand et al,1986) , comparable with mefloquine which has an IC . value of 6.26 ngm l . These values are comparable to our r/ 50

72 results using the multi-drug resistant K-l strain ofP_ ^falciparu m in whichthe IC values for bruceines A, B and C proved tob e 11,1 1 and 5 ngm l ,respectivel y (Table 1) (O'Neill et al., 1987 ). A further eight quassinoids from B^ javanica fruits have also been isolated using the in vitro antiplasmodial test as a guide to the presence of active principles. Bruceantin, themos t active compound, had an IC_- value of 0.8 ng ml whereas the least active quassinoid, the glucoside yadanzio- side I, had an IC value of 22,000 ng ml" (Table 1)(O'Neil l et al., 1987) .

Table 1. Invitr o antimalarial activity of some quassinoids isolated from Brucea javanica fruits against Plasmodium falciparum (K-l strain).

COOMe

Quassinoid IC,-0 (ng ml

bruceantin CH=C(Me)CHMe H 0.8 bruceantinol CH=C(Me)C(0Ac)Me H 2 bruceine A CH CHMe H 11 bruceine B Me H 11 bruceine C CH=C(Me)C(0H)Me H 5 yadanzioside Me glucose 22,000

In assessing the invitr o antiplasmodial activity of some 14 quassin­ oids,w e have ascertained the effect of various structural parameters (O'Neill et al., 1986). Inparticular ,variatio n inrin g A substitution and oxidation levels,methylene-ox y bridge from C-20 to either C-ll or C-13 and differing ester functions at C-15. It has been possible to make these comparisons because of the range of structural types of quassinoids which are produced in the different genera within the Sima- roubaceae.

In evaluating plant products for potential chemotherapeutic activity, it is important to discover at an early stage of the investigationwhethe r the activity is specific against micro-organisms or merely generally cytotoxic. We have compared the invitr o antimalarial and cytotoxic activities (fromwor kwit h KB cells,huma n epidermoid carcinoma of the mouth)an d the results are sufficiently encouraging to indicate that it may be possible to isolate or tomodif y quassinoids so that antimalarial activity may be retained and cytotoxicity reduced (O'Neill et al., 1986).

73 A limited number of quassinoids has been evaluated for in vivo activity utilising a test systemwit h P^berghei inmic e (Fandeur et al., 1985; Monjour et al., 1987; O'Neill et al., 1987 ). in vitro activity does not necessarily parallel in vivo activity as exemplified by bruceines A and Bwhic h have identical in vitro activities (Table 1)bu t inviv o the former is ten times more active than the latter. It is essential that further work be undertaken on the quassinoids in order to obtainmor e in vivo data and to determine the mode of action against the malarial parasite.

Species from the Rutaceae andMeliaceae , familieswhic h are closely related to the Simaroubaceae, are also used in traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria (Farnsworth, 1985). These two families contain a series of limonoidswhic h are bitter principles closely related bio- synthetically to the quassinoids. We have tested some 19 limonoids for their in vitro antimalarial activity and have shown that gedunin, dihyd- rogedunin,nimbolldean d nimbinin are activewit h IC„ values ranging from 0.5 - 3.0i_i gm l (Bray et al., 1985). These latter two limonoids are constituents of the nim tree,Azadiracht a indica which is used in traditional medicine inAfric a and Asia for the treatment of malaria. An investigation of 21 compounds from 9Africa n species used in tradit­ ional medicine has also shown that gedunin has in vitro antimalarial activity (Khalid et al., 1986). ICcn values in the range of 1- 6.4 yg ml were reported for specific coumarins,a lignan and the ubiquitous flavonoid, quercetin. Although we have not been able to demonstrate direct antiplasmodial activity for several flavonoids,w e have demons­ trated that casticin causes a three to five fold reduction in the IC value of artemisinin whereas it does not affect the activity ofchloro - quine (Elford et al., 1987). These findings suggest that flavonoids indigenous toArtemisi a annua fromwhic h artemisinine is obtained, may alter the clinical potential of this novel antimalarial drug in the treatment of chloroquine-resistant malaria by plant extracts.

Plants and amoebiasis

Species from some13 9genera ,whic h have aworldwid e distribution, have been reported tob e used for the treatment of amoebiasis (Farnsworth, 1985). In commonwit h malaria therapy, the classic drug for the treat­ ment is a natural product,emetine ,a n isoquinoline alkaloid which is obtained from the roots and rhizomes of Cephaelis ipecacuanha. Alka­ loids are reportedly the active ingredients of several species of higher plant which are used in traditional medicine for the treatment ofamoeb ­ iasis e.g. Acacia nilotica (tryptamine, tetrahydroharman),Alstoni a scholaris (alstonine), Borreria verticillata (borrerine), Carica papaya (carpaine), Holarrhena floribunda (connessine) (Keene et al., 1986; Oliver-Bever, 1986). Other alleged active principles in traditional medicines include flavonoids (e.g.Phyllanthu s n^ruri)an d terpenes (e.g. Curcuma domestica,Euphorbi a hirta,E . tirucalli). Inadditio n to possessing antimalarial activity, quassinoids may also be active against Entamoeba histolytica and anumbe r of simaroubaceous species are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of amoebiasis e.g. Ailanthus altissima, Brucea antidysenterica, Castela nicholsoni,Picrasm a excelsa, Quassia amara and Simarouba glauca (Keene et al., 1986).

It is of only relatively recent years that invitr o test methods have

74 been developed with Entamoeba histolytica (Diamond, 1978; Neal, 1983) and we have demonstrated that such an in vitro test is effective in assessing the activity of plant extracts (Keene et al., 1986). Useful leads for new anti-amoebic drugs maywel l be obtained by the systematic investigation of plants used in the traditional treatment of amoebiasis. However, this approach isno t necessarily the only one and there are other rational approacheswhic h may be made from studies of plant prod­ ucts as exemplified by our studieswit h Cinchona alkaloids (Keene et al., 1987). It iswel l known that Cinchona bark is used for the treatment of malaria and that it is a rich source of the active quinoline alkaloids, quinine and quinidine. Incontrast , the leaves of Cinchona species are relatively low in their alkaloidal content and apparently have not attra­ cted the attention of man to the same extent as the bark. Nevertheless, alkaloids are present inCinchon a leaves and a group of alkaloids known as the cinchophyllines have been isolated from C_^ledgerian a (Zeches et al., 1980; Keene, 1985). The cinchophyllines may be regarded as indole analogues of emetine and their biosynthesis via condensation of one molecule of the iridoid glycoside secologanin with twomolecule s of tryptamine, is closely related to that of emetine inwhic h one molecule of secologanin condenseswit h two molecules of dopamine (Figure 1). We have investigated a series of eighteen cinchophylline-type alkaloids for their amoebicidal activity and although none was found to be as potent as emetine against E_^histolytic a invitr o (IC,-n value 0.07 ug mj. ), themos t active compounds had ICcn values in the range of 0.4 - 2.2 yg ml (Keene et al., 1987). 50 CINCHONA LEAF CEPHAELIS ROOT MeO

•OMe cinchophytline-type alkaloids emetine-type alkaloids (anti-amoebic (anti -amoebic)

2 motes tryptamine +2 mole s dopamine

secologanin (iridoid glycoside) CINCHONA BARK 1mol etryptamin e

quinine -type alkaloids (anti-malarial)

Fig. 1 Biosynthetic relationship of alkaloids from Cinchona ledgeriana and Cephaelis ipecacuanha

75 More recently,w e have developed amor e rapid and sensitive procedure for assessing in vitro activity of plant extracts against E^ histolytica utilising microdilution techniques inmicrotitr e wells (Wright et al., 1987a, 1987b). Validation of the test has shown that metronidazole and emetine are assessed as being highly active against E_^histolytic a whereas some commonly used antibacterial and antifungal drugs are either relatively or totally inactive. Solvent partition techniques have been used to fractionate extracts from the fruits of Brucea javanica, a trad­ itional Chinese medicine used for the treatment of amoebic dysentery and it has been shown that the microdilution test can be used successfully as a guide for the fractionation of active principles (Wright et al., 1987c). Four isolated bruceolides,bruceine s A, B, C and bruceantin (Table 1)possesse d IC-n values in the range of 0.1 - 0.3 )jgm l comparable tometronidazol e which has an IC value of 0.32 \ig ml Clearly, this new in vitro test method has great potential for identi­ fying the active principles of plantswhic h are used in the traditional treatment of amoebiasis orwhic h are suspected to contain active compounds.

Conclusions

It has been demonstrated recently that sensitive invitr o tests for assessing activity against Plasmodium falciparum and Entamoeba histoly­ tica are applicable to the bioassay-guided fractionation of plant extracts. We have identified anumbe r of potentially valuable anti­ malarial and amoebicidal compounds and have provided scientific evidence for the validation of some traditional plant medicines. Many plants used throughout theworl d for the treatment of malaria and amoebiasis need to be investigated scientifically in order to assess their efficacy as plant medicines and their potential as sources of new drug molecules.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for financial support to the Commission of the European Communities Directorate General for Science,Researc h and Development and to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.

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76 Diamond, L.S.,D.R .Harlo w and C.C. Cunnick, 1978. A newmediu m for the axenic cultivation of Entamoeba histolytica and other Entamoeba. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop.Med .Hyg . 72: 431-432. Elford, B.C.,M.F . Roberts, J.D. Phillipson and R.J.M. Wilson,1987 . Potentiation of the antimalarial activity of qinghaosu by methoxylated flavones. Trans.Roy . Soc. Trop.Med . Hyg. 81: 434-436. Fairlamb, A.H.,D.C . Warhurst and W. Peters, 1985. An improved technique for the cultivation of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro without daily medium change. Ann. Trop.Med . Parasit. 79: 379-384 Fandeur, T., C.Morett i and J. Polonsky, 1985. Invitr o and in vivo assessment of the antimalarial activity of sergeolide. Planta Med. 51: 20-23. Farnsworth,N.R. , 1985. Personal communication. Guru, P.Y., D.C. Warhurst,A . Harris and J.D. Phillipson, 1983. Anti­ malarial activity of bruceantin invitro . Ann. Trop.Med . Parasit. 77: 433-435. Jensen, J.B. and W. Trager, 1977. Plasmodium falciparum in culture! use of outdated erythrocytes and a description of the candle-jar method. J. Parasitol. 63: 883-886 Keene, A.T., 1985. Chemical and biological studies of constituents of Cinchona species. Ph.D. thesis,Universit y ofLondon . Keene, A.T., A. Harris, J.D. Phillipson and D.C. Warhurst, 1986. In vitro amoebicidal testing of natural products,Par t 1. Methodology. Planta Med.,278-285 . Keene, A.T., J.D. Phillipson, D.C. Warhurst,M . Koch and E. Seguin,1987 . In vitro amoebicidal testing of natural products,Par t 2. Alkaloids related to emetine. Planta Med., 53: 201-206. Khalid, S.A., A. Farouk, T.G. Geary and J.B. Jensen, 1986. Potential antimalarial candidates from African plants: an in vitro approach using Plasmodium falciparum. J. Ethnopharmacol. 15: 201-209. Monjour, L., Rouquier, F., Alfred, C. and Polonsky, J. 1987. Essais de tratment du paludisme murin expérimentale par un quassinoid, la glaucarubinone. C. R. Acad. Sei. Paris,304 : 129-132. Neal, R.A., 1983. Experimental amoebiasis and the development of anti- amoebic parasitology. Parasitology 86: 175-191. Nickel, P. 1983. Malaria: problems in treatment. Pharmacy Internation­ al, 4: 37-41. Oliver-Bever, B., 1986. Medicinal plants in tropicalWes t Africa, Cambridge University Press,Cambridge . O'Neill,M.J. , D.H. Bray, P. Boardman, J.D. Phillipson and D.C. Warhurst, 1985. Plants as sources of antimalarial drugs,Par t 1. In vitro test method for the evaluation of crude extracts from plants. Planta Med. 61: 394-398 O'Neill, M.J., D.H. Bray, P. Boardman, J.D. Phillipson, D.C.Warhurst , W. Peters and M. Suffness, 1986. Plants as sources of antimalarial drugs, Part 2. Invitr o antimalarial activity of some quassinoids. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 30: 101-104. O'Neill,M.J. , D.H. Bray, P. Boardman,K.L . Chan, J.D. Phillipson, D.C. Warhurst andW . Peters, 1987 . Plants as sources of antimalarial drugs, Part 4. Activity of Brucea javanica fruits against chloroquine- resistant Plasmodium falciparum invitr o and against Plasmodium berghei inmice . J. Nat.Prod . 50: 41-48. Pavanand, K., W. Nutakul,T . Dechatiwongse,K . Yoshira,K . Yongvanitchit, J.P. Scovill, J.L. Flippen-Anderson, R. Gilardi,C . George,P .Kanchape e and H.K. Webster, 1986. Invitr o activity of Brucea .javanica against multi-drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Planta Med., 108-111.

77 Spencer,CF. , F.R.Koniuszy , E.F. Rogers,J.A . Shavel, Jr.,N.R . Easton, E.A. Kaczka, F.A. Kuehl, Jr.,R.F . Phillips,A . Walti, K. Folkers, C.Malang a and A.0.Seeler ,1947 . Survey of plants for anti-malarial activity. Lloydia 10: 145-174 Targett, G., 1986. Malaria: current trends in treatment. MIMS Magazine 15 Jan., 34-39 Trager,W . and J. Polonsky, 1981. Antimalarial activity of quassinoids against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 30: 531-537. Warren, K.S., 1986. inA .Martinez-Palom o (ed.): Human parasitic diseases, Vol.2 ,Amoebiasis . Elsevier, Amsterdam. Future perspect­ ives in amoebiasis,260-264 . Wright, C.W., M.J. O'Neill, J.D. Phillipson and D.C. Warhurst,1987a . Quantitative assessment of antiamoebic activity in vitro,usin g a microdilution technique. Abstracts of Spring Meeting of The British Society for Parasitology, 9-10. Wright, C.W., M.J. O'Neill, J.D. Phillipson and D.C. Warhurst,1987b . Amicrodilutio n assay for determination of in vitro activity against Entamoeba histolytica. J. Pharm. Pharmac. 39: inpress . Wright, C.W., M.J. O'Neill,P . Boardman, J.D. Phillipson and D.C. Warhurst, 1987c. Use of amicrodilutio n assay for the assessment of in vitro antiamoebic activity of Brucea javanica fruits. J. Pharm. Pharmac. 39: inpress . Zeches, M., P. Thepenier, L. LeMe n Olivier and J. LeMen ,1980 . Alcaloides des Feuilles de Cinchona ledgeriana. Phytochem. 19: 2451- 2454.

78 PLANTS INTH EHEALT H CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM OF AFRICA

Dawit Abebe

Coordinating Centre for Research &Developmen t of Traditional Medicine, Addis Ababa,Ethiopi a

Summary

This paper examines the relative merits of plant medicine and concludes that its development on scientific basis iswarrante d on the following grounds. While there isa continued economic recession and rapid rate of population growthman y African countries cannot avail themselves of the service ofmoder nmedicin e and,therefore ,th e time-old plant remedies have tob e scientifically promoted if thehealt h care delivery system is toreac h maximum number of people in the shortest posssible time. The second argument in favour of developing traditional medicine is that it embodies potential source of new or superior drugs that are effective in treating some of the diseases which dono t succumb to existing means of modern therapeutic agents. Finally, substantial amount of foreign excha­ nge that canb e earned from an insight into traditional plant remedies is also discussed. Keywords, synergetic,hypoglycaemic , bacteriostatic

Introduction

I hope youwil l all agreewit h my presumptuous statement that nothing hasbee nmor e important toma n either in the past or at present and there won't be one in the future than to securemaximu m number of years of heal­ thy life. This instinct to live longer and to seek relief frompai n or disease prompted man to explore hisnatura l environment. The result of this exploration led to the discovery of plants which helped him,wit h a reasonable degree of success,t o fight off the diseases thathav e under­ mined his physical andmenta l wellbeing. The choice of a plant certainly was based neither on a scientific knowledge of the constituents nor entir­ ely on trial and error,bu tmostl y onyear s of observation of animalhab ­ its and experiments onhuma nbeings ,som e of whommigh t have lost their lives in the process. The empirical knowledge,thu s acquired on the helpful plants was passed onb y word ofmout h and in some instances by writings on vellum or parchment,an dmuc h later on paper. Africa is still abundantly rich in such experiences and as amatte r of fact herbal medical care continues toremai n the only type of health care available tonearl y 80pe r cent of the population inman y countries of the continent while the remaining 20pe r cent swing between themoder n and the traditional system of medical care. Consequently, in theAfrica n milieu, it is difficult to draw a line showing where one system ends and the other begins. Therefore,thoug h economic conditions play an important part, they areb y nomean s theultimat e decisive factors which determine wheth­ er the patient chooses tob e treated by a traditional medical practition­ er or by amoder n health professional. For example,owin g toembarrass ­ ment or fear of being ostracized most patientswit h hemorrhoids,leprosy , V.D., etc.d o not disclose their cases to anyone elsebu t the traditional

79 medical practitioners,wh o command the implicit trust and confidence of their clientele,a s they form an integral part of the village community. Apart from a common language that facilitates mutual understanding, the traditional practitioners have not only ample time for their patients but also they are easily accessible than themoder n healthworkers . The mechanisms of action ofmoder n drugs,a swoul d be expected, are far less understood by the largely uneducated rural population and consequent­ ly they are oftenmisuse d or abused,thereb y producing serious side effec­ ts and resistance to several pharmacetical products,particularl y the anti­ biotics. Herbal preparations are,therefore ,becomin g more trustworthy and increasingly popular like in theWester nWorl d itself where there is undeniable intention to return toplan t medicine despite soman y medical discoveries over the last fewdecades . An effective drug,accordin g to theview s ofman y traditional African societies,mus t be bitter,pungent , some what scented and it should have an impact that can be felt from themomen t of administration or applicat­ ion. Thus, the efficacy ofmoder n sugar coated or tasteless and odourless tiny tablets with their insidious actions are oftenviewe d with scepticism. On the other hand, the patient has full trust in thehealin g power of tra­ ditional herbal preparations which is of crucial importance since such an attitude involves themin d which canpla y a significant role in thereco ­ very process and eventual"purg e of the disease. Africans are gregarious peoplewit h strong social and family ties. In time of ill-health the bond becomes evenmor e strong. Fortunately,the - herbalist who canprovid e bedside care aswel l as the plants arebot h wit­ hin easy reach and, thepatien t does not need topar t from his orhe rre ­ lations and close associates -a conditionwhic h isfavourabl e infacili ­ tating convalescence. For minor injuries and complaints there areman y effective plants (eg.Centell a asiatca,fo rwoun d dressing, Chenopodium ambrosoides asbroa d spectrum vermifuge)know n bymos t people in the villages andhenc e one doesno t need tob e put off from the routine daily activities which otherwise would have necessitated a sacrifice of both time andmone y if thepatien t had toge tmoder nmedica l attention inremo ­ tely located clinics and/o rhospitals . Medical assistance by theherbalis t isno t only limited to a familymem ­ ber who needs immediate attentionbu t also to those that are reluctant to report their cases,wh o nevertheless,.suffer from seemingly simple,chron ­ ico r incurable diseases. Theherbalist s are often regarded as spiritual leaders by the community and,therefore ,apar t from their role inprovid ­ ingmedica l service,the y are usually called upon to settle social proble­ ms in a family - a rolewhic h iso f enormous significance in preventing potential health hazards including many of theunderlyin g causes that can aggravate or even induce psychological or psychosomatic disorders. As they are custodians of proven plant knowledge,the y warn their community membe­ rs about some of the poisonous,hallucinogeni c and abortifacien tplants . In areaswher e there are snakes and scorpions,antiveno m plant preparatio­ ns are carried by the herblists orkep t within easy reach to provide trea­ tment readily for apotentia l victim. Actually, one cannot help feeling confident while onplan t collection tripwit h herbalists,eve n in the most hostile areas since they seem tohav emedica l solution toman y of the potential health hazards,thoug h this isno t to say that they dono t know the limits of their knowledge. Apart from theirmedicina l uses, some plants are alleged tohav e apowe r that goes to the extent of stopping rain,deterin g attack by abeast ,etc .

80 although thevalidit y of these and other similar claims obviously remain tob e scientifically verified. In themeantim e we find itreassurin g to see that identical plants are being used for identical complaints indiff ­ erent geographical regionswit h different socio-cultural systems.

Ethnobotanical Information - Its Significance in theFutur e Development of Our Plant Products

Inmos t African countries,th e resource toprovid e adequate modern health care coverage is extremely limited. According to a report released by the World Bank,annua l government health expenditures in 50 of the 86 develop­ ing countries isU S $5 or less per person (1). Therefore,o f necessity, thepeople s in these countries continue to rely on their own time-old ski­ lls and natural resources to alleviate their health problems,despit e the misgivings by some professionals in the orthodox medical systemwh o are onlykee n to follow already established research paths andwh o think that modern drugs are always superior even if these are scarce orbeyon d the economic reach of themajorit y of thepopulation . Admittedly, sometradi ­ tionalmedica l practices have their ownwea k points but these are often blown out of allproportions . On the other hand it isals o certain that behind the facades of superstition and absence of perceptible logical patterns,herba l medical care still represents an important heritage comp­ rising rational principles andnumerou splant s that are effective against theprevalen t diseases which afflict human and animal lives. It is common knowledge that traditional medical practice is largely un­ codified as a result ofwhic h itdoe s not only suffer from distortion as timeprogresse s but is also sinking fast into oblivionwit h every passing generation. This trend has been evenmor e accelerated in contemporary Africa due to the displacement of communities that isbrough t about by, among other things,th e recurrent drought and ironically,b y the spread of modern education. Although we have beenmor e or less in ahelples s situa­ tionwit h respect to the former.,ther e has been and there still is a possibility toblen d this important cultural legacy with allhighe r forms of learning aswel l aswit h thenationa l health care delivery systemb y adopting the Chinese experience to our own local conditions. In order for this tomaterialize , a comprehensive collection of ethnobo­ tanical information isno t only apre-requisit e but also of utmost urgen­ cy asw e are leftwit h the last generation of practitioners who are mostly within the agebracket s of 45 and85 . In the continuous search forpotentia l source of superior orne w cheap­ er drugs,th e availability of ethnomedical information is of crucial importance since ithelp s tohaste n the discovery and to save scarcere ­ sources. For example,ha d therebee n no data on Cinchona spp or Rauvolfia serpentina which are traditionally used in themanagemen t of malaria and hypertension respectively,w e would have perhaps still been looking for the right drugs even after screening hundreds of species as well asman y synthetic products. According toFarnswort h (2),mor e than 4000 chemical substances have tob e tested for every newmarketabl e drug. He continues toremin d us that there is a great possibility of new plant- derived drugsbein g discovered indevelopin g countries during thenex t two decades than of their being produced by all of the chemists in the developed countries combined. The discovery may not necessarily be in line with the traditionally reputed uses but entirely new therapeutic agents fortreatin g other

81 diseases from the same starting material. The Jamaicans,fo r example, used to rely on Catharanthus roseus for itshypoglycaemi c activity which,however ,coul d not be proved by modern scientific experiments. How­ ever, the compounds isolated from the same plant have been found tob e use­ ful in the chemotherapy of leukaemia(3) . The actual and potential values of African plants go farbeyon d curing diseases. Famine foods,fo r instance,ar e drawn from several wild species in the genera Asparagus,Crotalaria ,Dioscoria , etc. to serve as asubsti ­ tute for the cultivated root or cereal crops in time of food crisis. Kwashirkor and other signs ofmalnutritio n are often taken care ofb y these and other plantswhic h under normal circumstances areprescribe d for dis­ orders that are unrelated to food. Inherba l medical practice prevention of diseases also occupies a central position. To emphasize this aspect of medical care I cannot dobette r than to quote a sayingwhic h literally goes., "Why the sickness of your children; haven't you planted Withania in the front garden." Withania somfnifea isa popular medicinal plant inEthiopi awhic h has a bacteriostatic property (4),tha t may explain the above folklore claim. There are general disinfectants such as Scenecio gigas,Vernoni a amygidalina,Alliu m sativum, etc.whic h are believed tob e effective in warding off epidemics. Several taxa, including Oenanthepalustris , Clematis simensis,Maeur a subdecandra are utilized aspesticide s and water clarifiers tocomba t insect-and water-born diseases. Remedies also exist which prevent repeated miscarriages,regulat e menstrual cycle,restor e lost sexual feelings,t o overcome infertility, to counter the effect of ageing and even to increase thememor y or intellectual power of teenagers.

Treatment and Relevant Data on the Plants Employed

The information about the therapeutic action of aparticula r plant varies fromon e herbalist to the other. Thus, a single species could have upto 30 ormor e uses or none at all. However, some taxa like Crotonmacrostachys , Ghidia involucrata,Gomphocarpu s fruiticosus,Verbascu m sinaiticum are employed by most practitioners inth e treatment of diseases ranging from sore throat to complex cardiovascular orneuroti c conditions. Thevernacula r name of theplant , sometimes takes thenam e of thedisea ­ seo r of its aetiological agent against which it is applied. Thus,medi ­ cine for snakebit e denotes Haploscidium abyssinicum ormedicin e of fever refers to thevariou s species ofLippia . Out of obsession for secrecy, mentioning thenam e of the plant is sometimes avoided although theherbal ­ ists claim that thiswoul d reduce itspotency . Among theherbalist s with abackgroun d of Ethiopian Coptic church education, theplan t oftenha s a name composed of twowords . The first is applicable to all species regar­ dless of their affinities or differences. The second one is a specific epithet which usually depicts the characteristics of the taxonwhe n emplo­ yed as adrug . Thus, "etse sioul"whic h literally means "plant of hell" indicates theburnin g sensation that is feltb y applying Ranunculus multifidus. Similarly, "etseyihayu "mean s "restorativ e plant"describ ­ ing the effectiveness ofHabenari a sp. inovercomin g impotence(5) . Thewhol e plant or the different parts may beuse d for the same or diff­ erent purposes or even toproduc e diametrically opposite results. The fruits of Ficus vasta,fo r example,ar e said tohav e alaxativ e effect while the root from the same species is claimed to stop diarrhoea. Simil­ arly, the fatal effect from ingestion of Oenanthe palustris is neutralized

82 by taking Ferrula communiso rvic e versa. Therefore,fro m long experien­ ce, theherbalist s not only recognize thepoisonou s plants but also read­ ilyprescrib e the antidotes. Sometimes, two or three closely related species often with overlapping distributions are considered as oneplan t andma y be used interchangeably in the treatment of diseases. For example,Clemati s simensis and £. hirsuta have the samevernacula r names and are considered tohav e identi­ cal therapeutic actions. This is an important reminder to the researcher who should not only focus on a single plant but rather on allied species and higher taxonomie groups while looking for apotentia l source of new drugsbecaus e they are likely to contain active principles with similar ifno t identical pharmacological results. The synergetic actions of chemical constituents indifferen t plants iswel l known inherba l treat­ ment. Thus,unspecifie d complaints which dono t succumb to a single plant are often treated with ingredients from several specieswhos e indiv­ idual curative effects on a given recognizable disease iswel l established.

Aetiology, Diagnosis and Preparation of Drugs

Inherba l medical practice,aetiolog y of diseases isles s important than symptoms and is often attributed to super natural causesb y mostherbal ­ ists. Evil eye and themachinatio n of the devil are often heldrespons ­ ible for conditions of ill-health. However, theherbalist s are alsowel l aware of the effect of unhygenic conditions such asba d food and unsafe drinking water on thebod y which usually predispose most of the African people to infectious diseases. Diagnosis of diseases arebase d mainly on systematic questioning and physical examination although somemor e enlightened practitioners have started tous e sphygmomanometre and the stethoscope. Some claim tob e diviners who diagnose many diseases including hepatitis and rabies justb y observing finger tips, the eye or the palm. At the moment,w ema y not be in apositio nneithe r to give scientific explanation to these practices nor to completely dismiss them as unfounded. Many of the diseases canb e diagnosed with relative ease,bu t there are times when this seems tob e difficult or even impossible,an d in such cases,th e patient isreferre d to abette r qualified herbalist or better still to the nearest health institution. Traditional medical preparations consist of ingredients from natural sub­ stances,viz .anima l products,mineral s andvegetables . The end products includepowders ,decoctions ,infusions ,etc . tob e administered,throug h nasal, oral, anal,vaginal , and other routes. Over 95%o f thesesprepara ­ tions are of plant origin particularly of higher plants. The identificat­ ion of the plants is carried outmostl y by relying on several inherent characteristics including some bizzar,nevertheles s important features such as colour of the exudate,th e time it takes for the latex to solidify etc. Environmental regimes and geographical distributions are also inclu­ ded as factors in determining the identity of theplant . The sweet,bitt ­ er or soury characteristics are also taken into account to clarify doubts. Village dwellers are sometimes called upon to assist in the determination process, or traditional "pharmacopoeias"writte n inArabi c are consulted as standard Floras to finalize the identification. Collection of the plants is often carried out in any season and at any time of the day although dry season collections arebelieve d tob e more effective than the corresponding parts collected during the rainy periods.

83 Dusk or dawn collections are similarly preferred to those collected dur­ ing the night or day time. Post-flowering is considered as the idealper ­ iod of collection since it isgenerall y assumed that this is the time when thepoisonou s principle of some of theplant s is at its lowest or the therapeutic effect ofmos t of the species becomes more pronounced. Drugs from lowland plants are thought tob emor e potent,bu t with occasional drastic effects than their highland counterparts.

Dosages and Conditions of Treatment

Dosages of the prescription are often measured out ashandfu l for fruits; seeds,leaves ;pinc h or spoon for powders and glass for liquids. The dos­ ages tob e given are not only determined by the stage of the illness (eg. mild, serious,o rchronic )bu t alsob y the physical condition of the pat­ ient. Drugswhic h require nasal,ora l and vaginal administration areno t given topregnan t mothers unless it is absoultely essential,an d even then the dosage ishal f or a third of what is recommended for other adults. Besides examining several ambulatory patients daily, there could often be upto 15inpatient s at any one timewh o are given theprescriptio n under the strict supervision of the paractitioner. Rather than supplying large doses of the prescription, the herbalists often prefer tomak ehous e calls, so that they can evaluate the efficacy of the drug. To speed up convalescence or topreven t a relapse,th e patient is often advised torefrai n from taking alcoholicdrink , smoking or in some cases to change eating habits. For example,ra wmea t or milk and uncooked veg­ etables are not to beuse d while taking drugs against intestinal parasites. Some of thepractice s dono t only seem illogical but they can also pose possible risk to the patient. Many of the undesireable components which canb e weaned away from thepositiv e aspects are often nothing more thana simple orchestration to conceal the identity of the plants and hence do not have adirec t bearing on the actual healing effect of thedrugs .

Traditional Medicine inMaximizin g Health Care Coverage

Traditional medicine,lik e conventional medicine has only one objective, i.e. restoring thephysica l and mental wellbeing of the patient,an d in Africa itwil l continue to remain avita l part of the peoples'ow nhealt h care system, although a large sumo f money iscontinuousl y being injected intoAfric ab y national and international organizations toprovid e adequ­ ate modern health care coverage. However, there isver y little likeli­ hood of thisbein g achieved in the foreseeable future considering theun ­ derlying upward trend inpopulatio n growth. For example,th e present population of Ethiopia is expected to double over thenex t 25years ,ther ­ eby increasing the competition for the resources that are already fully stretched. With adeclinin g economy,mos t African countries do not seem to be in apositio n to spare foreign exchange to import even themos t essential drugs and, therefore,the y have little orn o choice but toreso ­ rt to the localmanpowe r and material resources in order to improve or expand thehealt h care delivery system. Most of our health problems inAfric a are attributable to unsafe drink­ ingwaters ,lac k ofpersona l hygiene andmalnutrition . It is only by edu­ cating the community about prevention of diseases thatw e can overcome these and many other health problems. No one else is in abette r position to fulfil this than theherbalis t and other traditional medical practitio­ ners. They are not only numerous but they are also part of the community,

84 theyhav e the time,th e devotion and acceptance by thepubli c to change the existing health outlook of fellowvillagers . Themos t prevalent inf­ ectious diseases have widely recognized plant remedies. For example, Bersama abyssinica,Xanthiu m abyssinicum and Embellia schimperii are commonlyknow n tob e effective against ascaris,taeni a and fungal infec­ tion of the skin. The list of plants with potential antibacterial,anti ­ fungal and parasiticidal properties is endless. Unfortunately,no t so much scientific work has been done toprov e their efficacy and to use them at least at the primary health care level if not at all levels of thenationa l health care delivery system. Themajo r reason for this neglect is the absence of comprehensive ethnobotanical information to serve as abas e line for researchers and clinicians. The second reason is the fear among themoder nhealt h practitioners regarding about the probable short and long term side effects. Of course,ther e are some medicinal herbs likeDatur a stramonium,Argemo nmexicana ,Coniu m maculatum, etc.whic h are not only known for their virtues but also for their vices that could even lead to death. The rest of the plants,how ­ ever, could not have been inus e for centuries if they wereknow n to cause serious adverse effects. Therefore,a rational and unbiased attit­ ude shoud be adopted towards traditional medicine and itspromotio n on a scientific basis is the most economically viable proposition to achieve "health for allb y the year 2000". This system ofmedica l care vs not only a solution to our present day health care problems,bu t it alsore ­ presents an immense store-house of empirical knowledge and raw materials for future development of drugs against such serious diseases as cancer, diabetes,menta l illnesses,etc .whic h are rarely amenable to existing modern means of treatment. For example,i n China,ou t of the 104ne w drugs developed over the last 37 years,6 0originate d fromplant s used in herbal remedies (6). On aworl dwid ebasis ,40 %o f the drugswit h an estimated commercial values of US$ 40billio n per annum are obtained partially or fully from plant origin (7). For example, since 1974: 3000 tonnes ofaloes ; 5000 " " Cinchona bark; 1000 " " daturaleaves ; 5000 " " senna; 10000 " " artichoke leaves etc.hav e been used by thebi g industries for pharmaceutical preparations (8). Therefore,i n addition to finding effective,saf e and cheaper drugs of plant origin for thehealt h care need of their people,man y African countries can also benefit from the export of unprocessed or semi-processed crude drugs. Many African countries have nowbega n to recognize the use of herbal remedies as important partners to the conventional health care system and not a temporary solution thatwoul d eventually be replaced. In Madagascar,Tanzania ,Ghan a and Ethiopia practical steps are already bei­ ng taken to ascertain efficacy and determine optimum dosages for several herbal drugs. InEthiopia ,thes e and other responsibilities are undertaken by the Coordinating Centre for Research andDevelopmen t of Traditional Medicine. In the last two years and covering just less than a third of the country, the Centreha sbee n able to collect over 250 species of plants together with their ethnopharmaceutical information. Most widely used species claimed to be effective against theprevalen t diseases of the country are being selected for biological screening. For efficient sorting and rapid retrieval of information acomputerize d databas eha s been set up. Thus,

85 using themenu-drive n Friday! programme we have been able to produce an electronic data file for over 95 families of plants claimed to alleviate nearly 160physica l and mental problems. The file contains 28 fields of information, including the following: Family, and species names;vernacu ­ larnames ,locality ;altitude ;habitat ;use ;par t used are themajo r fie­ lds employed as an index cards in the retrieval rule. The file also pro­ vides space to enter the form of use,i.e . preparation, dosage and appli­ cation. Symptoms,aetiologica l concepts about diseases and theveterina ­ ry uses of the drugs are also entered. Theweigh t and concentration of the crude extract of theplan t material intended for bioassay orpharmac ­ ological tests and theresult s of the test are recorded. Bearing inmin d that most of the plants have been in use forman y gene­ rations, it is assumed that they could have little or no lasting serious effects,althoug h they could probably be mild or taking too long toprod ­ uce the desired result. Therefore,th e Ethiopian Centre has designed an alternative approach which concentrates on efficacy and acute toxicity tests of the crude extract as opposed to themethod s in the classical procedure which require sophisticated analytical instruments,expertis e and years of deliberation. The former approach isno t only economical but also quicker to find effective,chea p and easily available drugs of plant origin, thereby reducing the pressure on thehard-earne d foreign currency or our dependence on external aid.

Conclusions

Like almost everything else,th e traditional health care system appare­ ntly suffers from some drawbacks. Except for those that may be related to overdose,mos t of these drawbacks,however ,d o not have a direct bearing on the drugs prepared from plants and there canb e no justification to put off open-minded scientists fromundertakin g research topromot e the posi­ tive aspects. Inmos t African countries only 20%o f the people get modern health care facilities and even this coverage isno t expected to increase but rather to thin outwit h the upward trend of population growth and the declining economic conditions. However,wit h open-minded approach devoid of rigid dogmas,w e can provide reasonable health care coverage to maxim­ umnumbe r of people in the shortest possible time by using the available material andmanpowe r resources that are rooted in traditional medicine. Anything that isbeneficia l could be integrated with the national health care delivery system,whil e the ineffective,detrimental ,o r false claims should be eliminated through systematic research. Many of thewriting s onparchmen t produced several centuries ago indicate thatmos t of the intellectual works were devoted to describing the plants whichwer e supposed tomitigat e human sufferings. Soman y yearswer e spe­ nt not only in search of effective plants but also in refining thepracti ­ ces. Every successful treatment has served as a driving force to know more plants and to combat more diseases. In fact anyonewh oha s had the chance towor k with herbalists cannot help but wonder whether there isan y physical or mental problem that cannot be overcome by the power ofplants . Unfortunately,man y ofvtheseplants ,fo r example, Warburgiaugandensis ,Bruce a antidysentrica are becoming endangered as a result of over exploitation, environmental destruction and the recurrent drought in the Sahelregio n of the continent. Only a consistent and re­ doubled effort by thegovernmen t of the concerned countries and the Inter­ national Community can stop such an irreparable damage toplant s which are the actual and potential source of effective and/or cheaper drugs against schistosomiasis,malaria , trympanosomiasis,cancer ,etc . for which modern medicine hasneithe r economical nor satisfactory cures. Sincew e are all dependent (directly or indirectly) onplants ,th e loss of one species does not only affect aparticula r nation buthumanit y at large. Hence,w e all have a collective responsibility towor k together topreserv e our natural resources for our ownbenefi t and for thebenefi t of future generations tocome .

References

1. World Bank.Healt h sector policy paper. Washington,DC .Februar y 1980. 2. Farnsworth,N.R . (1985). Plants andmoder n medicine:wher e science and folklore meet. In,Worl d Health Forum,6_ :1 . 76-80. 3. Shellard,E.J . (1979). The significance of research into medicinal plants. In,Sofowor a (ed.),Africa n Medicinal Plants. University of IFEPress . Nigeria. 98-111. 4. Trease,G.E . & Evans,W.C. , 1978 (11ed.). Pharmacognosy. Bailliere Tindall.London .673-675 . 5. Dawit Abebe &Estifano sHago s (1986). Plants asprimar y source of drugs in the traditional health practices of Ethiopia. In,Engle s (ed.)The_Proceedin g of theFirst_Internationa l Symposium on Ç°HËe.EY.â!:ï°2_âïîË_ï£ii:'-zat*-on°É_I£îîi2E :'-5nGermplasm . (Inpreparation ), 6. Gen,X.P . (1986). Medicinal plants: the Chinese approach. In,Worl d Health Forum, Ji 1. 84-85. 7. The IUCN/WWF Plants Conservation Programme, 1984. WWF.UK .25 . 8. Attiso,M.A . (1983). Phytopharmacology and phytotherapy. In, Bannerman e^ta_ l(eds. ), Traditiona l Medicine andHealt h Care Coverage. World Health Organization. Geneva. 194-206.

87 THE INVESTIGATION AÎNDRESEARC H OK HSEKYI— NATURAL RESOURCESO FHENA N

Gao Zen6yi etZho u Cnangsaan Cui Bo AnZnuoju n Tang Shian

Biology Institute of Henan Academy of sciences

ABSTRACT

"Hsenyi"i s atraditiona l chinese.Th e oudeo f «anyMagnoli aplant s are called Hsenyi to be usea ESmeuicine . The tuthersmake sth e systematicinv e -stigatean d research upon the distribution, growing enviroment, species ofplaat ,natura l type andpropertie s of "Hseny i ".A ne w species,Mag ­ nolia elliptilimbt.an d twone w forms,M . biondiiPainp .f . purpurasceens andM . biondii Pamp.f . flavescens, t.rereported . Through diterming esseiitialoils , iti s found that thehighes t of essentialoi l (5.8%)i s inM . elliptiliiBDa.Th e second isM . biondii (5-0%) and the lowestW . biondii f.purpurascen s (4.3%).

"Hsenyi" is atraditiona l chinesemedicine .I t u<.s recorde d as early as in "Tan g Bencao "sn d isuse a cure cold,rhinitis , stuffy note teethacne and soon . It sellwel lo n foreign and domestic markets.Recorddin g to the records in aneiont andpresen t boo^s, tne budso fman y Magnolia plants have been usea asmeaicine , wnich can cause confusion.Hena n ison e of Hsenyi— prouucmg areasi nou r country andmor etha n 60 %outpu t of Hsenyi isproüuce d inHenan . Inorde r to exploit and to use of thisnatu ­ ral resource andra&Ke tn e superiority ofHenan .W enav emaa e systematic investigations and researcheso n thehabitai ,distribution ,natura l type and medicinal quality of theplan t inHena n Hsenyi— producing areasen d report the studiesa sfollows .

I. The research onHsenyi plantsi nproducin g areaso fHenan . Henan Hsenyi has aconcentrate d distribution in sixvillages :Xiaodian , Huanghou and Yunyang ofNanaha o county, and Jizaong,Sikesh uan d Xongbei ofLusha n county. Itha s oeen formerly considered that theplant s of Hsenyi in these areasi smerel y Magnolia biondiiPaa.p .Throug h more than threeyear s investigationo n this subject. Wehav e collecteu tne flower, fruit,twi g and leave samples atdifferen t periods,an d with thehel p of Huanan institute of botany in systematical stuay we discovered two new forms,M.biondi iPomp . f.purpurascen sLa w atGa o andM . biondiiPamp . f. flavescensZ.Ï.Gao ,wnic h arei n the same section asM . biondiiPamp .i n theplant s ofHsenyi , betidesthes ene w formsw e also discovered ane w speciesM . eliiptilimoaLa w etGao ,wnic a isi n the different section.

Key to the species

1.Tapel s similar in sii,ean u shape,9-1 2 innumber ,th eoute r three not sepaioid; leaves elliptic,ovate-elliptic ,ver y few obovate-elliptic (sect.iulania) M. elliptilimbaLa w etGa o 1.Tapel s siiuilari n size,9 innumber ,th e outer three sepaloÎU ,a s3 long as those intw o inner cycles; leaves elliptic-lanceolate orovate - lanceolate (sect.Buergeri a) . 2. The tapelsi n two inner cycleswhite ,onl y littlepurple-re d at the

1.Presen t address:2 8Huayua n street,Zhengznou ,Henan , P.R.China baseso f the outers M. biondiiPamp . 2. The tapelsi n twoinnu r cyclesno twhite . 3.Tu e tapels intw o inner cyclespurple-re d M.biondii Pamp .f .purpurascen s Law etGa o 3.Th e tapelsi ntw o inner cyclesligh tyellow ,onl y littlepurple - red at the bases M. biondii Pamp. f. flavoseensZ.Y.Ga o

1.Magnoli a eliiptilimhaLa w etGa o inBull . Bot.Researc h 4(4): 190,1984. (Fig 1) Heiihn:Nanzha o Xian,Yunyang , alt.400-80 0tu . Speciesaffini sM . zenziiChen g sedfolii selliptici sovato-elliptici s velobovato-elliptici sapic e acuminatis, tepalis9-12 ,pedicelli s4- 8ram longisdiffert .

2.Magnoli a biondiiPamp .i nNuov .Giorn .Bot .Ital .n . ser. 17:275 » 1910; Dandy in Not.Bot .Gard . Edinb. 16:123 ,1928 ;Qi nLin g Zhi Wu Shi 1:339 ,288. — M. conspicuaSalisb .var . fargesiiFinet .e t Gagnep. in Bull. Soc. Bot.Franc eMem . 4:38 ,1906 . M. denudata var. fargesii Pamp.i n Bull. Soc. Tose.Ort. ,ser .3(22) : 200,1916. M. aulacospermeRend , etWils . inSargen t PI. Wils. 1:396,1913 . Reha, inJourn . Arn.Arb . 5i 145, 1924. M. fargesii (Finet.e t Gagnep.) Cheng in Zhong,Gu o Zhi WuXu e Za Zhi.China s 1:296 ,1934 ; Cnoug Rong,Zhon g Guo ShuM u FenLei Xu e 286,1937 .

2a.Magnoli a biondiiPamp .f . biondii (Fig .2 ) This speciesi sdistribute d in south-east part ofGans uprovince , south parto f Shanxiprovince , south and ^orth slopeso f Qinling,wes tpar t of Henanprovince ,nort ho f Sichuan province,north-wes t parto f HuDei and Hunanprovinc e and growi nmountai n forestwit h anelevatio n of 400-1200m , Types were collected from Xingshan,HuDei province.Distribute d widely, itha s some variations in size and shapeo f the flowerg.Th e main characte isth e sharp leaveswit h the widestpar t bellowmiddle , elliptic-lanceola­ te,an d ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at apex.Tapel s are very different from eachother ,th e outer three are sepaloid, about^ long asth e inners,whe n fleshy aril isremoved , depressestroug h and stalko n seed coat canb e seen.

2b.Magnoli a biondiiPamp . f.purpurascen sLa w etGa o in Bull. Bot.Resea ­ rch 4(4): 192,f.1 , 1984 Henan:Nanzha o Hian,Yungang , alt.400-80 0 m. Thisfor m isdifferen tfro m M. biondiiPamp .i n thatth e flowero f the former are all aarit-purple, and the characteristic is stable sotha t we defined it as a uev form.

2c. Magnolia biondiiPamp . f. flavescensZ.Y.Ga o in Journal of the Henan Academy of Sciences4 : 6b,1984 . Henan:Nauzha o Xian,Yunyang , alt.400-80 0m . Thisfor m isdifferen t fromM. .biondi iPamp .i n that the flowerso fth e former arelight-yellow ,onl y purple-red at the base of the tapies and the characteristic is staDle sotha t we defined it as ane w form.

II. The distribution andhabita t of someMagnoli a plants inHena nprodu ­ cingareas . Distributed wiael,y and growing in Shanxi,Gausa ,Hubei ,Sichua nprovince , M. biondiiPamp .i s distributed alone thenort h subtropicso f our country, taidgrow s in everycount yo f Funumountai n areao f Henan.M . eliiptilirnba Law etGa o areonl y grows inNanzha o county now.Bot h are antient species.

89 Acorddin6 to the documents,tm-r e wereMagnoli aplant s inFun u mountain area as early as inHeogene . Thepalynolog y fossxle from the sample of Sanjao&uo,Lusn i group ofHena n ^E^jji-LS) i npliocen e provide aevidenc e thatMagnoli aplant s were quite luxuriant in that time.Later , Decauseo f the influence of tne fourth glacial period, theseplant s became surviving andK . biondiiPamp. ,K . elJ-iptilimbaLa w etGao ,K .denudat aDes ran d someother shav e remained ex-i-stin^t o this day. After trieappearanc e of mankind,Magnoli a plantshav e become seiui-wild in soiaearea s because of artificial intervene,Forexampl e in Xiaouian, Huanghou,Yunyan go fNazha o county and Sikechu,Jizhan ü, Xongbei ofLusha n county, where people have a time-honoured habito f transplanting the wild seedlingso fM . biondii Pamp. andM . elliptilimbaLa w etGa o to theplace saroun d theirhouset; " ana as a result these areas became tne central growing areaso fHsenyi . Wild species aremainl y ^rowi n broadleafforest s at feet ofhill s valleys and mountain slopeswit h an elevation of 600-1200in .Slopesane l feet of Mountains with deep soil,ric nhumu s and good waterpermeabilit y are best placet,fo r tnem tu grow.Th e soilo f distributed areasi s yellow-brown soilo f weathered granite with little aciaity.Abov e the elevation of 600 m. tneseplant sgro w witn no selectivity between slope directions,bu t below thisheigh t mainly on snady slopes.Th eyear' saverag etemperatur e of distrebited areas is 14.6-19.8 c, thehighes t temperature aüove4 O c. gnerally inJuly , aad tiielowes t bellow-1 3 c,mostl y inJanuary , annual rainfall is800-100 0 mm, tne most rainwater inJul y and August up to235 - 550m m andiiia^in ku p 40-50 %o f the annual rainfall.Tota l sunshine time durin^,ayea r is 2001.9-2235.9 hours,tn elongs t suncnine in summer upt o 203.1-239.5nour s inJuly .Th e information above shows there are rich resourceso f li^ht. heat water in theae areas in summer and autumm, which &refavourabl e toplant si n growth and accumulation of dry substance.

III. The determinetion of essential oils-i. nflowe r buaso f some Magnolia plants. Essentxal oil is themai n component of "Hsenyi ". Inorder to gaina clear idea of'th erelatio n betweenmedicina l quality of'" Hseny i "an d tne 11Hsenyi "-ploducii%plant s and to develop tnemedicin e onpurpose ,w e collected "Hseny i " sampleso f various speciesan d with different flower- buds forms andhaoital si n "Hseny i "gatnerinj jseaso n to determine the contentso f essential oils. Tne method and result are asfollows . The samplesteste d were collected inHuaughou ,ïunyang ,Xiaodia n of Nanzhso county end Sikesau,Jizhon g ofLusha n county on 18-21,november , 1983. The forms and shapesof 'flowe r buds and tnehabita t ofplant s were recorded in details.ïh e sampleswer e spreadeao n floor tocoo len d all the twigsi n the sampleswer e removed.The n the sampleswer e crackedt o caticiuan d 10go f eacn sample wereplace dint o estentialoxl-determin guni t tnen adding distilled water and heated to boiling with direct distillation for 5hours .Afte r cooied, the velumso f essential oils were recorded. Waterccontentso f the samples were dettri.iinedi n water-determine unit witnmethylbenzene . The results are snoweui n table I. Table I shows that essential oil content isrelate a to age,habitat , natural form of "Hseny i »trees , but the difference in essential oil content of different specieso fMagnoli a is moreevident .Th ene w species M. elliptilimba Lav.e tGa o has tnehighes t essential oil content with an average of 5.8 %, the seconui sM . biondii Pamp. with an average of 5 % and tne lowest M. biondii f.purpurascen s Law etGao ,averag e4. 3 Because M. elliptilimba nasth eni^hes t essentialoi l content,w e ought to taxe vigorous action toprotec t and develop thisrar e species.

90 IV. Investigation of thenatu ­ ral forms of "Hseny i "i n Henen producing areas. SomeMa 6noliaplant s in" Hsenyi "b rowxnt,area so f He- nanha s different typeso f variationbecaus e of theinf ­ luence of external environment in theirlon g growing period, and certain distingushing va­ riations are quite stable.They are classified into somenatu ­ ral types accordding to main characteristicso f variation by local people.Accorddin gt o the form of flower buds (th e shapeo fcrud e drug )the y are devideaint o five types:Maotao , Laosnushi , Fanmaoji ,ïangtao , Lunaitou.Throug hou robserva ­ tion we found tiiatno tonl y the flower buüso fMagnoli aplant s were evidently different in various species,bu t also there wereobviou s différencesamon g tue flower buaso f ssae species in size and snape (Fit.3). Thus it can be seen that thevaria ­ tiono f flower budsnav e close . relations to age,habitai anu health conuitiono f theplants . Fifc. 1.Magnoli a elliptiliœbaLa w etGa o I.Branch. 2-3-Flower. 4-5.Abaxia l ofapa - According to the nabit of the.6-7.Inne r cycle tepal.8 .Gyntecium . blooming and fruiting they are 9. Ditto,th e away parts stamens showing clatsified as Chuanyu and the ^ynaecium and recepttcle(enlarge).10 . Houbazhang. When the growing Stamen(enlarge). 11.Aggregat e fruits.12 . conuit-Loni s fine and tne an­ Seeo.o f tfcüeawa y exutesta. nual tei^s arelon g and thicK, uhemixe d buds can grow almost in ever,,lea f axil (Fig.-4-1 ).Thi styp e is called asChuany u andha shig h output of crude drug. When annual twigs are short and crowded,onl y 1-2 mixed DUQS occur at etcn end of tnetwigs ,generall y nonei n leaf axil (Fig. 4-3)•Thi s type are called esHoubaznan g andht shi 6h output also. Soke terminal buas and lateral budsi n biennialbranches !o f someMagnoli a plants can becomelonge r terminal andlatera l twigs,bu t tne lateral twigs sprouting are generally 80-90 anglesto trunks.Becaus e ofshortag eo f nut­ rition,mixe d buds grow only atth e endso f the twi^s (Fig . 4-2).Thi s typeha slowe r output offlowe r büds. Someplant s can sproutou t many medium long twigso n upper parts of the biennial brancnesan d on uppor parts of tne every twigs can grow into concentrated groups of terminal and lateral mixeu buds. This type are mainly inM . elliptilimbaLa w etGao . Inth e lighto f tneinformatio n above,w e suggest ideal individual plant ofKaotao ,Yan btao, Chuanyu,Houbazhang ,M . elliptilimba and someotne r natural types be selected and breeded to increase theoroductio n of" Hsenyi ".

V. Suggestion for exploitation and utilization óf "Hseny i »resourc e in Henan "Hseny i "growin gareas .

91 According toou rinvestira- ' tion and research, wehav e maae following suggestions for exploitation and utili­ zation of "Hbeny i "resourc e inHena n "Hseny i "growin g areas.

(1). The specieso fMagno ­ liaplan t inHena n arehig h trees, grow rapidly and have long lieves.Afte r grafted the seedlings can bloom and bear fruits in 2-3 years. The chest diameter of'ten - yearsol d treesi s8-1 0 cm. In Tianqao,Huaugho uvillage , Nanzhao county there isa plant ofM . oioiiüiiPamp . which isove r one hundred years old, but still blooming in lutters. Wot only the flower oudt,o f tnese Magnolia plants are traditional chine­ semedicine , but also the wood of them is solid, fine and suiootnar m the trees themseif are tall, straight, graceful and magnificent with luxuriant foliage. So these trees are fine timber tree Fig. 2.Magnoli a biondiiPamp . ornamental tree and avenue tree. We snoud develop 1.Branchan d leaf. 2.Flower buds. 3.Flower. these species energetica­ 4.Spath. 5.Outercycl eTepal . 6.Middle cycle lly and grow them in great Tepal. 7.Inner cycle Tepal.S.Gynaeciu m and amount especially inmoun ­ Stamens.9.Stamen . 10.Aggregate fruits.11 . tain areaso fnort h subtro< seed. pics above the elevation of Ó00m .Thes e areas are suitable for someMagnoli aplant s to grow. Planting these trees tnereno tonl y canmax e themountai n green,recove r thevege ­ tation, ana coordinate ecological balence, but also willeconomi cbenefi t willincreasin g year by year and theresourc e willlat. tver y longtime .

(2). M. elliptilimbaLa w etGa o tn&t we discovered isth e rare,extinc - ting species inou r country,it' s flower is white withpurpul e and having many tapels.Wne n blooming, the flower shows characteristic style the fragrance is elegant andpure .Fo r this reason,w e shouldprotec t and develop tuis species,furthe r study tue chemistry of lower-boiling-point part of the essential oil and develop triespecie s toperfum e plants.M . biondii f. purpurascensLa w etGa o ane w form ofM . biondii,ha spurpule - red flowers liKe red lotus when blooming. Afterselected , this species can be developed to aKin d ofpreciou sornamenta l plant in our country.

92 Table1 .Th edeterminatio no fessentia loil si nflowe r budso fsom eMagnoli aplant s

Species Shape of mixed Locale(in Growing envi­ Content bud Nanzhou ) ronment ofessen ­ tial oil

1. M.elliptilimb a shortov&t e with long hair Yunyang near villagy 4.13 % alt. 600m.

2. M.elliptilimb a ditto Huanghou sunny slope alt. 600m. 5.24 %

3. M. elliptilimba short ovate to Yunyang Implanted 6.7 % nearly spheri­ alt. ^OOm. cal 4. M. elliptilimba short ovate Xiwodian shady slopes 6.5 % alt.300m.

5. M. elliptilimba taper, smaller ditto ditto 6.5 %

6. M. biondii shortovate,tw o ditto feet ofhills , 5.82 % mixed budsi n shady,alt.650m . bract 7. M. biondii ditto Xiaodian ditto,alt.400m . 5.42 %

8. M. biondii long ovate Huanghou sunny slopes, 4.4 % alt. 600m.

9. M. biondii ditto Yunyang snady slopes, 4.3 % alt. 3500m.

10. M. biondii ditto Xiaodian. ditto 4.85 %

11. K. biondii ditto Huanhou sunny slopes, 4-85 % alt. 600m. 12. M. biondii nearly elliptic ditto ditto 5.6 %

13. M. biondii f. purpurascens taper Yunyang ditto,.alt.360m. 4.73 % u. M. biondii f. purpurascens ditto Huan&hou ditto, ait. 600m. 3.7 %

15. M. biondii f. purpurascens lon^ taper ditto ditto 3-45 %

16. M. biondii f. purpurascens taper Xiaodian ditto, alt.820m . 4.11 %

17. M. biondii f. purpurascens ovate Yunyang planted incount - 5.65 % yards,havin g been fertilized and pruned,alt . 240m.

93 Fig. 3- Type of flower oudt; of different spcies of Magnolia plants 1-4.. Type of flower buds of M. elliptilimba. 5-7. Type of flower Duds of M. oiondii. 8-9» Type of flower buds of M. biondii f. purpuras- cens.

References

1. Law Yuh-wu et Gao Zen-yi, Kew Taxa of Magnolia from Henan, Bulletin of Botanical Research. 1984, 10.. 199-194-

2. Gao Zen-yi et Zhou Chang-shan, Chemical and Pharmacological studies on Henan " Hsenyi " ( Magnolia biondii Panip. ), Journal of the Henan Academy of Sciences. 1984, 4, 84-92.

3. Law Yuh-wu, A preliminary study on the taxonomy of the family Magnolia- ceae. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica. 22(2): 89-109.

4- Ding Bao-zhang et al. Flora of Henan. Vol. 1, 508-521, f. 654-661,1981.

94 Fig. 4- Chi.racteristicso fdifferen tblosso m and bear fruito f someMagnoli aplant s

1-2. Brancno fM . bioudii. 3-4. Branch ofK . elxiptilimba.

INDEX

Magnolia biondiiPaiup . Magnolia bionaiiPsmp . f.fl&vt8cen sZ.Y.Ga o Magnolia biondiiPanip .f .purpurtscen sLe w etGa o M&gnolia ej.liptilimbaLa w etGa o

95 INTRODUCTIONT OTH EETHNOBOTANICA LPHARMACOPEI AO FTH E AMAZONIANJIVAR OO FPER U

W.H .Lewis +,M .Elvin-Lewis" 1"& M .C .Gnerre *

+WashingtonUniversity ,St .Louis ,M O63130 ,USA ;*Universit yo fRome , 00185Rome ,Ital y

Summary TheJivar oo fnorth-centra lPer uar ea nindependen tgrou po f Amerindianswh ounti lrecentl ywer elargel ysheltere dfro moutsid e influences. Withacculturatio nprogressin ga ta rapi drate ,thi s situationi schangin gi nth e1980s . Therefore,i ti scritica lt orecor d nowthei rmedica luse so fth evas tplan tresource savailabl e tothe m beforethe yar eirretrievabl ylost . Thisi simportan tno tonl ybecaus e sucha los swoul deffec tthei rlong-rang etraditiona lhealt hcare ,bu t itwoul dpreven tth eintroductio no fpotentiall yvaluabl emedicinal s intobot hWester nan dtraditiona lmedica lsystem selsewhere . Illustrationso feffectiv emedica luse so fplant sb yth eJivar ohav e beenselecte dfro mth eApocynaceae ,Aquifoliaceae ,Bignoniaceae , Cyperaceae,Euphorbiaceae ,Fabaceae ,Rubiaceae ,an dSolanaceae . Keywords:ethnobotany ,Jivaro ,medica lplants ,pharmacopeia ,Peru .

Introduction

Asth eJivar oo fth euppe rAmazo nbasi no fSout hAmeric agav eWester n medicine thebenefit so fbot hcurar ean dquinine ,othe rcontribution st o healthcar ema yexis tamon gth ewid ediversit yo fplant sthe yus e medically. Thisi simportan tinformatio nt olear nnow ,fo rthei r knowledgeo fmedicina lplant si sbein glos tirretrievabl y inthi s strictlyora lcultur ea srapi dacculturatio ncontinue sdurin gth e1980s .

Basedo nfiv eexpedition st oPeru ,1982-87 ,thi srepor tdescribe s certainaspect so fthos eplant suse dmedicall yb ythre eo fth efou r Jivaroansubtribes ,th eAchual ,Huambisa ,an dMayna ,a sthe yoccu r betweenth eTigr ean dMoron arivers ,an djus tsout ho fth eEcuadoria n borderfo rabou t15 0k msouth . Theare ai sa lo wtropica lrainforest , mostly150-25 0m elevation ,traverse db yman ylargel ynorth-sout h flowingmudd yriver sdrainin gint oth eMarafkm-Amazon . Betweenthes e meanderingriver sar elo wridge san dhill sgivin gconsiderabl etract so f terrafirm ao nwhic hth eJivar ousuall ybuil dthei rsmal lvillage s(50 - 250persons) ,an dfro mwhic hou rdat alargel yemanate . Wehav eno t workedwit hth eAguarun aJivar owh oliv ei nth eAndea nfoothill san dt o thesouthwest .

Resultsan ddiscussio n

TheJivar ous eplant sfro m12 5familie so fangiosperm slargel yfo r food,construction ,an dmedicine . Byfa rth egreates tnumbe ro f differentplant sar euse dmedicall y (abroa dinterpretatio no f'medical ' isuse dthroughou tthi spape rt oinclud ean yplan telicitin ga physiologicaleffect) . Fromthi stota lw ehav eselecte deigh tfamilie s fordiscussion ,si xmedium - tolarge-size done san dtw ocomparativel y smallones ,a tleas ti nthi sregion . Amongth efirs tgrou pi n descendingorde ro fsiz ear eth eFabaceae ,Rubiaceae ,Solanaceae , Euphorbiaceae,Bignoniaceae ,an dApocynaceae ,an di nth esecond ,th e Cyperaceaean dAquifoliaceae .

96 Fabaceae

Thebea nfamil yi sa larg eon eo fcosmopolita ndistributio nwhic hi s represented intropica lregion sb yman ywood yshrubs ,trees ,an dlianas . Theseplant scontai nman ydivers econstituents ,suc ha salkaloid s (isoquinolines,quinolizidines ;pyrrolizidines ,etc.) ,lectins , saponins,cyanogeni cglycosides ,isoflavones ,an dphytoestrogens ,an ds o memberso fth efamil yar eunderstandabl y infrequen tus ea smedicine s andpoisons . TheJivar outiliz eethnobotanicall y specieso f2 8gener a or24 %o fthos efoun di nPer u(Tabl e 1),bu ta sonl ya fractio no f generaar eavailabl e tothem ,thi sfrequenc yi scertainl ymuc hhigher . Ofthese ,1 8gener afin da plac ei nth eJivaroa npharmacopeia ,mostl ya singlespecie spe rgenus ,bu ta sman ya snin especie so fCassi a (includingSenna )ar eused .

Ofparticula rnot ebecaus eo fmultipl eus efo rth esam epurpos ear e thestunnin go ffis hb ysprinklin gcrushe droot so fDerris . Lonchocarpus.an dTephrosi ai nstreams ,a sreporte delsewher e(Heizer , 1949),th etreatmen to fbod yache san dswelling san do fblood ydiarrhe a bydrinkin gste mdecoction so fBauhinia .th eus eo fbar kpoultice so f Erythrinat otrea tinguina lherni aan dothe rbod yswellings ,an dth e preparationo finne rbar kdecoction so fParki adrun kt otrea tchroni c stomachachean do fSwartzi aingeste dt oinvigorat ean dstrengthe nth e body. TheJivar oals ous efiv especie so fPithecellobiu m indifferen t ways,viz. ,t otrea tfever ,malaria ,an dstomachache ,an da sa n analgesic,blowgu ningredient ,dandruf fshampoo ,emetic ,an dtonic ,al l usuallydrun ka sbar kdecoctions . Theyals oappl yth eresi nfro m severalCassi aspecie st oski nailments ,infections ,an dinfestations ,

Table1 . FABACEAE: MedicalPlant so fth eJivaro .

Genera (Sp.no.)- 1- Totrea t(aid ) Andira bodyswelling s Bauhinia(3 ) bodyaches/swellings* ;diarrhe a (bloody)*^ Cassia(9 ) constipation;fever ;hepatitis* ;ski nailment s (itching*,nits ,pustules ,ringworm*) ;a stoni c Centrolobium (?) bodyswelling s Dalbergia thrush Derris asfis hpoiso n Dimorphandra achingbody/legs * Dipteryx thrush Erythrina (2) bodyswellings * Hvmenaea(2 ) skinailment s (boils);rheumatism ;stomachach e Inga(2 ) diarrhea;stomachach e Lonchocarpus bodyache s;a sfis hpoison * Machaerium skinailment s Mvrocarpus toothache Parkia stomachache* Pithecellobium (5) asanalgesic ;i nblowgu npoison ;dandruf fshampoo ; emetic ;fever* ;malari a ;stomachache ;a stoni c Swartzia(4 ) bodyswelling s; cuts/wound s;ski nailment s;a s tonic* Tephrosia asfis hpoison *

Medical1 8 (38); Ethnobotanical2 8(71) ; Fl.Per u(1943 )11 9(754 ) •*•No tindicate dwhe non especie spe rgenu s 2A n* indicate smultipl ereport s

97 andinges tdecoction so ffruits ,flowers ,branches ,an droot st otrea t hepatitis (B?). Exampleso fth elatte rar eno wundergoin gbioassays .

Rubiaceae Standley (inMacbride ,1936 )recorde d8 6gener aan d47 2specie so f Rubiaceaei nPeru ;o fthese ,3 3(7 3species )gener aar euse di nsom ewa y byth eJivar oan d2 8gener a (54species )ar euse dmedically . Among thisextensiv eutilizatio nare :Bertier aspecie sfo rtreatin gski n ailmentsan dthrush ;Borreri afo rdiarrhea ;Capiron afo rswelling so f thebod yan dlegs ;Coussare afo rstomachach ean dadditio nt o hallucinogenic drinks;Farame afo rthrush ;Genip afo rblackenin gbod y andhai ri norde rt odeter ,a tleas ti npart ,insect san dlice ,an dfo r extractingteet h (Lewis& Elvin-Lewis ,1983) ;Geophil afo rshingle s (herpeszoster) ;Hameli afo rbod yan dle gswellings ,fever ,an d blackeningteeth ;Hemidiodi afo rpostpartu mrecovery ;Iserti afo rbod y swellings;Manetti afo rblackenin gteeth ;Palicoure afo rbod yswellings , contusions,hemorrhagin go fmenstruation ,ski nailments ,thrush ,an da s a tonic;Pavoni aadde dt ohallucinogeni cdrinks ;Psvchotri afo rachin g bodies,broke nbones ,contusions ,diarrhea ,malaise ,an dals oadde dt o hallucinogenic drinksan da sa tonic ;Sabice afo rringwor man dscabies ; Uneariafo rrespirator ydisease san dwhoopin gcoug h (pertussis);an d Warscewicziafo rbod yan dle gswellings .

Therepeate dus eo fman yo fthes eplant simplie ssom eefficacies ,bu t atpresen tthi sinformatio ni slargel yanecdotal . Forexample ,chewin g ofManetti afruit si sth epreferre dmean so fblackenin gteet han dthos e whostil lpractic ethi stechniqu ehav elimite ddenta ldiseas ecompare d tononblackeners . Verypossibl yth efruit scontai nsubstance stha t alterth ecariogeni cproces sb yaffectin gmechanism sassociate dwit h bacterialadherenc ean dplaqu eformatio ni nadditio nt oservin ga sa sealant (Lewis& Elvin-Lewis ,1983) . Becauseo facculturatio nonl yth e moretraditiona lJivar obeliev etha ttoot hblackenin gprevent stoot h decayan dcontinu ethi spractice . Thepul pfro mimmatur epericarp so f Genipai sals ouse di ndenta lcare . Wheni ti splace do nteet h requiringextractio nthe yar eanesthetize dan ddisintegrat eove rth e nextwee ko rs owithou tfurthe rapplication . Genipafruit sposses s genipin,a monoterpen ewit hbroa dspectru mantibacteria lactio n (Djerassie tal. , 1961),bu ti ti sunknow ni fthi scompoun di s responsiblefo rthes eactions .

Solanaceae

Alkaloidsar ewidesprea dsecondar ymetabolite si nth eSolanacea e (e.g.,nicotine ,tropanes ,solanines )an dal lar emedicall yactive ,s o theus eo fmos ti fno tal lgener aknow nt oth eJivar ofo rmedicine so r variousphysiologica leffect sca nb eexpected . Tengener a (27i nPeru ) areinclude di nthei rpharmacopeia :Brugmansi afo rtreatin gachin g bodies,broke nbones ,sprains ,contusions ,an da sa basi ccomponen to f anhallucinogeni cdrink ;Brunfelsi afo rbod ypains ,arthriti san d rheumatism,fever ,malaise ,malaria ,an dtoothache ;Capsicu mfo r toothachean da sa nai di nparturition ;Cestru mfo rblackenin gteeth , contusions,fever ,an dski nailments ;Cvphomandr afo rcolds/flu ,coughs , colic,malaria ,respirator ycongestion ,ski nailments ,snakebites ,an d swollenlimbs ;Lvcianthe sfo rimprovin gth eskin ;Marke afo rfeve ran d malaise;Nicotian afo rheadache san da sa nadditiv et ohallucinogeni c drinks;Phvsali sfo rmeasle san dski nailments/infection s; an dSolanu m formalaise ,measles ,ski nailments ,snakebites ,stomachache ,an dals o asa nadditiv et ohallucinogeni cdrinks .

98 Chemicalanalyse so fsevera lo fth emor ewidel yuse dsolanaceou s speciescommo ni nth euppe rAmazo nBasi nwil lundoubtedl yrevea l importantne wsource sfo rtropan ean dothe ralkaloid swidel yuse di n Westernmedica lcare . Indeed,th efamil yi sa potentiall yvaluabl e resourceo findigenou sproduct sfo rPer uan dothe rdevelopin gcountrie s inth etropics .

Euphorbiaceae

Specieso f1 3euphorbiaceou sgener aar euse dmedicall yb yth eJivar o (Table 2),no tsurprisin gconsiderin gth ewid erang eo fchemica l constituents foundi nth efamily . Thus,alkaloid soriginatin gfro m diversebiosyntheti cpathways ,cyanogeni can dmustard-oi lglycosides , polyphenols,saponins ,volatil eoils ,an dlectin soccu rwidely . Based onmultipl eutilizatio nfo rth esam epurpose ,som eo fth emos t interestingplan tuse sinclud eplacin gth elate xo fChamaesyc ehirt a (L.)Millsp .an dÇ .thymifoli a(L. )Millsp .o nathlete' sfoo t(teni a pedis)wit hhealin grapidl yachieved ,an ddrinkin gwhol eplan t decoctionso fPhvlIanthu snirur iL .t otrea tkidne yailments , particularly toobtai nrelie ffro mkidne ystones . Thelatte ri sals o usedprevalentl yamon gth eMestiz oo feaster nPeru .

Ofwides tus eb yth eJivar oan dother si nPeru ,however ,i sthe Asap drainedfro mth etrun ko fCroto nlechler iM.-Arg .fo rtreatin gexterna l cuts,wounds ,variou sabrasion s (mosquitoan dchigge rbites) ,a swel la s forinterna lwounds ,lik eulcers ,whil ea tth esam etim ereducin g bleeding. Perduee tal . (1979)showe dtha tth ere dsa po fthi sspecie s containsth ealkaloi dtaspin ean dthe ydemonstrate dtha ttaspin e hydrochlorideha dsignifican tanti-inflammator yactivit yi nthre eassay s inrat sa tdosag elevel sconsiderabl ybelo wthos eproducin gletha l effects. Ourdat aconfir mth epresenc eo fhig hlevel so fpur etaspin e insa puse db yth eJivar ot oreduc einflammatio nprio rt ohealin gan d toarres tbleeding .

Table2 . EUPHORBIACEAE:Medica lPlant so fth eJivaro .

Genera (Sp.no. ) Totrea t(aid ) Acalvpha fever Amanoa malaria Chamaesyce (2) cuts/wounds ;teni apedi s Croton(2 ) bodypains ;cuts/wounds* ,bleeding* ;diarrhea ; stomachache Hevea ectoparasites Jatropha (2) conjunctivitis*;cuts* ;diarrhea* ;fever ;hepatitis ; respiratorycongestion ;ski nailments ;sinusitis ; swollenleg s;thrush * Marg:aritaria stomachache Pedilanthus skinailment s Phyllanthus kidneyailments/stones* ;live railments/hepatitis * Ricinus sprains,broke nbone s Sagotia earache Senefeldera achingbody/bones ;ski nailments ;stomachache ; toothache 1indet . endoparasites

Medical1 3 (16); Ethnobotanical2 1(31) ; Fl.Per u(1951 )4 8(269 )

99 Bignoniaceae

Althoughlittl estudie dchemically ,thi spredominantl yneotropica l lianafamil yma yb echaracterize db yhig hlevel so fbiodynami ccompound s (Gentry& Cook ,1984) . Ifmedica lus eo fth eBignoniacea eb yth e Jivaro,wh ous erepresentative so f1 2gener ao ra hig hproportio no f thoseavailabl e tothem ,i sa nindicatio no fth efrequenc yo factiv e principles,the nGentr y& Coo kar ecertainl ycorrect . Interestingly, onlyon egenu si suse dexclusivel yb yth eJivar ofo rnonmedica l purposes.

Instanceso fmultipl euse sfo rth esam epurpos ear eparticularl y noteworthy (Table 3). Forinstance ,leave so fArrabidae achic a(H .& B.)Verl .ar echewe dchiefl yb ywome nt otur nthei rteet hpurplish-re d andthe na cla ymordan ti stake norall yt oblacke nthem ,a procedur e followedfo rcarie sprevention . Crushedleave so fJacarand acopai a (Aublet)D .Do nan dJ . glabra(CDC. )Bur .& K .Sch .ar eapplie dt oth e skinfo rtreatin gsores ,wounds ,an dinfecte dcuts ,an dlea fdocoction s areplace do nleischmaniasi sulcer sfo rhealing . Juicefro mth eroot s ofMacfadyen auncat a (Andr.)Spr .& Sandw .an dMartinell aobovat a (H.B.K.)Bur .& K .Sch . (Gentry& Cook ,1984) ,th elatte rsometime s mixedwit hmother' smil kfo rchildren ,i sroutinel yuse dt otrea t conjunctivitis. Themos twidel yuse dplants ,however ,ar eManso a alliacea (Lam.)A .Gentr yan dM .standlev i (Steyerm.)A .Gentr yfo r treatingachin gan dswolle npart so fth ebod y (roots),arthriti sand/o r rheumatism (roots),an dcolds ,influenza ,coughs ,an dsor ethroat s (leaves). LikeJacaranda .leave so rscrape dstem so fMemor acladotrich a Sandw.ar eapplie da sinfusion st otrea tvariou sski nailment san d infections. Finally,ste mo rroo tinfusions ,ofte ni nalcohol ,o f Tynanthuspolyanthu s (Bur.)Sandw .ar ewidel yingeste da sstrengthener s toreviv evirilit yi nolde rmen ,an dt oreliev erheumati cpain . Even thoughfe wbignoniaceou splant shav ebee nsubjecte dt origorou schemica l analyses,th eabov edat aclearl ysugges timportan tsource sfo risolatin g potentiallyusefu lne wmedicinals .

Table3 .BIGNONIACEAE :Medica lPlant so fth eJivaro .

Genera (Sp.no. ) Totrea t(aid ) Arrabidaea redden& blacke nteet h (withmordant)* ;thrus h Callichlamvs cuts/wounds;leishmaniasis ;ski nailment s Crescentia bronchitis;parturition ;toothach e Cuspidaria astoni c Jacaranda (2) cuts/wounds*;leishmaniasis* ;ski nailments * (mites,nits ,scabies ) Macfadyena conjunctivitis*;heav yhemorrhagin go f menstruation* Mansoa(2 ) aching/swollenbody* ;arthritis/rheumatism* ; colds/grippe*,coughs ,sor ethroats ;insec t repellent;stomachache ;tuberculosi s Martinella conjunctivitis Memora skinailment s Mussatia skinailment s Paraponia astoni c Tynanthus asaphrodisiac/tonic* ;hepatitis ;rheumatism *

Medical1 2(14) ; Ethnobotanical1 3(15) ; Fl.Per u(1961 )4 5(106 )

100 Apocynaceae Specieso fsi xapocynaceou sgener ao fa tota lo f3 0fo rPer uar euse d medicallyb yth eJivar o (Table 4). Liketh eBignoniacea efe wchemica l studieshav ebee ncomplete dusin gneotropica lmaterial ,thoug helsewher e therear enumerou sexample sknow no fimportan tcompound sbein g incorporated intoWester nmedicin e (e.g.,Rauvolfi awit halkaloid s treatinghypertension ;Strophanthu swit hcardioactiv eglycoside sfo r congestiveheart) . TheJivar ous eAspidosperm afo rtreatin gbod ypain s andstomachache ,Condvlocarpo nfo rcough san da sa nantiemetic , Himatanthusfo rbod yache san dswellings ,ski nailment san dinfections , snakebites,stomachache ,an dtyphoi dfever ,Lacmelle afo rectoparasite s anda sa tonic ,Prestoni afo rconjunctivitis ,an dTabernaemontan afo r coughsan dsor ethroats ,diarrhea ,leischmaniasis ,malaria ,postpartu m recovery,stomachache ,toothache ,an da sa toni can d expectorant. Becauseo fth ediversit yo ftax aan dmedica lapplication s Tabernaemontana inparticula rough tt ob eexamine dfo rnove lcompounds .

Cyperaceae

Unlikemember so fth eprecedin gfamilies ,thos eo fth eCyperacea ehav e littleacclai mfo rus ei nmedicin eo rfo rpossessin gimportan t biodynamicprinciples . Therefore,w ewer esurprise dt olear ntha t severalsedge swer ecultivate droutinel y inmos thousehol dgarden sa s highlyprize dpossession so fwomen . Theseplant swer etrade dan dsol d withgrea tcare ,the ywer etake nwit hothe rimportan titem swheneve rth e familyrelocated ,an dthe ywer euse dlargel yt otrea twome nan dchildre n forspecifi cpurposes . Diplacrum andScleri adecoction so r infusionswer edrun kb ychildre nan dadult st otrea tlive rpain so r hepatitis,an ddecoction so fHypolutru mwer edrun kt otrea tsepti csor e throat,bu tb yfa rth emos tcommonl yuse dplant swer ethos eo fCvperus . Fivespecies , Ç. articulatusL. , Ç. laxusLam. , G. luzulae (L.)Retz. , G. odoratusL. ,an d Ç. prolixusH.B.K. ,wer eemployed : (1)i ngynecolog y totrea theav yo rprolonge dhemorrhaging ; (2)i nobstetric sa sfemal e contraceptivesleadin gt oinfertilit yfo ra fe wmonth so r"forever, "t o restorefertilit ywhe ndesired ,a sgalactagogues ,t oai di nparturition , andt oassis ti npostpartu mrecovery ; (3)i npediatric st otrea tanemia , colic,diarrhea ,fever ,live railment san dhepatiti s (alsoadults) ,an d inlearnin gt owalk ;an d (4)othe ruse sfo rchildre nan dadult s includingtreatmen to fbod ypains ,bronchitis ,cuts ,snakebites , stomachache,an dt oinduc eweigh tloss . Obviouslya numbe r

Table4 . APOCYNACEAE:Medica lplant so fth eJivaro .

Genera (Sp•no .) Totrea t(aid )

Aspidosperma bodypain ;stomachach e Condvlocarpon coughs;vomitin g (antiemetic) Himatanthus (6) bodyaches/swellings*, - skinailments/infections* ; snakebites;stomachache ;typhoi dfeve r Lacmellea (2) ectoparasites ;a stoni c Prestonia conjunctivitis Tabernaemontana (9) coughs*,sor ethroats* ;expectorant ;diarrhea* ; leishmaniasis;malaria ;postpartu mrecovery ; stomachache*;toothache* ;a stoni c

Medical6 (19) ; Ethnobotanical1 4(28) ; Fl.Per u (1959)3 0(117 )

101 ofthes eclaime defficacie sough tt ob eexamine dthoroughly , particularlythos ei nCyperu srelatin gt oobstetric san di nth efamil y asa whol econcernin ghepatitis .

Aquifoliaceae

Onlyon especie si nth eAquifoliaceae ,Ile xguavus aLoes. ,i sfoun di n theJivar oterritor yan dusuall ya sa cultivate dshru b(Schultes , 1972). Nevertheless,th efirs tautho robserve da larg e (35m ) indigenoustre enea rPuranchi m (Lewise tal .1312 3MO ,USM) ,bu tsuc h specimensar ever yrar ei nth ejungle so fnorther nPeru . Afres ho r driedlea fdecoctio no fI .guayus ai sconsume ddail yb yAchua lJivar o meni nth eearl ymornin ga sa stimulan tan dt oa certai nexten t asa n appetitedepressant . Aboutone-hal fhou rafte rconsumin g± 30 0m lo f theliquid ,vomitin gi sinduce d (therei slittl eels ei nth estomac hs o thevomitu s isno tunpleasant )i norde rt o"fee lgoo dfo rth eremainde r ofth eday. " Theleave scontai nhig hconcentration so fcaffein e (Holmstedt& Lindgren ,1972) ,whic hw ehav econfirme d (aminimu mo f1.7 % w/wfollowin gmethylen echlorid eextractio no fdrie dleave so fLewi se t al.1149 2MO ,USM) . Thevomitin gritua li sthu ssimpl yth emetho db y whichth eme neliminat ecaffein ean ds opreven texcessiv eamount sfro m beingabsorbed . Ifthi si sno tpractice dthe yfee lnervous ,irritable , and"bad "al lday . Womenan dchildre nals ous ewayus .bu ti nmuc h smalleramount seithe ra sa stimulan to ra sa mout hwash .

Thisintroductio nt oth eutilizatio no fplant sb yth eJivar owit h medicalimplication sshow sa wid eus eo fthei rric hflor ai nhealt h care. Theexten tan dpresume defficac yo fthi spharmacopei ai sonl yno w beingappreciated . Itsvalu efo rfutur eintroduction so fmedicinal st o Westernmedicin ean dtraditiona lmedica lcar ei ndevelopin gcountrie s worldwide isye tt ob eevaluated ,bu tth epreservatio no fthi sknowledg e ina rapidl yacculturatin gsociet ywher esuc hdat ama ysoo nb e irretrievably losti sundoubtedl yrelevan t to futuregeneration so f Jivaros.

Acknowledgements

Thisstud ywa ssupporte db ygrant sfro mth eNationa lScienc e Foundation (BSR-85-08075),Nationa lGeographi cSociet y (3156-85),an d WorldWildlif eFund-U.S .(6057) ,al lo fWashington ,D.C. ,an db yfiel d assistancefro mOccidenta lPetroleu mCorp .an dPetro-Per uS.A . Wethan k DanielFast ,Camil oDiaz ,an dJos éCampo sfo rmuc happreciate dhel pi n Peruan dth eMuse od eHistori aNatural ,Lima ,an dth eDirector-Genera l Forestaly d eFauna ,Ministeri od eAgricultura ,Lima ,fo rpermission st o studyi nPeru . Chemicalanalyse swer econducte db yRichar dJ .Stonar d andStephe nW .Ayer ,Monsant oCo. ,St .Louis . Determinationso r confirmationso fspecimen swer ecomplete db yW.G .D'Arc y(Solanaceae) , G.Davids e (Cyperaceae),J.D .Dwye r (Rubiaceae),A.H .Gentr y (Bignoniaceae),R.L .Liesner ,andJ.L .Zarucch i (Apocynaceae).

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102 Heizer,R.F. ,1949 . Fishpoisons . In:J.H .Stewar d (Ed.):Handboo ko f SouthAmerica nIndians ,Vol .5 ,Bur .Amer .Ethnol .143 . U.S.Printin g Office,Washington ,p .277-281 . Holmstedt,B .& J.-E .Lindgren ,1972 . Alkaloidanalyse so fbotanica l materialmor etha na thousan dyear sago . In:S.H .Wassén :A medicine-man'simplement san dplant si nth eTiahuanacoi dtom bi n highlandBolivia . EthnologiskaStudie r32 ,Etnografisk aMuseum , Göteborg,p .139-144 . Macbride,J.F .& Collaborators ,1936-67 . Florao fPeru . FieldMus . Nat.Hist .Bot .Ser .13 :Apocynacea e5(1):363-455 ,1959 ,Aquifoliacea e 3A(l):270-288,1951 ,Bignoniacea e5C(1):3-101 ,1961 ,Cyperacea e 1(1):261-320,1936 ,Fabacea e3(1):3-507 ,1943 ,Euphorbiacea e3A(1):3 - 200,1951 ,Rubiacea e6(1):3-261 ,1951 ,Solanacea e5B(l):3-267 ,1962 , 5B(2):271-458,1967 . Lewis,W.H .& M.P.F .Elvin-Lewis ,1983 . Plantsan ddenta lcar eamon g theJivar oo fth euppe rAmazo nbasin . Adv.Econ .Bot .1:53-61 . Perdue,G.P. ,R.N .Blomster ,D.A .Blak e& N.R .Farnsworth ,1979 . South AmericanPlant sII :Taspin eisolatio nan danti-inflammator yactivity . J.Pharmaceut .Sei .68:124-126 . Schultes,R.E. ,1972 . Ilexguavus afro m50 0A.D .t oth epresent . In: S.H.Wassén :A medicine-man' simplement san dplant si nth e Tiahuanacoid tombi nhighlan dBolivia . EtnologiskaStudie r32 , EtnografiskaMuseum ,Göteborg ,p .115-138 . /

103 ANALYSISO FTH EVOLATIL ECONSTITUENT SO FPIPE RBETL EL .CULTIVAR S- A CHEMOSYSTEMATIC APPROACH A.K.S.Rawat,Ush ashom ean dV.R.Balasubrahmanya m NationalBotanica lResearc h Institute,Lucknow-226001 ,INDI A

Summary Fivecultivar so fbetelvin e (PiperbetleL. )wer e recognized from Indiao nth ebasi so flea fmorphology ,characteristi c flavour andaroma . Gas liquid chromatographic studyo f essentialoi l showed thatvolatil e constituentsviz .eugenol ,methy leugenol ,anethole ,terpineol ,terpeny l acetate etc.an d theirproportio n inth eoi lwer eobserve d tob econsis ­ tentan d reliableparamete r for identificationo f thesecultivars . Keywords:Pipe rbetl eL. ,volatil econstituents ,chemosystematics . Introduction Betelvine (Piper betle L.belongin g toth efamil ypiperacea e isa perennial, dioecious liana.Th eleave so fthi splan thav ebee ntradi ­ tionallyuse d forchewin gpurpos e inth efor mo fmorse l alongwithareca - nut (Arecacatech u L.),lime ,kath a (Acaciacatech u L.),cardamam , clove, fennel and eventobacc othroughou tth esout heas tAsia nregion . In India, it iscultivate d asa cas hcro pan dmor e than 100type shav e been recognizedb ytrader san dgrowers . Thereha sbee na grea tdea lo f confusion in the nomenclaturean d classificationo f thesecultivars . Themai n reasonfo r thisstat eo faffair si spartl y duet olac ko f accuratean d completedescriptio no f allth ecultivar s (Anon. 1969). With a view tostud y thecharacteristic so f theexistin gbetelvin e cultivarsi nth ecountr yabou t8 5type sfro mdifferen tcommercia l growing regionso f thecountr yhav ebee nintroduce d inth eexperimenta l conservatory and aregrow nunde runifor m culturalconditions . Of these nineteen typeswer e selected fordetaile d studywit hth eobjectiv eo f classifyingth eexistin gbetelvin ecultivar s on thebasi so flea f morphology andvolatil econstituent so f theleaves .

Resultsan ddiscussio n Morphological observations regarding leaf size,shape ,colour ,apex , baseo f lamina,venatio npattern ,petiol eshap ean d texturewer e recorded from largesample so fmature d leaves. On thebasi so f these characters these typesca nb ecategorize d intofiv ecultivar sviz . 'Bangla', 'Desawari', 'Kapoori', 'Meetha'an d 'Sanchi' (plate 1). The representative types under eachcultiva r havediagnosti cfeature si n commonEg .th esi xtype sbelongin g tocv . 'Bangla'hav ecordat et o roundish leaveswit hshor tan daccuminat eti pan dprominen tbasa llobes . Similarly two typesbelongin gt ocv . 'Desawari'hav eovat elea f shape with curved apex and asymmetricallea fbase . Fourtype sgroupe dunde r cv. 'Kapoori'hav ecommo ncharacter ssuc ha snarrow-ovate ,yellowsi h green leaf, secondaryvein s running almostparalle l toth emidrib ,th e laterbein gdivergen ti nothe r cultivars;cv . 'Meetha'standou tb y characteristic yellowish spotsal love r thelea f laminaan dblun tlea f apex. The six typeso fcv . 'Sanchi'ca nonl yb erecognize d by itsdar k greencolour ,broa dovat eleave swit haccuminat eapice scouple dwit h short,channelle d and characteristically orientedpetiol e (petioleform s anangl eo f40 °wit h Stem.). 104 m U -H rH O U -H o m CD X! rö (C - QJ i-i 1 Q as m - a i •H - w a, (d 7-{ - ,, cn-H ^ CÄ ° (0 o DQ C W - "3 0) W n>s a» ai 'H qj •U 4J s (O r-H - M 3 1 PN o o

105 Morphological and anatomical characters havebee n traditionally considered as major basis of plant classification sinceLinnaeus ' time. Sometimessimila rmorphologica l characterso fth ecultivars / typescreat e confusion. Somespecifi cchemica l compounds/secondary metabolites have been used as an aid in the study of taxonomie variation anddefinit e identification of cultivars/types. (Harborne, 1973; Hegnauer,1978 ;Heywood ,197 3an dGottie b& Kubitzka , 1981). In the present studies the chemical characteristics of essential oil of leaves have been taken as a parameter for identification of different betelvine cultivars. Uniform matured leaves were collected from the experimental conservatory and after weighing, the leaveswer e hydrodistilled in clevanger's apparatus. Theoi l was collected after a few hours of distillation. In order to findout the chemical composition, the oil was examined by gas liquid Chromatograph (AMIL-NUCON cat. No. 5500) having stainless steel column of 1.0 m. length and 0.3 cm diameter. SE-30 on chromosorbW . of 100 mesh was useda sstationar yphase . Nitrogen was used as carier gas. The other conditionswer e maintained as below: Injecter temperature 250°C Columntemperatur e range 80°Ct o200° C (atth erisin g rateo f4°C/min. ) FIDTemperatur e 270° C Gasflo wrat e 35ml/min. Chartspee d lOmm/min. The identification of thecomponent swa saccomplishe d by comparing the retention datawit h those obtained with referencesample sru n under similarconditions . The leaves on hydrodistillation gaveth eessentia loil sbearin g light todar kyello wcolou ran dhavin gpleasan taromati ct ospicy , mild pungent to sharp pungent taste followed by sweetness insom e cases (Sharma et al. 1982, 1983). The oils distilled from the types under study were subjected toGa s liquid chromatography and on the basis of pattern of the recorded chromatograms pertaining to the number and size of peaks,th e nineteen typeswer e grouped into fivedistinc tcultivar sviz . 'Bangla', 'Desawari', 'Kapoori', 'Meetha' and 'Sanchi' (Plate 2). The chromatograms of the types within thecorrespondin g grouphav esimila rpatter nbu thav emarke d differences from one group to another; thus confirming to the categorization of these types on the basis of leaf morphological characters.

Analysis of volatile constituents and their proportion in the essential oilo fdifferen tcultivar swer eobserve d tob e consistent and reliable tool for the identification of betelvine cultivars (Table1) .

106 Table1 . Chemicalconstituent si nessentia loi lo f Piperbetl eL .cultivar s(i npe rcent) .

Constituent Rt Bangla Desawari Kapoori Meetha Sanchi (min.) ^-pinene 7.30 - 0.37 0.05 Trace 0.099 ß-pinene 7.40 - Trace Trace Trace Trace 1-8cineol e 9.05 - 1.55 5.75 - - Camphene 9.30 - Trace 1.26 - - p-cymene 10.62 0.02 2.47 1.76 - - Methyl 14.50 - 1.55 0.80 0.187 - chavicol Terpineol 15.00 0.02 Trace 0.66 0.234 Trace Terpenyl 15.60 0.06 44.93 21.98 15.61 37.95 acetate Eugenol 20.45 82.00 26.65 15.93 18.90 24.50 Methyl 21.85 4.10 0.37 1.65 0.09 0.58 eugenol Anethole 26.10 - 9.17 - 32.30 - Caryophyllene 30.10 0.63 0.09 Trace Trace 1.023

The characteristic clove-like aromao f 'Bangla' leaveswa sdu e toth ehig h concentration ofeugeno l (^.80%)i nth eoil ,whil eth e sweet taste and fennel-like aroma of 'Meetha' leaveswer edu e to thepresenc e of anethole (32.3%) andth emil dpleasan ttast e of 'Kapoori' leaveswa sdu et oterpeny lacetat e (22%). Similarly the mild pungency of 'Sanchi' and 'Desawari' cultivars wasdu e tocomparativel y lowconcentratio n ofphenoli c constituents. The common constituents in all the cultivars were eugenol,methy l eugenol, caryophyllene,p-cymene , etc. Anethole waspresen ti n 'Meetha' and 'Desawari' cultivars; whereas t£-pinene , p-pinene, methyl chavicol,1- 8 ceniole and camphene were absent incv . 'Bangla', thesam ewer e observed inal lth eothe r four cultivars studied. Earlier,simila r studieshav ebee neffectivel y usedi n identification of number of chemotypes at infra-specific level. Forsen and Schantz (1973)evaluate d theoi lcompositio no fabou t 600cultivar so fChrysanthemu m vulgareL .growin gi nfinlan d and grouped them into eleven chemotypes onth ebasi s of specific compounds present inth eessentia loil .Similarl yGrand i (1976), Adzet et al (1971), Stahl and Kubeczka (1977), Yano (1975)an d Ntezurubanza et al (1984) reported idfferentchemotype so fgenu s Achillia ageratum L.,Thymu s vulgaris L.,Artemisi a capillaris, Thumb., Pastinaca sativa L. and Ocimum kilimandscharicum Guerke respectively on thebasi s of gas liquid chromatographic studies ofth eessentia loil .

107 References

Adzet,T. ,Granger ,R. ,Passet ,J .& Sa nMartin ,R. ,1977 . Lepolymorphis m chimiquedan sl egenr eThymus :S asignificatio n taxonomique,Biochem .Syst .Ecol .5:269-272 . Anonymous,1969 . Wealtho fIndi a (Rawmaterials )counci lo f Scientifican dIndustria lResearch ,Ne wDelhi .8 :p.83-94 . Forsen,R.H . &Schantz ,M.V . 1973. Chemotypesvar .Chrysanthemu m vulgareL.Bernh . In:Ger d Bredz& J . Santesson (Ed.): Chemistryi n Botanical classification, Nobel foundation,Stockholm . Acad. PressLondo n& Ne wYork .p .145-152 . Gottlieb, O.R. & Kubitzka,K . 1981. Chemosystematicso fAniba . Biochem.Syst .Ecol .9 : 5-12. Grandi,R. ,Messerotti ,W .& Pagnoni ,V.M .1976 . Monoterpene variation in two Achillea ageratum chemotypes.Phytochemistry . 15:1770-1/71 . Harborne,J.B .1973 . Flavonoidsa ssystemati cmarker si nagiosperm s In: Gerd Bredz & J. Santesson (Ed.): Chemistry in Botanical classification,Nobe l foundation,Stockholm .Acad .Pres sLondo n &Ne wyork .p .103-115 . Hegnauer, R. 1978. The importance of essential oils in plant classification (chemotaxonomy of the essential oil),Dragoc o Report,204-230 . Heywood,V.H .1973 . Chemosystematics -o nartificia ldiscipline . In:Ger dBred z& J .Santesso n (Ed.):Chemistr yi nBotanica l classification,Nobe l foundation,Stockholm .Acad .Pres sLondo n &Ne wyork .p .41-45 . Ntezurubanza,L. ,Scheffer ,J.J.C. ,Looman ,A & Baerhei msvendsen , A.1984 . Compositiono fessentia loi lo fOcimu mkilimandscharicu m growni nRwanda .Plant aMedic a50:385-388 . Sharma,M.L. ,Rawat ,A.K.S .& Balasubrahmanyam,V.R .1982 . Essential oils 'ofbete l leaves (Piper betl e L.)var . 'Kapoori'. Indian Perfumer.26 :134-137 . Sharma,M.L. ,Rawat ,A.K.S .& Balasubrahmanyam,V.R .1983 . Essential oil of betel leaves (Piper betle L.) vars. 'Ramtek'an d 'Desi Bangla'.India nPerfumer .27:91-93 . Stahl,E .& Kubeczka ,K.H .1979 . Onth eessentia loil so fApicacea e (umbelliferae)VI .Investigatio no fchemotype so fPastinac asativ a L.Plant aMedica .37 :49-56 . Yano,Katsumi ,1975 . Variation inAcetylen econten to fdifferen t ecotypeso fArtemisi acapsilaris . Phytochemistry.14 :1783-1784 .

108 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS INTH EWES T INDIES

CE. Seaforth

Chemistry Department,Universit y of theWes t Indies,Trinida d

Summary

A significant number of plants in theWes t Indies are poorly known taxonomically. The local names of themedicina l plants are preserved by oral tradition,an d are quite diverse. Some species,lik e Peperomia pellucida areuse d tomak ebeverage s for preventive therapy. Other plants are the sources of decoctions (bush teas) taken as aphrodisiacs, or, as cures for ailments ranging from abscesses through colds and fevers to yaws. These plants may include food plants like Eryngium foetidum,o r even toxic species likeAsclepia s curassavica. There is much ignorance about the uses of poisonous plants inbus h teas in these islands,eve n though theWes t Indies is essentially a set of rural com­ munities. Toxic plants shouldb ebette r identified for the benefit of all,includin g theherbalist s and the livestock managers,wh o^iv e in these tropical islands. Keywords: tropical island floras,medicina l plants,Caribbea nnames , plant toxins.

Introduction

When Christopher Columbus visited theWes t Indies in 1493,i t is said that he discovered stands of chili peppers (Capsicum annuum)an d of allspice (Pimenta dioica) growing in these tropical islands. Agriculture is themainsta y of the economies of these territories; and,thre e decades ago, Jamaica (with allspice,an d ginger Zingiber fragrans).and Grenada (with nutmeg andmace ,Myristic a fragrans )becam e major producers of spices for theworl d (Rosengarten, 1969). Unfortunately,the y are not sowel l placed today.

The natural environment still favours the lush growth of aromatic plants (useful as carminatives and digestives), and,o f several other species, likeAlo e vera (Grindlay &Reynolds , 1986). These plants contribute in diverseway s to the local folkmedicin e systems('bus h medicine') of theWes t Indies. Several poisonous plants also are used asmedicina l agents. This paper draws attention to the array of species used inbus hmedicin e from among theplan t resources of this tropical region.

Materials and methods

This study involved an extensive literature search,interviews ,an d field work. Herbarium materialwa s examined,wit h the guidance of the Curator,Dr .CD . Adams,a t thenationa lherbarium , St.Augustine , Trinidad. Over the last two decades,interview s werehel d withherba ­ lists across theWes t Indian islands. Good plant specimens were collected by local names,togethe rwit h theprecis e rules for their administration ashealin g agents. Spelling the localname s of the

109 *»T

plants represented our interpretation of the spokenword , and was checked through re-hearing ondifferent ,occasions . The spellingwa s determined oftenwit h thehel p of staff on theCaribbea n Lexicography Project of thisuniversity . The plantswer e identified by scientific names,and , specimens were deposited in the national herbarium at St.Augustine , Trinidad. Many of theplant s were screened by chemical methods (Farnsworth et al., 1966) for important classes ofbiologically-activ e compounds: someplant s were selected for further chemical examination.

Results and discussion

Three decades ago,Aspre y and Thornton (1953; 1955)wrot e that .... "many of theplant s used for the treatment of colds and indigestion provide thenorma l morning drink" ...."Among the poorer families the morning meal frequently consists ofnothin g more than acu p ofbus h tea prepared by steeping the leaves inho twater " "the term 'breakfast' isno t used but 'taking' or 'drinking' tea is substituted." Taking bush tea continues tob e popularbot h inpreventiv e and in curative medication in theWes t Indies (Wong, 1967;Long , 1973;Honychurch , 1980). Based on the oral tradition of the descendants of immigrants fromAfric a and Western Europe,and , of the original Carib peoples,bus h medicine, usually, isbot h ritual andherba l (Barrett, 1973;Wenige r et al., 1986a).

The identification ofmedicina l plants in theWes t Indies (Wong,1976 ; Kelly & Dickinson, 1985) isno t easy; partlybecause ,thes eplant sma y be known only by local names ofEnglis h orFrenc h or Spanish origin,wit h varying influences from West Africa,and , sometimes from continental India. (The same applies to theplant s ofGuyan a (Haynes, 1969), a country which is culturally integrated with theWes t Indian islands). Confusion ariseswhe n the same localnam e is given to two ormor e different plants. The popular temperate species Salvia officinalis is called sage,an d sage isLantan a camara in theWes t Indies. The West Indian lime isCitru s aurantifoliawherea s the lime tree of tem­ perate countries isTile a europàea. Clearly scientific namesmus t be used in order to avoid confusion among these different medicinalplants .

.Whena plan t isknow nb y several different localname s itsidenti ­ ficationma y notb e easy to determine. For instance,th e pantropical weed, Catharanthus roseus isbette r known as ram-goat rose (in Jamaica), or oldmai d (inGrenada) , or,cac a poule (inDominica) , or,a s peri­ winkle inmos t West Indian places,wher e people use it to treat diabetes mellitus. Early pharmacological studies (Noble et al., 1958)wer e done inCanad a on the leaves of thewhite-flowere d plants sent by a Dr. CD. Johnson fromBlac k River in Jamaica. (Adams et al., 1963). The plant extracts were tested for the reputed antidiabetic activity,and , the resultswer e disappointing. Subsequently, the range of testswa s expanded: itwa s then that the fortuitous discovery was made that car- cinostatic activity resided in theplan t extracts. Catharanthus roseus today is amos t important source of anti-cancer drugs,suc h as vincaleukoblastine (Duke, 1985): butWes t Indian people still believe that teasmad e from the plant can cure diabetes and hypertension.

Several West Indianmedicina l plantshav ebee n highlighted in recent publications (Honychurch, 1980;Morton , 1981;Ayensu , 1982;Seafort h et al., 1983 ), i nwhich , theplant s havebee n arranged alphabetically by botanical names,an d illustrated by line-drawings. The folk medicinal

110 applications and,whereve r possible,th e other uses, chemical cons­ tituents and toxicities of the relevant plant parts havebee n included in these books. Iti s important in publications of thiskin d that,wher e justification for the therapeutic uses of a plant is suggested, the plant constituent(s) responsible should be identified. The assumption should notb e made that thebio-active 'constituent(s ) of oneplan t would necessarily be found in another (asye t untested) sisterspecies . Recorded pharmacological studies ofWes t Indian medicinal plant extracts are few and scattered (Durand et al., 1962;Fen g et al., 1964;Hoope r & Leonard, 1965;Thorburn , 1975). A multidisciplinary approach, involving many skilled man-hours,i s required for the successful isolation and identification of those phytocon-stituents responsible for a specific physiological activity. It isno t very surprising thatninet y percent of plants of theworl d remain untested for their reputed pharmacological activities (Farnsworth &Bingel , 1977).

The scope and quality of published West Indian Floras vary greatly; and,mos t islands of theEaster n Caribbeanhav e neverha d acomplete-Flor a of any kind. The flora ofTrinida d is South American rather thanCarib ­ bean. The flora of thewhol e of theWes t Indies comprises some 10,000 species inabou t 3,500 genera and 200 families of vascular plants spread over a land area of about 200,000km2. InCub a there are over7,00 0 species,hal f ofwhic h may be endemic,and , 1,300 medicinal species are the subject of current scientific evaluation (ECLAC Workshop, 1986). Among the documented plants (3,000 species) inJamaic a and (2,280 species) in Trinidad,abou t 300 species are reputed medicinalplants . They are implicated in folk therapy for over 50 ailments ranging from abscesses toyello w fever (Asprey &Thornton , 1953, 1955;Seafort h et al., 1983). Data onHaitia n plants pertinent to fertility regulation has been published recently (Weniger et al., 1982), in the context of a special programme of theWorl d Health Organization. Specific groups ofWes t Indianmedicina l plants arehighlighte d below.

A number of plants arehighl y esteemed as the sources of male- virilizing agents in theWes t Indies. They areknow n asboi s bande'i n Grenada,Hait i and Trinidad,and , the stembar k decoctions are used. These species includeParinar i campestris,Richeri a grandis and Roupala montana, the extractives ofwhic h appear not tohav e been thoroughly studied.Popula rbeverages ,fo r 'cooling',o r as tonics (for 'tired blood') aremade ,fo r instance,fro m the stembar k ofmab i (Colubrina arborescens) or from the leafy tops either ofman-better-ma n (Achyranthes indiea) or of shiny bush (Peperomia pellucida).

Perhaps the largest grouping of plants canb e made from thoseuse d in the treatment of colds and various fevers. Leaf decoctions of the single plant or of amixtur e of plants areuse d for theseconditions .Almos t every plant in this category isknow nb y at least two local names. Some of them are presented hereb y their French or patois names,wit h their scientific names inbrackets ,namel y -z'herb eà femme (Ageratum conyzoides), du the'pay s (Caprariabiflora) ,boi s canon (Cecropia peltata), citronelle (Cymbopogon citratus), chardonben i (Eryngium foetidum), chandelier (Leonotis nepétifolia), gueritoute (Pluchea symphytifolia),vervin è (Stachytarphéta jamâicensis)an d cousin maho (Urena lobata). Often, theseplant s are used to treat other ailments as well. In the case of herbe a pique (Neurolaena lobata), th ebitte r leaf decoction is taken formalari a and other fevers and fordiabetes .

111 Some interesting chemical constituents of this herb have been described in the literature,bu t these dono t correlatewit h the reputed effi­ cacies of the plant extracts; and,mor e recent pharmacological study (Gupta et al., 1984)ha s demonstrated hypoglycemic activity in the leaf extracts.

The aromatic herb Eryngium foetidumwa s used as a cure-allb y the Carib Indians. It is still used throughout theWes t Indies to treat fits in children. Two local names for the plant are fitwee d and spirit weed. InTrinidad , it isknow n asbhandanya ,an d its leafy tops are used to spice certainmea t dishes. The popular namebhandany a (derived from Hindi) serves to illustrate theEas t Indian (Hindu) influence onCarib ­ bean usage of food andmedicina l plants. Similarly,karail a (or,corai - lee) is aloca l name forMomordic acharantia ,whic h isknow n elsewhere in the archipelago by othername s such asbalsa m pear,cerasse e and maiden's blush (Morton, 1981). The fruit is eaten in stews and curries,and ,th e leaf decoctions areuse d to treat diabetes and other conditions. Recent studieshav e shown the presence of abortifacient'proteins and of other insulin-like compounds in the plant (Ng et.al., 1986). The boundary between themedicina l and thenutritiona l values of some plants canb e quite imprecise. In the case ofArtocarpu s àltilis, the fruit is cooked and eaten (asbreadfruit ) inal l the islands;whils t the decoctions made from theyello wmatur e leaves of this tree are taken to lower blood pressure. Teas from the soursop (Annonamuricata )hav ebee n studied pharmacologically for sedative principles (Bourne &Egbe , 1979). A variety ofbanana/plantai n (Musaparadisiaca ) iseaten ,accordin g to folk medicine practice,fo r good nutrition and also for stomach com­ plaints. This fruit has been shown recently tocontai n anti-ulcerogenic substances,namel y sitoindoside-IIIan d sitoindoside-IV (Ghosal,1985 ; Goel et al., 1986).

Jamaica's national fruit the ackeebelong s to a tree, (Blighia sapida), introduced from West Africa. The leaf decoctions have limited use in folkmedicin e inCub a and Jamaica. This plant is often documented as poisonous,becaus e theunrip e fruitma y contain toxic levels ofwater - soluble compounds called hypoglycin. The content of hypoglycin in the arils of the ripe fruit is about 0.008percent ; and this toxinma y be leached outwhe n the fruit isparboile d and the liquor containing the hypoglycin is discarded. Consequently,whe n properly cooked, the ackee makes a safe and nutritious food (Plimmer & Seaforth, 1964).

Lantàna camàra is toxic to animals due to its triterpenoid constituents called lantadenes (Sharma et al., 1980). The aromatic decoctions of the tops of thisplan t are esteemed in theWes t Indies asbus h tea cures for colds,feve r andhypertension ,an d as diuretics. The plant isknow n as graterwoo d (inTobago) , cariaquite or ramongsi (inTrinidad) ,m abizo u (inDominica) ,an d also as,sage ,re d sage,wil d sage orwhit e sage inmos t of the islands. Another toxic plant is Asclepias curassavica (Hocking, 1976),whic h in theCaribbea n islands, carries names such as -matac ,wil d ipecac,pai n de seda and pwentan. Its aqueous extracts are taken as an emetic for snakebit e and for other afflictions. Teas made from sonnette (Crotalaria retusa) and cough remedies from consumptionbus h (Crotalaria fulva) (Thorburn, 1975) continue tob e popular, even though theplan t extracts contain significant levels ofhepatotoxi c alkaloids.

112 Several noxious plants in the countryside produce their undesirable effectsb y irritant actions,du e to themechanica l action ofhair s or due to chemical substances in the sap or in special glands. These include - dumb cane (Dieffenbachia seguine),manchinee l (Hippomane mancinella),milkwee d (Euphorbia hirta), and the stinging nettles (Laportea aestuans and Tragià volubilis), (Evans& Soper, 1978;Evan s & Schmidt, 1980;Duke , 1985) -whic h havebee n used also asWes t Indian medicinal agents. The islands are essentially rural communities,bu t the scientific literature is rather scarce concerning human encounters with plants containing poisonous substances (Adams et al., 1963;Luc y & Odera, 1981;Dreisbach , 1983;Keele r &Tu , 1983). Good herbalists may be aware of the adverse effects of over-dosing with the extracts of these plants. It is alsonecessar y thatmoder nmedica l practitioners and persons charged with the care of livestock should know more about the toxins inplant s in theWes t Indian environment.

Since theWes t Indies consists of island communities,th emarin e flora should be a significant resource base for pharmacodynamic substances. Few records have been found concerning folk medicinal uses of Caribbean marine plants and plant products (Diaz-Piferrer, 1979). In these islands, the scientific infra-structure is toowea k to support the collection of physiologically-active marine species in a systematic way. On the other hand, terrestrial plants contribute significantly to the folklore and to thebus h teas of the region (Hodge &Taylor ,1957 ; Groome, 1970;Wenige r et al., 1986b) - even thoughman y of these plants are poorly known taxonomically.

TheWes t Indies has a rich flora,and , the environmental conditions are suited for the cultivation ofherb swit h food andmedicina lvalue . Herbs are a natural candidate for the small farmers toconside r (Duke, 1982). The development ofmoder n agro-industry, in theWes t Indies, should include the cultivation and processing ofmedicina l plants into higher-valued commodities,suc h as food additives from nutmeg and mace, and,cosmetic s fromBarbado s aloe.

Acknowledgements

Iwis h to thankDr . CD. Adams,forme r Curator,fo r technical floristic data and forhi s inspiring discussions over theyears . I am grateful also tohi s staff at thenationa l herbarium for plant identifications at St.Augustine ,Trinidad . Thiswor k was supported by research grants from theOrganizatio n ofAmerica n States,Washington ,D.C. ,an d from the Commonwealth Science Council,Marlboroug h House,London .

References

Adams,D. ,K .Magnu s &C . Seaforth, 1963. Poisonous plants in Jamaica. CaribbeanAffairs ,ne w series #2. The University of theWes t Indies, Jamaica. Asprey,G.F .& P. Thorton, 1953; 1955. Medicinal plants of Jamaica. Parts I and II. West IndianMedica l Journal 2: 233 - 252;3 : 17- 41 ; Parts III & IV. West IndianMedica l Journal 4: 69 -82 ; 145- 168. Ayensu,E.S. , 1982. Medicinal Plants of theWes t Indies. Reference Publications,Michigan . Barrett,L. , 1973. The portrait of aJamaica nhealer . African medical lore in theCaribbean . Caribbean Quarterly, 19: 6-19.

113 Bourne,R.K .& P.C. Egbe, 1979. A preliminary study of the sedative effects ofAnnon a muricata (Soursop). West IndianMedica l Journal28 : 106 -110 . Diaz-Piferrer,M. , 1979. Contributions and potentialities of Caribbean marine algae inpharmacology . In:W.A . Hoppe,T . Levring &Y . Tanaka (Ed.): Marine algae inpharmaceutica l science. deGruyter,Berlin . p. 149 -164 . Dreisbach,R.H. , 1983. Handbook of Poisoning: Prevention,diagnosi s and treatment. 11th ed.Lang eMedica l Publications,USA . Duke,J.A. , 1982. Herbs as a small farm enterprise and thevalu e of aromatic plants as economic intercrops. In:H.W . Kerr,Jr .& L. Knutson (Ed.): Research for small farms.Specia lSymposium . U.S.D.A. Miscellaneous PublicationNo . 1422.p . 76 -82 . Duke, J.A., 1985. CRC Handbook ofmedicina l herbs. Chemical Rubber Company Inc.,Boc a Raton,Florida . Durand,E. ,E.V . Ellington,P.C . Feng,L.J . Haynes,K.E .Magnu s & N. Phillip, 1962. Simplehypotensiv e and hypertensive principles from someWes t Indianmedicina l plants. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharma­ cology 14:56 2 -566 . ECLAC Workshop, 1986. Contribution of the"Mari oMunoz "Enterpris e on medicinal plants for Proceedings of theEconomi c Commission for Latin America and theCaribbea n Workshop on thePharmaceutica l Sector in the Caribbean, 14- 19March ,Havana ,Cuba . Evans,F.J . &R.J . Schmidt, 1980.' Plant s and plantproduct s that induce contact dermatitis. Planta Medica: 38; 289 -316 . Evans,F.J . &C.J . Soper, 1978. The tigliane,daphnan e and ingenane diterpenes, their chemistry, distribution andbiologica l activities. A review. Lloydia 41: 193 -233 . Farnsworth,.N.R. , 1966. Biological and phytochemical screening of plants. Journal ofPharmaceutica l Science 55:22 5 -276 . Farnsworth,N.R . &A.S .Bingel , 1977. Problems and prospects of dis­ covering new drugs fromhighe r plantsb y pharmacological screening. In: H.Wagne r & P,Wolf f (Eds.): Newnatura l products and plant drugs with pharmacological,biologica l or therapeutical activity. Springer Verlag,p . 1- 22 . Feng,P.C. , L.J. Haynes,K.E .Magnu s & J.R. Plimmer, 1964. Further pharmacological screening of someWes t Indianmedicina l plants. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 16: 115 -117 . Ghosal, S., 1985. Steryl Glycosides and acyl steryl glycosides from Musa paradisiaca. Phytochemistry 24: 1807 -1810 . Goei,R.K. , S.Gupta ,R . Shankar &A.K . Sanyal, 1986. Antiulcerogenic effect ofbanan a powder (Musa sapientumva r paradisiaca) and its effect onmucosa l resistance. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 18:33-44 . Grindlay,D . &T .Reynolds , 1986. TheAlo e vera phenomenon: A review of thepropertie s and modern uses of the leaf parenchyma gel.Journa l of Ethnopharmacology 16: 117 -151 . Groome, J.R., 1970. A naturalhistor y of the island of Grenada,W.I . J.R. Groome.,.Caribbea n Printers Limited,Arima ,Trinidad . Gupta,M.P. ,N.G . Solis,M.E .Avell a &C . Sanchez, 1984. Hypoglycemic activity ofNeurolaen a lobata (L)R . Br. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 10: 323 -327 . Haynes,L.M. , 1969. Local names of plants inGuyana ,Sout h America. M.Sc.Thesis . The University of theWes t Indies,Jamaica . Hocking,G.M. , 1976. Asclepias curassavicaherb a et radix. Quarterly Journal ofCrud e DrugResearc h 14:.61- 63 . Hodge,W.H . &D . Taylor, 1957. The ethnobotany of the island Caribs of Dominica. Webbia 12:51 3 -644 .

114 Honychurch,P.N. , 1980. Caribbeanwil dplant san dthei ruses . Letch- worthPress ,Barbados . Hooper,P.A .& B.E .Leonard ,1965 . Pharmacologicalpropertie so fsom e WestIndia nmedicina lplants . Journalo fPharmac yan dPharmacolog y17 : 98- 107 . Keeler,P.F .& A.T .T u (Ed.),1983 . Handbooko fnatura ltoxins . Vol.1 Plantan dfunga ltoxins . MarcelDekker ,Inc.- ,Ne wYork . Kelly,D.L .& T.A .Dickinson ,1985 . Localname sfo rvascula rplant si n theJoh nCro wMountains ,Jamaica . EconomicBotan y39 :34 6- 362 . Long,J. , 1973. JamaicanMedicine : Choicesbetwee nfol khealin gan d modernmedicine . Ph.D.Thesis . University ofNe wHampshire ,U.S.A . Lucy,J.S .& G.M .Oderda ,1981 . PoisonousPlants . AmericanPharmacy . NS21 :9 8- 100 . Morton,J.F. , 1981. Atlaso fmedicina lplant so fMiddl eAmerica : Bahamast oYucatan . CharlesC .Thomas ,Illinois ,U.S.A . Ng,T.B. ,W.K .Hou ,L.H .Lo ,W.W .L i& H.W .Yeung ,1986 . Effectso f a-momorcharin,ß-momorchari nan da-trichosanthi no nlipogenesi san d testicularan dadrena lsteroidogenesi si nvitr oan dpiasma-glucos e levelsi nvivo . Journal ofEthnopharmacolog y 18:4 5- 53 . Noble,R.L. ,CT . Beer& J.H .Cutts ,1958 . Roleo fchanc eobservation s inchemotherapy . Vincarose ai nscreenin gprocedure sfo rexperimenta l cancertherapy . Annalso fth eNe wYor kAcadem y ofScience s76 :88 2- 894. ' Plimmer,J.R .& C.E .Seaforth ,1964 . TheAckee : AReview . Tropical ScienceV : 137- 142 . Rosengarten,F. ,1969 . TheBoo ko fSpices . Livingstone,U.S.A . Sharma,D.P. ,1980 . LantadeneA conten tan dtoxicit yo fth elantan a plant (Lantanacamara )t oguine apigs . Toxicon 18:48 5- 489 . Thorburn,M.J. ,1975 . Jamaicanbushe san dhuma nchromosomes . JamaicaJourna l8 : 18-21. Weniger,B. ,M .Haag-Berrurie r& R .Anton ,1982 . Plantso fHait iuse d asantifertilit yagents . Journalo fEthnopharmacolog y6 :6 7- 84 . Weniger,B. ,M .Rouzier ,R .Daguilh ,J .Foucauld ,L .Robinea u & R.Anton ,1986a . Lamédecin epopulair edan sl eplatea ucentra l d'Haiti. I.Etud ed esystèm ethérapeutiqu etraditionne ldan su n cadresocio-cultura lrural . Journalo fEthnopharmacolog y 17: 1-11. Weniger,B. ,M .Rouzier ,R .Daguilh ,D .Henrys ,J.H .Henry s& R .Anton , 1986b. Lamédecin epopulair edan sl eplatea ucentra ld'Haiti . 2.Inventair eethnopharmacologique . Journalo fEthnopharmacolog y17 : 13-30. Wong,W. ,1967 . Thefol kmedicin eo fBlanchisseuse ,Trinidad . M.Sc. Thesis. BrandeisUniversity ,Massachusetts . Wong,W ., 1976 . Somefol kmedicina lplant sfro mTrinidad . Economic Botany30 :10 3- 142 .

115 1^

SOMEMALVACEA E OFMOZAMBIQU E WITHMEDICINA L PROPERTIES

Angelina L.Mait e

Faculty ofBiology ,Eduard oMondlan e University, Maputo,Mozambiqu e

Summary

Abutilon angulatum,Gossypiu m herbaceum var.africanum ,Hibiscu s surat- tensis and Sida acuta, fourmalvaceou s species, are studied inrespec t to theirmedicina l properties.Fres h and dried material has beenused. A short description of each species ispresented , their ecology, distribution and traditional medicinal uses are discussed, theirvernacula r names mentio­ ned.A listha s been compiled of their medicinal uses.

Introduction

In acountr y likeMozambiqu e iti scommo n practice tous e local plants for the treatment ofsom e diseases.Eve n so,onl y a limited number ofpeo ­ ple knowho w tous e plants and which plants aret ob e used for certain diseases.Here ,fou rmalvaceou s species are presented, giving information on medicinal use by traditionalpractitioner s(indicate d by "TP" in the text), who are called "curandeiros'.

Discussion

Abutilon angulatum (Guill. &Perr. )Mast .

Vernacular names Maputo: licupecupe;Manica : guenderi; Tete:varvura .

Description Shrublets or shrubs,1- 5 mhigh . Leaves alternate, petiolate cordate- ovate,u p to 27x 2 6 cm.Flower s yellow or orange to apricot. Fruit de­ pressed-globose,u p to 1.3 x 1.3 cm, densely stellate-tomentose.Mericarp s 20-39; seed reniform, verruculose orsmooth . Occurs inMaputo ,Gaza ,Sofala ,Manica ,Tete ,Niass a and Cabo Delgado provinces in open and riverine forests, on mountains and along roads, on different types ofsoils .Flowerin g from March toMay , fructification May to September.

Medicinal uses Infusion of theroot s is taken orally in case of epilepsy aad herrt pains. The roots ofAbutilo n angulatum are mixed with those of Croton di- chogamusPa x and aporridg e isprepare d with this infusion.

Gossypium herbaceum L.var .africanu m (Watt)Hutch . & Ghose

Vernacular names Maputo:uchale ;Gaza : tonge,nuba .

Description Shrublets or shrubs,2. 3 m high,branche s pubescent andglandular . Pe­ tiole up to 3.5 cm long, leaf-lamina 6x8 cm, cordate, suborbicular in outline,5-7-lobed . Flowersyello w with purple centre; fruit a globose

116 capsule,1.5-2. 5x 1.5-2 cm; seeds with white longhairs . Occurs inMaputo ,Gaza ,Inhambane ,Sofala ,Manic a and Teteprovinces ,i n open forests and ingrassland . Flowering November to February, fructifica­ tion February toAugust .

Medicinal uses. Topreven t abortion an infusion ofGossypiu m herbaceum var. africanum and of Cynodon sp. is taken orally 2x pe r day (TP).Lac k of appetite is cured by administration ofa n infusion of theroots ,orall y 2x per day (TP). Formothermil kpurification , an infusion of theroot s together with roots of Cardiogyne africanaBur . istake n orally 2 xpe r day(TP) .

Hibiscus surattensisL .

Vernacular names Maputo: licumba-cumba; Gaza:coaca-coaca ; Sofala: tunde;Manica :garusa ; Zambézia: nhakhurkhue; Nampula: punho;Cab o Delgado:m'tama-m'tama .

Description Annual herb,prostrat e or scrambling,u p to5 m ; stemshispid , aculea­ te.Petiol e 9 cm long, leaf-lamina suborbicular in outline,8x 8 cm, his­ pid, deeply 3-5-lobed.Flower s yellow with purple centre.Frui t ovoid or globose, capsular, 2x 1.3 cm; seed reniform ,3- 4 x 2-3 mm. , Occurs inMaputo ,Gaza ,Inhambane ,Sofala ,Manica , Zambézia,Nampul a and CaboDelgad o provinces in hygrophile and open forests, in grassland ;on sandy soils.Flowerin g and fructifying March toSeptember .

Medicinal uses Poor appetite:porridg e isprepare d with decoction ofroot s and taken 3x per day (TP).Vomiting : adecoctio n of the leaves is takenorall y 3x per day (TP). Female infertility: crushed leaves are inserted into the vagina for sixconcecutiv e days(TP) .

Sidaacut aBurm . f.

Vernacular names Maputo: mubahomu ; Sofala: mat'zal: ru,mupsairo .

Description Annual herb or shrublet,u p to 2m high.Petiol e short,leaf-lamin a ova­ te-lanceolate, 10x 3 cm. Flowersyellow , axillary.Mericarp s 5-7, biros- trate; seeds angulate. Occuring inMaputo ,Gaza ,Inhambane ,Sofala ,Manica , Zambézia, Tete, Nampula and Cabo Delgado provinces along rivers,roa d sides and cultivated land; on sandy soils or on compact argile soil. Flowering from December to April, fructification April to October.

Medicinal uses In case ofpainfu l menstruation (dysmenorrhoea), an infusion of the lea­ ves is taken orally half a teacup 2x pe r day (TP);depresse d fontanelle ; a decoction of theroot s is takenorall y 3x pe r day a teaspoonful (TP).A feverish patient iscure d by inhalation of the damp ofwate r inwhic h the leaves »r*>nu t (TP).I n case ofshar p pain in the side,leave s ofth e plant and of theMarkhami a obtusifolia (Baker)Spragu e are cooked and applied asho t compresses on theregion »

117 Theplant s and their medicinal uses

Plantnam e Symptoms,disease s or Part of Method ofadmi ­ Province other reasons for plant nistration prescription used Abutilon Heart pains Roots Mixed with roots Tete angulatum of Crotondicho - gamus. Themixtu ­ re istake n orally; partly as infusion, partly inporridg e Epilepsy Roots Infusion with Tete roots of Croton dichogamus,mix ­ ture taken in porridge or as an infusion Gossypium To prevent Roots Infusion with Maputo herbaceum abortion roots of Cynodon var. sp. is taken africanum orally. purification of Rootsan d Infusionmad ewit h Maputo mothermilk leaves Cardiogyne africana Mixture taken orally. Poor appetite Roots Infusion taken Maputo orally Hibiscus Vomiting Leaves Decoction orally Maputo surattensis Female infertility Leaves Crushed andin ­ Maputo serted into vagina Poor appetite Roots and Porridge prepared Maputo leaves with decoction, taken orally Sida acuta Painful menstuatlon Leaves Infusion orally Maputo Depressed fontanelle Roots Decoction orally Maputo

Fever Leaves Damp of leaves Maputo inhaled Sharp pain Leaves Cooked with leaves Maputo ofMarkhami a obtusifolia, asho t compresses

References

Exell,A.W . & Gonçalves,M.L. ,1979 .In :Flor a deMoçambiqu e 25:1-109 . Exell,A.W. , 1961.In :Flor a Zambesiaca1 (2):421-479 . Meeuse,A.D. , 1961.In :Flor a Zambesiaca 1 (2):475-499 . Watt,J.M . & Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G.,1962 .Th e medicinal and poisonous plantso fsouther n and easternAfrica .Edinburg h andLondon ,p .733-742 .

118 MEDICINAL USE OF SOME PHILIPPINE PLAN!S

Ma.Agne s AbaciFlora s

Graduate;School ,Universit y of Santo Tomas,Manila , Philippines

The Philippines has ahighl y diverse natural vegetation ufwil d and cultivated species. These have varied economic importance including medicinaluse . Medicine available in themarke t for common illnesses have become increasingly expensive. Thus,w e have to seek alter­ native medicine that are low-cost anu readily available. There is tnus anee d to develop the use of localmedicina l plants,particularl y in theMetropolita n Manila urea. Four cities,includin g Manila (tne capital city)an d thirteen municipalities make-up theMetropolita n Manila Area. Itcover s atota l area of 665.yb kilometers,uit ha population of 7.5 million. Alis t or some or the common medicinal plants found in tnemetropoli s is asfollows : Bixa oreliana L. Bruised leaves are applied on forehead to cure headache. uround seeds are applied to burnst o prevent blister and scar formation. Psidium guajava L. Decoction of young leaves isuse d as astringent and mouthwash for swollen gums. Chewed leaves are used to cure toothache. Pounded leaves are applied on wounds and covered with aclea n cloth. Young leaves are squeezed in water. The leaf-water extract solution is used towas h face asa cur e forpimples . Manihot esculenta Crantz. Pounded leaves are applied as a compress to the head when fever and headache persist. Quassia amara L. Stem infusion ismixe d uithsalts , aromatics and gingers to curegout . Lantana camara L. Pounded leaves are applied asa poultice on sprains,swelling s and cuts. Coleus scutellarioides L.Lea f poultice is applied on forehead to cure headache. Pounded leaves are applied to bruises. Clitorea ternatea L. Leaf poultice is applied asa remedy for swollen joints. Root decoction,take n orally,

1. Present address: Institut für Allgemeine Botanik, Universität Hamburg,Hamburg ,Federa l Republic of Germany

119 removes phlegm in chronic bronchitis. Jasminum sambat(L. )Ait .Floue r decoction istake n orally to cure fever and cough. Pounded roots arc applied as poultice on sprains andfractures . Ricinus communis L. Leaf poultice is applied on the forehead to relieve headache. Leaves mixed with salt ismad e into aplaste r toreiiv o sharppains . Catha^anthus roseus (L.)Don . Fresh stems are boiled in water. Ih e decuction, taken orally, isa rem^a y for hypertension.

Het'e reni.e s 1. Flores,M .A. H . 1y33 . Philippine Biota. 2. Flores,fi.M.A .e t al.1982 .Universit y of Sto.Toma s Journal ofGraduat e Research. 11(1;: bs-yo. 'Ó. Uutierrez,H.G.'19oO .A n Illustrated f'lanualo f Philippine Materia Medica. 4. de Paaua,L.S.e t al. 19Y8.nanaboo k of Philippine Medicinal Planus. 5. Philippine National Formulary. 1982. 6. (Juisurnbing, E .1951 .Medicina l Plants of the Philippines.

120 RECENT EFFORTS GF PRESERVATION AND EXPLOITATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

3.Bernât h

Research Institute for Medicinal Plants, Budakalâsz, Hungary

Summary

Th e in créa sing uti liza tion of me dici nal and aromat ie p lant spec ies is ofte n ac comp anied by t he d ecre ase of the nat ural plan t s ourc es. Thu s, in H ungar y a s m any as 2 7 of the coll ecte d sp ecie s ha ve b ecame a ra re o ne i n th e last dec ade. To avoi d t his thi nnin g. e ven spee d up pro ductiv ity, the inve stig atio ns shou ld b e ori ented as foil ows: 1. Pr oduc tion orie nted di nami c i nter venti on f or t he e xplo itatio n of the biol ogic al rule s o f th e nat ural habi tats to increa se t heir prod ucti vity or to créa te ne w agr o-sy stem s. 2 . Pres erva tion orie nted st atic -lik e i nterv entio ns may help the f utur e by créa ting sp ecia 1 b otan ical garde ns, pres erve d comm unit ies, mode 1 re serv atio ns, d evel oping gene and tis sue cultur e ba nks. Keyw ords medi cina 1 and arom atic P lant s, ec osys tern, agro syst em, gene res erva tion. Introduction

Th e rena issa nee of medic inal and aro mati c pi ants is beco ming quit e p rono unced in deed in th e de vélo ped, indu striali zed coun trie s. T his is a par t of the "bac k to Natu re" mo veme nt. Howe ver, it is real ly evid ent t oo, that almo st 90 % of m anki nd t akes medi came nts of b asic ally natu ral or igln (Ay ensu , 198 5) an d thi s "r enai ssanc e" i s of anot her na ture . One of the m ost i mport ant ques tion nowa days how to e stab lish the bio logic al, prod ucti on-ec olog ical back ground fo r th e i ncrea sed utili zati on of m edic inal plan ts. In th is pa per I eva luate the biol ogic al as pect s of the exploit atio n and pre serva tion of th e me dici nal p lant s on the basis of our act ivity in the I SHS Work ing G roup and usin g resul ts o f own stu dies.

Results and discussion

Medicinal and aromatic plants in the production system

In spite of the wide-spreading cultivation of the medicinal and aromatic plants the majority of the material source originates from the natural production systems. In most of the developing countries this ratio may even reach 100 %. However one can see the following factors of decay in natural systems: direct effects indirect effects -decrease of the forest area -industrial waste -pesticides, tillag e of medows -spreading of pesticides -clearing rudeal sites -changing of plant communities

121 -drainage -overloading due to collection The seriousness of the species reduction is illustrated by Fig.1., where the number of species that became extinct in some countries of Europe up tomiddl e of the seventies is shown (Csapody, 1982). This reduction of the species spectrum may also mean the extinction of chemotaxa existing in given natural systems only, and their potential therapeutical effect or aroma is lost forever. Thus,i n Hungary asman y as 27o f the collected species have becamea rare one in the lastdecade .

19 22 26

à S5 ?

Fig.1. Plant species became extinct in 70-ies in Europe (on the basis of Csapody's data, 1982) The actual situation of the plant preservation On the basis of ISHSWorkin g Group questionaries received back from 45countries ,th e preservation work of medicinal and aromatic plants and the proposed methods are summarized in Fig.2. Some aspects of the investigation strategy A methodical difference arises if the study is aimed at maintaining and increasing the productivity of the system or at conserving a given state only. The former can be considered adynamic , the latter astati c intervention. 1.Production oriented dynamic intervention as agoa l canb e reached from variousdirections : a)increasin g the dominance and/or the productivity ofth e "productive species"i n the ecosystem, b)limitin g the unfavourable factors influencing the productive systems, c)knowin g theecologica l demand of the "producent"

122 sp ecie s,a pro duct ion sitem a y be chosen where the na tura 1e q uili briu m,, a prereq uiste of the production ma yb e dev elop ed( Bern ath,1 9 86), d)e r eati ono fn e w( a grar ian)s y stems. .Pres e rvat ion orie nted sta tic int ervention helps the conse rvat ion ofa giv ens täteo r provides abasi s for the furth eri nves tiga tion sa r e ofs t rategical importance in thep rodu ctio no f med icin alan d aromatic plants.Thi sgoa l canb er e aliz edb yd i ffer entme t hods: a)e s tabl ishi ngb otan ical garden s onchemotaxonomica l ba sis asw em a dei tu s ingDa h lgren's "two-dimensional" mo del, b) pr eser ving natural communitie s in original form or de velo ping model reservations (Wehav e started tobuil d up the model reservation ofB uda-PilisMountains) , c) it is required to put theme d icinal and aromatic plants in gen e banks for the long-te rm seed and tissue culture pr eser vation. This type ofw o rk was started by usi n 19 86.

% USED FORM PROPOSEO FORM £7\

£5\ C7\ £7\ ^7\ 2a ^=71

\±m T È a s Fig.2. Research methods applied and proposed for medicinal and aromatic plant preservation (on the basis of ISHS questionaries)Reference s Ayensu,E,S., 1985.Role of medicinal and aromatic plantsi n Africa's development. Newsletter of Med.Arom.Plants, 2:63-70. Bernéth,J., 1986.Production ecology of secondary plant products in:Craker,L,E ,a tSimon,3.E . (Ed.)Herbs,spice s and medicinal plants.Ory x Press,Arizona ,p .185-234 . Csapody,!., 1982.Védett növényeink.Gondolât,Budapest,p.7-14.

123 DRUMSTICK (Moringa oleifera Lam.)- A MULTIPURPOS EPERENNIA LINDIA N VEGETABLETRE EO FCONSIDERABL EMEDICINA LVALU E

DrK.V .Pete r

Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara - G80 654, India

The Hindustan centre of crop origin is the cradle of many economically important vegetable crops. Ashgourd (Benincasa hispida cogn.), bitter- gourd (Momordica charantia L.), Kundru (Coccinia indica L.), pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica L.), snakegourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina L.), egg plant (Solanum melongena L.), hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab L.), sword bean (Canavalia gladiata L.), jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis L.) and many other vegetables originated in this part of the world. There is yet another vitamin rich mineral packed and nutritious vegeta­ ble of this tropical and sub-tropical centre of crop origin, originally grown by the Dravidians and later by Aryans in each and every homeyard and presently getting extinct from cultivation, called drumstick and synonymed as "Horse Radish Tree", "West Indian Ben" and "Never Die". The name drumstick derives from the shape of pod resembling the slender and curved stick used for beating the drum. Probably the name "radish tree" derives from the pendulous slender and thin shape of imma­ ture fruits of the tree resembling very much the siliqua of radish.

Botany and nomenclature

It belongs to the family Moringaceae. The family is monogeneric — Moringa— and the botanical name being Moringa oleifera Lam. There are two common species oleifera and concanensis, the former being the vegetable species. The oleifera species is being distinguished by leaves usually tripinnate, leaflets 12 - 18 mm. long; petioles yellow or white without red streaks and the tree being medium sized. The concanensis species is distinguished by leaves bipinnate, leaflet 15 - 30 mm. long, petioles with red streaks or redish at base and the tree being large sized. A few of the species of Moringa related to oleifera are M..pterygosperm a Gaertn. and M. longefolia.

124 Origin and distribution

The tree is indigenous to North-West India. It is found growing wild in the sub-Himalayan tract from river "Chinab" eastwards to "Sarda" and in the Tarai tract of Uttar Pradesh in India. Stretches of wild forms of the tree can be seen in the Tarai belts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The tree is widely distributed in India, Egypt, Phillippines, Ceylon, Thailand, Malaysia, Burma, Pakistan, Singapore, West Indies, Cuba, Jamaica and Nigeria.

Chromosome number

The tree is reported as a true diploid with 2n = 28. The presence of a higher gametic chromosome number (n = 14) leads to the evolutionary process of allopolyploidisation or a possible diploidisation.

Nature of pollination

The flowers are bisexual, oblique, stalked, axillary and heteromorphic. The plant is highly cross-pollinated due to heteromorphism and is ento- mophilous, bees being the pollinators.

Breeding methods

The tree can be propagated from seed or from cuttings. The stem cut­ tings are usually preferred which root very easily. Plants raised from seeds produce fruits of unpredicted quality. Further cuttings of fairly large size planted in moist soil strike root readily and grow to size­ able trees within a few months. Large limb cuttings of 1 to 1.35 m. in length with 14 to 16 cm. in cirfcumference are plants _in situ during rainy season (June - August). In Salem district of Tamil Nadu (India) uneconomic trees are cut down leaving a stump from which 1 to 2 shoots are allowed to grow. From these shootSj cuttings of 2 cm. in diameter are selected and used as planting material. In Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu "Shield budding" has been found to be successful and the budded trees begin to bear in 6 months and continue to give good crop for about 13 years. Being essentially a vegetatively propagated crop, breeding methods like single plant selection, mass selection and exploitation and maintenance of vigour observed in transgressive segre-

125 7

gants could be used. The prospects of going for mutation breeding and polyploidy breeding are yet to be explored. Being a perennial tree vegeta­ ble, information on inheritance of qualitative, quantitative and threshold characters in the crop are rather limited.

Varieties

There are only a few named varieties. A type named "Jaffna" grown in certain parts of South India produces fruits 60 to 90 cm. in length with a soft flesh of good taste. The other types are "Chavakacherri murunga", also a "Jaffna" type, bearing fruits as long as 90 - 120 cm. long and "Chemmurunga" (red tipped fruits, said to flower throughout the year and yield heavy crops). Trees growing wild ("Kadu murunga") usually bear small and inferior fruits. In Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu (India) a variety known as "Palmurungai" with thick pulp and better taste and another called "Puna murungai" are grown. In Trichy district of Tamil Nadu a variety known as "Kodikal murungai" producing very short fruits of 15 - 23 cm. is seen. In West Indies there are forms which rarely flower and are principally cultivated for their foliage and others which can fruit abundantly and are cultivated for fruits.

Prospects

The medicinal virtues, of this crop are known and appreciated in India. It has been frequently mentioned in Sanskrit works on medicine. Almost all the parts of the plant — roots, leaves, flowers, seeds etc.— have been used in one way or other in the treatment of ailments in indigenous system of medicine.

The tree is not affected by any serious disease in India. A foot rot caused by Diploida sp. has been observed in Tamil Nadu. The hairy caterpillar Eupterote mullifera Wlk. causes defoliation in drumstick. The caterpillars of Tetragonia siva, Metanastia hyrtaca and Heliothes armigera, and aphid Aphis craccivora, the scale insect Cerophlastodes cajani, the borer Diaxenopsis apomecynoidea and fruit fly Gitonia sp. were observed in the plant.

There is considerable scope for the genetic improvement of this vegeta­ ble. A lot of variability is available in the Tarai tract (India). The utility

126 of plant parts in medicinal preparations needs intensive research for confirmation and general recommendations. It is only the lack of aware­ ness that causes the extinction of this important perennial vegetable.

For further reading

1. Ochse, 3.3. (1977) Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies ed. 1. pp. 508-511, Asher and Co., B.V. Amsterdam.

2. Ramachandran C, K.V. Peter and P.K. Gopalakrishnan (1980) Drum­ stick. A multipurpose 'Indian Vegetable. Econ. Bot. 34 (3) : 276-284.

3- Wealth of India (1962) Drumstick Vol. 6 : 425-428. Council of Scienti­ fic and Industrial Research, New Delhi.

127 Glycoside formation in Digitalis lanata Ehrh leaves with special reference to growth hormones and mineral nutrients treatments S. K. Chatterjee* and R.P. Nandi Research Laboratory, Mungpoo-734313 Darjeeling, West Bengal, India

A b s t r a c t Analysis of daily variations of glycoside formation in rosette leaves of D.lanata Ehrh revealed that its content reached maximum during early hours of the day. It was also noticed that glycoside formation remained associated with the increased contents of reducing sugar and total nitrogen. Studies established that glycoside content in rosette leaves was most pronounced during initiation of bolting. Axial leaves showed high glycoside contents when rateo f flower formation was maximum. GA3 treatment particularly hastened bolting time whereas treatments with Mg and Mn markedly augmented glycoside content in both axial and rosette leaves.

Introduction The leaves of üJanaia Ehrh yield cardiac glycosides which increase the force of contraction of heart. Studies on growth and developmental physiology of this plant are not frequently reported and no specific information is available in the area of biosynthesis of glycosides in this species. Sharma si ai (1982) analysed the effect of NPK on growth and digoxin content in this plant. Cytological, genetical and physiological studies have been done by Michalea and Silva (1972), Kennedy (1978), Gille and Ghiorgite (1982), Chatterjee filal (1979) and Diettrich elsl (1985). The present paper reports the regulatory control of vegetative and reproductive growth as well as improvement of glycoside content by treatments with GA3 and mineral nutrients in Digitalis lanata leaves.

Material and Methods Sixty days old seedlings of Digitalis lanata Ehrh (Scrophulariaceas) were planted in experimental plots in a randomised block design. The plots contained organically rich loamy

soil having average composition of N2-0.35%, P2O5-0.04%, K2O-0.03% and CaO-0.02%. The pH of the soil was 4.8. The spacing was maintained 2' x 2' from plant to plant and row to row. Seventy days' old plants were subjected to following treatments:

a. 25ug and 200ug/ml gibberellic acid (GA3).

b. 1|xg and 10ug/ml Mg (MgCI2, 6H20 as source) and

Mn (MnCI2, 4H20 as source).

128 The plants were fed with 30 ml/plant of GA3 and mineral nutrients solutions through leaves during morning hours in five equal installments followed by covering the plants with polyfilm for one hour. The results of optimum effective doses have been included in this report.

Extension growth (bolting), formation of rosette leaf (R-leaf), axial leaf (A-leaf), and flower was recorded every 15 days intervals according to the method described by Nandi (1980). The total glycoside (TG) content of leaves was extracted and estimated following the method of AOAC (1960) during different developmental stages of growth (Nandi, 1980). In daily variation study, the total nitrogen (TN) content was estimated following the method of Vogel (1961) at every hour of the day.

Results and Discussions The contents of total glycosides (TG) in rosette leaves of D.lanata showed diurnal variation and registered a minimum level at 6 pm and later gradually increased becoming maximum at 6 am. It was also revealed that high glycoside formation in D.lanata remained associated with the increased content of total nitrogen (TN). Nandi and Chatterjee (1975) reported daily variation in alkaloid contents in Datura innoxia which became most favoured during the early hours of the day.

In normal plants of D.lanata. bolting phenomenon started at the age of 130 days of the plant (Table 1). The total glycoside content of the rosette leaves gradually increased and became maximum when plants attained the age of 160 days and thereafter declined. The TG content in axial leaf became maximum at the age of 175 days and later declined. GA3 treatments

(200u,g/ml) increased glycoside content and hastened the initiation of bolting in the plant (Table 2).

The TG contents of rosette and axial leaves treated with GA3 became maximum during 145 and 160 days respectively. In tables 3 and 4,th e effects of Mg and Mn on bolting and glycoside formation have beenshown . Mgan d Mnincrease d the glycoside contents in both rosette and axial leaves. TC content became maximum during 160day s in rosette leaves and during 175 days in axial leaves. Bolting behaviour could not bechange d by the treatments of Mg andMn .

An analysis of rate of growth of bolting axis and formation of glycoside in D.lanata has been shown in table 5. In normal plants, a maximum rate of bolting growth was noticed during 130-140 days when the rate of TG formation in rosette leaves was also maximum. The

129 rate of TG formation in axial leaves was maximum during 150-160 days period. GA3 treatments hastened the bolting time and the rate of increase of bolting growth was maximum during 110-120 days during which period the rate of TG formation was also maximum. The rate of TG formation in axial leaves became maximum during 130-140 days in GA3 treated plants. Rate of formation of glycoside in both rosette and axial leaves as well as flower formation during different developmental stages of the plant have been shown in table 6. TheT G content in axial leaves gradually increased upto initiation of reproductive stage of development (i.e. late bolting stage) and its rate of formation in these leaves became highest when rate of flower formation was maximum. In rosette leaves, though TG formation increased upto initiation of reproductive stage (i.e. late bolting stage), its rate became highest in these leaves before initiation of flower took place on the bolted axis. Phenomenon of bolting in relation to different growth and biochemical parameters in other rosette-type of plants like Nicotiana plumbaoinifolia was reported by Gupta (1970) and Nandi (1980). It had been observed that the bolting in this species was accelerated by

treatments with GA3. In the present study, a clear correlation of bolting growth, glycoside

formation in leaves as well as flower formation has been shown in a medicinally important plant like p.lanata. The study has also established a regulatory role of bolting phenomenon and flower formation on glycoside formation and its augmentation by treatments like GA3, Mg and Mn, the findings of which could be comercially exploited.

References: 1. Association of Agricultural Chemists (AOAC), Official Method of Analysis. USA, 1960, 541. 2. Chatterjee, S.K.; Randi, R.P. ; Choudhuri, R. and Chatterjee, S., Herba Kuno.. 1979, 18(3):125-133. 3. Diettrich, B.; Haack, V.; Popov, A.S.; Butenko, R.G. and Luchenev, M., Biochem. Physiol.Pflanz.,1985,180(1):33-34 . 4. Gupta, K.K., D.Phil.Disert(Sc). Burdwan University, lndia.1970. 5. Gille, E. V. and Ghiorghite, G. I., Rev.Roum.Biol.Veq.. 1982. 27(1):49-54. 6. Kennedy, A.J., Euphytica, 1978, 27(1):267-272. 7. Michalea, A. and Silva.F., Hurba.Huna.. 1972. 11(1):29-37.

8. Nandi.R.P., D.PhilfDisert(Sc^. Burdwan University, India, 1980. 9. Nandi.R.P., and Chatterjee, S.K., Geobios., 1975, 4(2):69-70. 10. Sharma, T.C.; Choudhuri, S.B. and Bordoloi, D.N., Indian Drugs. 1982, 19(7):267-270. 11. Vogel, A.I.,A Text Book of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis. The English Language Book Society aandLongma nGree nan dCo .Ltd. ,1961 .

130 TABLE 1. Glycoside contents in axial and rosette leaves of D.lanata in relation to bolting growth.

- After days (age) - Parameters 70 85 100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205

Bolting growth (cm). 0 0 0 0 1.50 9.31 15.37 23.78 27.32 28.51

TG of rosette leaves (mg/100mg) 0.8 0.87 0.96 1.06 1.19 1.37 1.42 1.35 1.24 .1.18 TG of axial leaves (mg/100mg) 0 0 0 0 0.68 0.73 0.82 0.85 0.83 0.79

TABLE 2. Effect of GA3 (200ng/ml) on glycoside contents in axial and rosette leaves of D.lanata in relation to bolting growth.

- After days (age) - Parameters 70 85 100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205

Bolting growth (cm) 0 0 0 1.30 8.95 17.32 25.10 30.43 34.19 36.33 TG of rosette leaves (mg/100mg) 0.80 0.89 1.01 1.20 1.39 1.51 1.46 1.40 1.36 1.23

TG of axial leaves (mg/100mg) 0 0 0 0.81 0.89 1.02 1.05 1.00 0.98 0.91

131 TABLE 3. Effect of Mg (10ng/ml) on glycoside contents in axial and rosette leaves of D.lanata in relation to bolting growth.

- After days (age) - Parameters 70 85 100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205

Bolting growth (cm) 0 0 0 0 1.40 8.92 15.24 24.0 28.52 29.82 TG of rosette leaves (mg/100mg) 0.8 0.89 8 99 1.15 1.39 1.79 1.82 1.75 1.71 1.66 TG of axial leaves (mg/100mg) 0 0 0 0 0.88 0.96 1.09 1.13 1.06 0.99

TABLE 4. Effect of Mn (10 fig/ml) on glycoside contents in axial and rosette leaves of D.lanata in relation to bolting growth.

- After days (age) - Parameters 70 85 100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205

Bolting growth (cm) 0 0 0 0 1.50 9.59 16.46 24.32 29.01 30.32 TG of rosette leaves (mg/100mg) 0.8 0.87 0.96 1.08 1.36 1.75 1.78 1.74 1.69 1.64 TG of axial leaves (mg/100mg) 0 0 0 0 0.83 0.94 1.06 1.10 1.03 0.95

132 TABLE 5. Variation of glycoside contents in leaves with the rate of growth of bolting axis of D.lanata.

During days Parameters 80-90 110-120 130-140 150-160 170-180 190-200

CONTROL Bolting axis 0 0 +360.32 +135.65 +8.05 +3.16

TG in R-leaf +9.33 +13.19 +15.16 +2.43 -5.12 -8.43 TG in A-leaf - - +8.10 +12.28 +1.09 -4.62

£Aa f200)

Bolting axis 0 +520.18 +192.17 +10.62 +4.68 +1.32

TG in R-leaf +11.5 +16.42 +5.40 -6.22 -10.19 -11.15 TG in A-leaf - +10.15 +14.05 -2.06 -6.67 -8.33

% increase (+) or decrease (-) during: Parameters Vegetative Bolting Reproductive Post-reproductive

CONTROL Flower formation 0 0 +380.45 +5.10

TG in R-leaf +10.52 +15.16 +2.43 -5.12 TG in A-leaf 0 +8.10 +12.28 -4.31

G_Aa12P_fll

Flower formation 0 0 +512.19 +8.22

TG in R-leaf +12.32 +17.42 +5.40 -6.22 TG in A-leaf 0 +10.15 +14.05 -2.06

133 PLANT REMEDIES USED AGAINST 'FEVERS' IN A MIXE LOWLAND COMMUNITY, OAXACA, MEXICO

Michael Heinrich and Horst Rimpler

Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Albert Ludwigs Universität, D-7800 Freiburg/Br

ABSTRACT: Ethno-botanical research, undertaken in the Mixe lowland community of San Juan Guichicovi (Oaxaca, Mexico) from October 1985 until December 1986 indicates a great variety of folk medical treatments to cure diseases popularly associated with a rise of the body-temperature ('toy')- Treatment consists in bathes and alcoholic frotations with 'fresh' and aromatic leaves. In cases which are perceived as more severe, teas and/or enemas are applied. The plant remedies used and the merits and dangers of these treatments are discussed.

#- supported by the DAAD (Bonn), the Freiburger Wissenschaft­ liche Gesellschaft, and the 'Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores', Mexico D.F.

INTRODUCTION: The rise of body temperature is one of the most frequent symptoms of illnesses. Mixe medicine of San Juan Guichicovi (Oaxaca, Mexico) has developed a great number of folk categories to distinguish illnesses associated with a rise of body temperature: 'Toy'• It is difficult to correlate these folk illnesses with diseases recognized by western bio-medicine. The only exception is xiim, which due to its distinct symptoms and blood smear examinations can be identified as malaria (Heinrich i. pr.).

RESULTS: Despite the great number of folk illnesses associated with the rise of body temperature, the popular treatment is generally very similar (see table I).Bathe s (b) or frotations (f) or ritual cleansing (limpias-1) with aromatic plants are among the procedures most frequently used if the fever is seen as less severe and if it is not enduring. If a fever is regarded as more dangerous enemas (e) and teas (t) are also used. Of all the plants recorded as folk remedies to treat fever -24 are used exclusively externally, -6 externally and orally, -8 externally and rectally and only -3 and 1 exclusively as tea or as enema, respectively. Xiim (malaria) is also treated using bathes with aromatic plants (table I),bu t teas using other plants (table II) are additionally applied. All but Siparuna andina, which is an aromatic plant, are used because of the bitter principles they contain.

134 DISCUSSION: Great attention has to be given to the modes of application of the plants used. Bathes, frotations and limpias will certainly give some relief from the major symptoms and will thus help the patient to.recover more rapidly. These remedies are difficult to evaluate pharmacologically. The use of enemas in the treatment of fever is unlikely to produce positive effects, while its dangers due to the additional loss of water are potentially enormous. The teas used might help to cure the underlying cause of the illness, but this has to be evaluated on a more detailed basis. Plants used as teas -especially the ones used in the treatment of xiim (malaria)- are currently screened pharmacologically and phytochemical investigations are being started on some of these plants.

135 TABLE 1 PLANTSUSE DI NTH ETREATMEN TO F 'FEVER'(TOOY )

Scientific Name Mixe Mode of plant Other Name appli­ parts uses cation used

ANACARDIACEAE: Mangifera indica L. Mang aay b,f V - ANNONACEAE: Annona purpurea Moc. & Noajy aky b,e V body pain Sesse Annona reticulata L. Anona aay b,f V - ASTERACEAE: Epaltes mexicano Less. Piix b,f V head-ache Parthenium hystero- Artemis ujts b,f V body pain pherus L. Tagetes erecta L. Piktfn'k pjijy b,f a,w 'susto, malaire' Tagetes filifolium Leg. Anis ujts b,f, t V - Tithonia diversifolia Notaamtsy b,f, t V muscular cramps, (Hemsl.) Gray malaria

BALSAMINACEAE: Impatiens balsamina L. Espiritu ujts f a head-ache

BIGNONIACEAE: Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. Tronadora f, t V 'to facilitate birth','infections'

BORAGINACEAE: Cordia curassivica L. Xobarora b V measels, haemor­ rhage

BURSERACEAE: Bursera simaruba (L.) TsjSk b,f, e c measels, 'tis' Sarg.

CAESALPINACEAE: Cassia fistula L. Tsap tsina'an b,t,e V cough Cassia sennae L. Hoja Sen e V - Chaemaecrista hispidula Senn aay b,e, t V stomach pain, (Vahl.)I . &B . haemorrhage Senna occidentalis L. Pa xuxky t V 'strong fever' Senna skinneri (Benth.) Pa xuxky t V 'strong fever' I. & B. Senna spectabilis Poop Tsina'an b V cough (D.C.) I. & B. Tamarindus indicus L. Tamarindo b,f V 'susto, espinillo'

CAPRIFOLIACEAE: Sambucus mexicanus Toxeem b,f w 'susto', cough Presl.

CRASSULACEAE: Kalanchoe calcycinum Ttfds ujts f V headache Salisb.

136 TABLE 1 (continued) Scientific Name Mixe Mode of plant Other Name appli­ parts uses cation used

CUCURBITACEAE: Moraordicacharanti a L. Manzanina b,f,e V head-ache, colds ELAEOCARPACEAE: Muntingia calabra L. Mujty b,f c diarrhoea, 'empacho' FABACEAE: Gliricidium sepium Tsooky b,f V 'fever in the (Jacq.)Steud . stomach' Poiretia punctata Malin ujts b,f V body-pain (Willd.)Desu . LAMINACEAE: Ocimum basilicum L. Xuuiky b,f, 1 a 'susto', ski n infections Ocimum micanthum Willd. PaXuuik y b,f, 1 a 'susto' MALVACEAE: Sida acutaBurin . Poop Tukaatsy b,e V 'susto',tooth ache Sida rhombifolia L. Tsap Tukaatsy b,e V 'susto',tooth ache '

MELIACEAE: Cedrela odorata L. Ajk b,f, e c 'susto' MONIMIACEAE: Siparuna andina (Tul.) AtsjSmtsi' ix y b,f V malaria, Bert. 'susto' MORACEAE: Cecropia optusifolia Jood b,f,t V body-pain, Bert. 'diabetis' PIPERACEAE: Piper äff. aduncum L. Yo'on b,f, 1 V - Piper amalgo L. Yuk Yo'on b,f,l V - Piper auritum H.B.K. Woo b,f V 'susto', skin infections Piper äff. schiedeanum Yuk Woo b,f V 'susto', skin Steud. infections RUTACEAE: Citrus aurantium L. Tsuiky t c - SOLANACEAE: Datura innoxia Mill. Campana pojy f w Dengue, body pain Solanum schlechten- Hoja de f V headache dalium Walp. balsamo. Solanum torvum Sw. Kamatf4#ts b,f V headache

Legend: Mode of application:b-bathes, f-frotations, e-enemas, 1-limpias, t-teas Plant parts used: a-aerial parts,c-bark , v-leaves,w-flower s

137 TABLE 2 PLANTS USED INTH E TREATMENT OF 'MALARIA' (XIIM).

Scientific Name MixeNam e Modeo f plant Other Uses appli­ parts cation used ASTERACEAE. Calea urticifolia Tsaptaam ujts t V stomach-ache (Mill.)D.C . Calea zacatechichi Pooptaam ujts t V - Schlecht. Tithoniadiversitfoli a Notaamtsy t,b V fever, muscle (Hemsl.)Gra y cramps FABACEAE: Acosmium panamense NWtxk t c haemorrhage, (Benth.)Yako v stomach-ache MONIMIACEAE: Siparuna andina (Tul.) Atstfmtsi'ixy f, t V fever A.D.C. SCROPHULARIACEAE: Russelia sarmentosa Anemats t V - Jacq.

Legend: see table I.

Golfo de TEHUANTEPEC

Hap I: Location of the area of study.

138 INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS OF GARHWALHIMALAY A (INDIA) AN ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY

R.D.Gau r andJ.K .Tiwar i Department of Botany,Garhwa l University,Srinaga rGarhwal , U.P.,Indi a

Summary GarhwalHimalay a (India)i s inhabited by severalaborigi ­ nal populations.Th enative s are still dependent formuc h of their therapeutic needs on the plants of their vicinity. The present paper incorporates the results of an extensive ethnobotanical study from the area and has brought in light some little known uses of indigenous plants inmedicine . Keywords: ethnobotany,aboriginals ,ailment ,remedy . Introduction

mdary stateUtta r Pradesh and comprises thedistrict s ofChamoli , Pauri,Tehri ,Uttarkashi ,an d part ofDehradun .Physiogra - phically, it is amountainou s terrain (350m a.s.1.t o 7800m a.s.1. )wit h thevegetatio n ofsubmontane ,montan e and alpine types. The traditional systems of the inhabitants including the uses of plants are changing rapidlywit h the arrivalo f modern civilization,supplemente d by degradation offorests , Though reports on floristics, ethnography and plant resources including themedicin e ingeneral ,ar e available from this area,onl ya fe w attempts have been made onth e ethnomedicinal aspects of plants (Gaur et al., 1983, 1984). The present communication includes thecummulativ e information on theuse s of indigenous plants inmedicine , drawn from different aboriginal groups.A comparison of variousmonographs ,reports ,flora s and important medicinal treatises (Kirtikar& Basu ,1935 ;Anonymous , 1948-1976; Chopra et al., 1956,1969 ;Agarwal , 1986), has.indicated some little known aspects of medicinal plants which are included in the presenttext . Inhabitants The natives in general are called 'Garhwalis' or *Paharis' and speak adialec t akin toth eHindu s of Rajputana (Atkinson, 1882). Ethnically they belong to Indo-Aryan or possiblyIndo-Irania nrac ewhic h migrated fromnorth-wes t ofIndi a and interbredwit h the ancient people already living in these areas (Atkinson,1882 ; Joshi, 1929;Majumdar , 1962). BesidesGarhwalis ,th eare a is inhabited by some other aboriginal groups,whic h have

139 more or less distinct origin.The y include-Bhotias , Marchhas,Tolchhas ,Jads , and sub-populations ofGarhwalis - theJaunsaris ,Kolta s and Gangwals (Atkinson,1882 ; Walton, 1911). The Bhotias,Marchhas ,Tolchha s andJad s are marked with Mongolian features and areTibeto-Burmes e speaking people (Srivastava, 1958). Basic occupation ofth e inhabitants is agriculture and cattlerearin g (Pant,1935 ; Jinha, 1961).

Materials and methods The study involved field work, interviews, study of specimens and comparison from literature.Extensiv e field trips during different seasons of theyea rwer e made in the area since 1982 to 1986.Th e plant specimens were collected and the therapeutic uses and vernaculars of plants were recorded through interviews with the peasants,shepherds , localmedicina l practioners and elderly persons.Th e specimens were identified ât theHerbariu m of -Garhwal University,Srinaga r (GUH), -ForestResearc h Institute, Dehradun (DD),an d -Botanical Survey of India (Northern Circle),Dehradu n (BSD)an d are deposited with collector's number atGUH .

Results and discussion There are common beliefs of the inhabitants regarding various types of ailments,however ,sometime s variations inth eremedia l measures are also observed.I n most ofth e cases the plant partsar e taken as raw or in the formo f juice or decoction forinterna l administration,whil e applied as juice,past e or poultice in external applica­ tions.Usuall y a single plant makes the remedy butus eo f combination of plants is also practised.Onl y such uses of plantswhic h are otherwise less popularhav e been annotated in thefollowin g text,thu s leaving much of thewel l known indigenous plants inmedicine .I n thefollowin g text Bentham andHooker' s system of classification (1862-1883) hasbee n followed in thearrangemen t of families,whil e the genera and specieswithi n the family are treated alpha­ betically.Th e botanical names havebee n followed by family name,vernacular(s) ,GU H number,an d local uses. Aconitum atrox (Brühl)Mukerjee .Ranunculaceae .Bish .5053 . Roots inver y minute quantity aregive n in fever and used to cauterise thesnakebites . Thalictrum javanicumBl .Ranunculaceae .Kirmul . 3707.Roo t powder is given tochildre n in emesisan d diarrhoea. Michelia kisopa Buch.-Ham.e xDC .Magnoliaceae .Garuri , Kanjira.4249 .Bar k decoction isgive n in fever. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.)Miers .Menispermaceae .Gilai . 1663. Stem is minced and put underwate r for 12-15hours , after decanting thewate r thewhit e layer left inth e poti s given in gonorrhoea. Geranium wallichianumD.Do n ex Sw.Geraniaceae .Kaphlya . 2643.Root s are givenwit h mother'smil k to children in diarrhoea, dysentery, spasmodic pain and general fatigue

140 ofbody . Aeqlemarin elo s (L.)Corr .Rutaceae .Bel .4183 .Pul p ofrip e fruit (50gm j mixedwit h flowers ofAnogeissu s latifolia Wall. (50 gm) and fruits ofHelictere s isora L. (10gm ) isgive n in the doses of 5g m inamoebi c dysentery. Picrasma quassj.oides(D.Don ) Benn.Simaroubaceae .Kuth , Koot.4209 .Bar k andwoo d paste isapplie d inherpes - zoster. Rhus parviflora Roxb.Anacardiaceae .Tungla . 1463.Ste m ash isapplie d on theabdome n of children in suppressed urination. Butea monosperma (Lam.)Taub .Papilionaceae .Dhak . 5564. Seedsmixe d with asafoetida are taken as abortifacient. Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.)Rehdr .Rosaceae .Kyans .4548 . Seedsmixe d with tobacco are smoked in asthma. Prunus cerasoides D.Don.Rosaceae .Payian .4717 .Woo d infusion is given towome n supposedly to check abortion. The inner portion ofbar k is cookedwit h jaggery ina n ironvesse l and applied as plaster onfractures . Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don.Rosaceae .Melu .4689 . Fruit is crushedwit h teeth and the juice forced into the eyes of cattle in theearl y stages of cataract. Anogeissus latifolia Wall.Combretaceae .Dhauru . 4694. Root ash is given towome n in puerperal fever. Luffa acutanqula (L.)Roxb .Cucurbitaceae .Godra . 5536. Seed and fruit paste is applied onth e supra-pelvic region ofwome n suppose to cause abortion. Nardostachys grandiflora DC.Valerianaceae .Maasi .4823 . Root powder is given internally aswel l as given as incense in hysteria. Artemisia gmelinii Web.e x Stechm.Asteraceae .Chhamri . 4883.Root s are chewed in fever,diarrhoe a and dysentery. Cirsiumverutu m (D.Don)Spreng .Asteraceae .Kandar .2648 . Root mixed with the plant juice ofHydrocoty l asiatica L. and stem juice ofTinospor a cordifolia (Wjlld.)Miers . isgive n in typhoid. Saussurea obvallata (DC.)Edgew .Asteraceae .Brahmkaunl . 2786.Flowe r headsar ewarme d inmustar d oil and the mild hot preparation applied in rheumatic arthritis. Cuscuta reflexa L.Convolvulaceae .Akashbel .4229 .Plan t mixed with the twigs ofVitex negundoL . iswarme d and applied as fomentation on the abdomen of children in kwashiorkor. Caryopteris odorata (D.Don) B.L.Robinson .Verbenaceae . Karwi. 1575.Lea f juice is applied onworm-infeste d sores of cattle. Origanum vulgare L.Lamiaceae .Jogpua .4591 .Plant juice isgive n to children in fever and kwashiorkor. Achyranthes aspera L.Amaranthaceae .Sajji .3150 .Roo t juice is given towome n as oxytocic,an d to children infever . Chenopodium album L.Chenopodiaceae .Bathhu . 4622.See d decoction is given towome n to expel the dead foetus. Fagopyrum tataricum (L.)Gaertn .Polygonaceae .Oagal .4595 . Leaf paste is applied in herpes-zoster. Euphorbia royleana Boiss.Euphorbiaceae .Sullu . 5542. Stem is used as cautery in cataract ofcattle .

141 Sapium insigne (Royle)Benth .Euphorbiaceae .Khinna .1641 . Latex is applied inalopacia-areata ;prio r to its application the area is scratched with dry cow-dung. Boehmeria ruqulosaWedd .Urticaceae .Genthi .5713 .Plaste r ofbar k is applied onfracture s and paste applied oncuts . Pinus roxburqhii Sarg.Pinaceae .Kulain .4472 .Decoctio n of saw-dust is given inrena l calculi.Plaste r of resin is applied on fractures in cattle. Taxus baccata L.Taxaceae .Thuner .15041 .Decoctio n of wood is given in asthma and bark tea in generalcolds . Acknowledgements The financial assistance from Department ofEnvironment , Govt,o f India,Ne wDelhi ,i s gratefully acknowledged. References Agarwal,V.S. ,1986 .Economi c plants ofIndia .Bishe n SinghMahendr a PalSingh ,Dehradun . Anonymous, 1948-1976.Th e wealth ofIndia -a dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial products.Ra w materials.Counci l ofScientifi c andIndustria l Research, NewDelhi . Atkinson,E.T.,1882 .Th eHimalaya n gazetteer.North ­ western Provinces andOud h Press,Allahabad . Bentham,G #&J.D . Hooker, 1862-1883,Gener a plantarum and exemplaria impirimis in herberiisKewensi s servata définita. -London . Chopra,R.N. , S.L. Nayar& I.C.Chopra ,1956 .Glossar y of Indian medicinal plants.Counci l ofScientifi c and IndustrialRe-search ,Ne wDelhi . Chopra,R.N. , I.C. Chopra &V.S .Verma , 1969. Supplement toglossar y of Indianmedicina l plants.Counci l of Scientific and IndustrialResearch ,Ne wDelhi . Gaur,R.D. ,J.K .Semwa l &J.K . Tiwari,1983 . A survey of high altitude medicinal plants ofGarhwa lHimalaya . Bull.Medico-ethnobotanical .Res . 4(3&4): 102-116. Gaur,R.D. , J.K. Tiwari &K.S .Negi ,1984 .Plant s used for magico-religious practices by tribals of Garhwal Himalayas.Proc .2n d annualworksho p onMA B projects. Department ofEnvironment ,Ne w Delhi,p p88-95 . Jinha,P.S. , 1961.Agricultur e in thehil l regions of India.Minister y ofFoo d andAgriculture ,Ne wDelhi . Joshi,L.D. , 1929.Th eKhas a family lawi n the Himalayan districts of theUnite d Provinces ofIndia .Govt .Press , Allahabad. Kirtikar,K.R . & B.D.Basu , 1935.India n medicinal plants.II ed.(Rep. 1975). BishenSing h Mahendra Pal Singh,Dehradun . Majumdar,D.N. , 1962.Himalaya n polyandry.Asi a Publishing House,NewYork . Pant,S.D. , 1935.Socia l economy of theHimalayans .Georg e Allen andUrwin ,London . Srivastava,R.P. , 1958.Th e Bhotia nomads and their Indo-Tibetan trade.J . Univ.Saga r 7: 1-22. Walton,H.G. , 1911.Dehradu n :a gazetteer .Govt .Press , Allahabad.

142 INDEXO FCHEMICA LCOMPOUND S

abortifacientprotein s 112 cardamomin 18 abric acid 41 cardenolides 42 abrin 41 cardioactiveglycoside s 43,101 , 128 acetoxychavicol acetate 26,2 7 cardiotoxin 42 acetoxyeugenol acetate 27 carpaine 74 acetyl 20 carvone 18 acetyleugenol 20 caryophyllene 107 agarospirol 19 casticin 74 ajmalicine 21 cathartic acid 20 akummidine 22 cerberin 28 alkaloids 41,70 ,97 ,99 ,101 , 129, changrolin 28 allamandin 26 chaulmoogric acid 28 alpinetin 18 chavibetol 19 alstonine 22,7 4 chavicol 19 andrographolide 27,2 9 chebulagic acid 20 anethol 19,104 , 107 chebulinic acid 20 / antiepilepsirine 28, 29 chloroquine 70, 71, 74 apocynin 20 cinazeylanol 18 arabinose 20 cincassiol 18 arecaidiac 19 cinchophyllines 75 arecatannins 19 cinnamic acid 19 arecoline 19 cinnamtan ni n 8 artemisinine 71,7 4 1-8-cinole 107 ascorbic acid 20 citral 19 asperuloside 26 colchicine 42 azedarachtin 42 connessine 74 cucurbitacins 42 baogongtengA 28 curcumin 27 barbaloin 19 curcumol 26 bassorin 20 curdione 26 belladonna alkaloids 42 curine 21, 28 benzoaldehyle 22 curine-dimethiodide 28 benzoic acid 19 cyanogenic glycosides 97, 99, 101 bornyl acetate 18 p-cymene 107 borrerine 74 brazili n 19 daijison 28 bruceantarin 20 dalbergin 18 bruceantin 20,26 ,27 ,73 ,7 6 daphnoretin 26 bruceantinol 26,27 , 73 deacetyllasperuloside 26 bruceines 18,27 ,72 ,73 ,74 , 76 dendrobine bruceolide 26,7 6 deoxyandrographolide 27 brusatol 27 dichroine 27 bufadienolides 41 digoxin 128 busulfan 26 dihydrocadambine 27 dihydrogedunin 74 caffeine 10,10 2 dihydroxy-4-methoxyl 22 camphene 107 4', 5-dihydroxy-6, 7-dioxomethylene- camphor 18,2 2 flavone-3-0-b-D-glucoside 29

143 diloxanide furoate 71 limonoids 74 dimethyl-1-curine dimethochloride2 8 linalool 19, 22 diosgenin 28 lineole 18 dipotassiummagnesiu m dioxalate linolic acid 20 dihydrate 27 lugenol dérivâtes 42 diterpene esters 43 dopamine 75 manihotoxine 42 dracorhodin 20 maytanbutine 22 dracorubin 19 maytanprine 22 maytansine 22, 26 b-elemene 26 mefloquine 72 eleutherin 27 melacacidin 18 eleutherol 27 methylanthraquinone 41 embellin 22 3-(3-methylbuta-l, 3-dien) indole3 1 emetine 70,71 ,74 ,75 , 76 methylchavicol 107 eucalyptol 18 1-methyl curine 28 eugenin 20 methyleugenol 104, 107 eugenitin 20 methylhelicterat e 29 eugenol 20,104 , 107 methylhelicterilat e 29 methylsalicylate 42 februfugine 27, 28 metronidazole 71, 76 fluoroacetate 42 mezerin 42 molephantin 26 garlic acid 18 molephatinin 26 gedunin 74 momorchari n 31, 115 genipin 12 momorcochin 31 geraniol 18 muavin 42 germacranolide 26 mustardoi lglycoside s 99 ginsenoside 19 glycoside 128, 129, 130 neandrographolide 27 neriifolin 28 hangeonin 27 nerolidol 22 hayatine 21, 28 nicotine 42 helicterilic acid 29 nimbinin 74 hepatotoxic alkaloids 112 nimbolide 74 histamine-like 42 nitidinechlorid e 26 homoaromolin e 28 nobilonine 19 hydnocarpic acid 18 nootkatol 28 hydrocyanic acid 42 nordalbergin 18 8-hydroxyquinolines 71 oil 42 hypoglyci n 112 oldenlandoside 26 3H-hypoxanthine 72 oxalates 42 indirubin 26,29 paederoside 26 indomethacin 28 palmatic acid 20 ingenane diterpenes 114 palmatine2 7 d-isochondodendrine 28 paromomy ci n 71 isodalbergin 18 perforatie acid 26 isoeleutherin 27 peruvoside 28 isoflavones 107 phantomolin 26 phorbol esters 42 kopsinine 21 phytoestrogens 97 picroside 20 lantadenes 112, 115 pilocarpine 28 lectins 42,97 , 99 a-pinene 107 lemmatoxin 42 b-pinene 107 limonene 19 pipenin 19

144 piperine 19,2 8 yadanzioside I 73 piperitone 19 yakuchinoneA 28 piplartine 19 yingzhaosu 27 polyphenols 99 yuehchukene 31 polysaccharide 29 primaquine 70 zincopolyanemine 27 procyanidin 18 pyrimethamine 70

qingdainone 26 quassinoids 26,27 ,72 ,73 ,7 4 quercerin 74 quinidine 28, 75 quinine 10, 71, 72, 75 quininehydrochlorid e 27 quisqualic acid 18, 24

reserpine 21,2 8 rhynchophylline 27

safrole 22 santalen 18 santalol 18 saponins 97, 99 secologanin 75 sennoside 20 sesamin 19 sitoindoside 112 solanines (phytosteroid) 42 spegatrine 28 1-stepholidine 28 Strophantin 28 strychnine 10, 18, 43 sulphur oil 41 taccanoside 22 ta spine 99 taspine hydrochloride 99 tenacigenin 22 terpenyl acetate 104, 107 terpineol 104, 107 tetradrine 28 tetrahydroharman 74 toxic lectins 42 trichosanthin 29, 32 triterpenoids 72 tropane 99 tryptamine 74, 75 tryptanthrin 26 a-tùbocurarine 28 vein 42 verticillatin e 28 vincaleukoblastine 110 volatile acrid substances 43 volatile oils 99

145 INDEXO FSCIENTIFI CNAME S

Abrusprecatoriu s 25,4 1 villosum 18 Abutilonangulatu m 116,11 8 var.xanthoide s 18,2 5 fruticosum 54 Ampelocissusafrican a 65 Acaciaamythethophyll a 39 Anacardiumoccidental e 25 brevispica 60 Andira 97 catechu 18,2 5 Andrographispaniculat a 27 karroo 39 Annonamuricat a 112,11 4 nilotica 74 purpurea 136 polyacantha 53 reticulata 136 Acalypha 99 squamosa 25 Acalyphaaustrali a 25 stenophylla 38,4 1 ornata 65 Annonaceae 27,2 9 racemosa 51 Anogeissuslatifoli a 141 villicaulis 51 Anselliaafrican a 38 Acanthaceae 29 Aphiscraccivor a 126 Achilleaageratu m 107 Apocynaceae 28,29 ,10 1 Acyranthesasper a 141 Aquifoliaceae 102 indica 111 Aquilariaagallocho a 25 Aconitumatro x 140 sinensis 19 Acosmiximpanamens e .138 Arecacatech u 19,25 ,10 6 Adenantherapavonin a 25 Arengapinnat a 25 Aeglemarmelo s 141 Argemonemexican a 87 Afzeliaxylocarp a 25 Aristolochia 71 Ageratumconyzoide s 50, 51 Aristolochiaheppi i 39 Ailanthusaltissim a 72, 74 petersiana 40 Ajugaremot a 60 Arrabidaea 100 Albiziaantunesian a 38 Arrabidaeachic a 100 gummifera 60 Artabotryshexapetalu s 27 julibrissin 29 uncinatus 27 Albucameller i 40 Artemisiaafr a 39 Alepideaamatymbic a 39, 40 annua 71,72 ,7 4 Alamandacathartic a 26 capillaris 107 Alliumsativu m 81 gmelinii 141 Allophyllusabyssinicu s 68 vulgaris 72 Alocasiamacrorrhiz a 25, 29 Arthraxonhispidu s 24 Aloe 37,38 ,4 1 Artocarpusaltili s 99 Aloever a 19,25 ,109 ,11 4 heterophyllus 25 var.chinensi s 19 Asclepiascurasavic a 109,112 ,11 4 Alpiniagalang a 25,26 ,2 7 Asclepiadaceae 29 katsumadai 18 Asparagus 81 officinarum 25 Aspidosperma 101 oxyphylla 25,2 7 Aspiliamossambicensi s 50,6 6 Alstoniascholari s 22,7 4 pluriseta 40,50 ,5 9 Amanoa 99 Averrhoacarambol a 25 Amaryllidaceae 71 Azadirachtaindic a 74 Amomumaurantiacu m 22 kravanh 19,2 5 Baphiacanthuscusi a 25,2 6 tsaoko 18 Bauhinia 97

146 Benincasahispid a 24,12 4 Centallaasiatic a 24,80 ,14 1 Bersamaabyssinic a 85 Centrolobium 97 Bertiera 98 Cephaelisipecacuanh a 74,7 5 Bignoniaceae 100 Cerberamangha s 28 Bixaorellan a 119 Ceropegiaobtusifoli a 137 Blighiasapid a 112 peltata 111 Blumeaalat a 39 Cerophlastodescajan i 126 balsamifera 25 Cestrum 98 Boehmeriarugulos a 142 Chamaecristahispidul a 136 Bombaxmalabaricu m 25 Chamaesyce 99 Boophanedistich a 41 Chamaesycehirt a 99 Borreria 98 thymifolia 99 Borreriaverticillat a 74 Chenopodiumalbu m 67,14 1 Bowieavolubili s 41 ambrosioides 39,40 ,41 ,8 0 Brackenridgeazanguebaric a 54 opulifolium 67 Bruceaantidysenteric a 74,8 6 pumilio 67 javanica 20,25 ,26 ,72 ,73 ,7 6 Chrysanthemumvulgar e 107 Brugmansia 98 Cibotiumbaromet z 24 Brunfelsia 98 Chinchona 71,75 ,8 1 Burserasimarub a 136 Chinchonaledgerian a 75 Buteamonosperm a 141 succirubra 25 Cinnamomumcassi a 18,2 4 Cadabafarinos a 49 glanduliferum 22 / Caesalpiniasappa n 19,2 5 Cirsiumverutu m 141 Caleaurticifoli a 138 Cissampelosmucronat a 38,39 ,4 0 zacatechichi 138 pareira 21,54 ,7 1 Callichlamys 100 Cissusquadrangulari s 57 Calotropisprocer a 64 Citrusaurantifoli a 110 Canariumalbu m 25 aurantium 137 Canavalliaensiformi s 124 maxima 24 gladiata 124 reticulata 24 Capirona 98 Clausenalansiu m 25 Cappariscartilagine a 49 Clauseneae 31 tomentosa 41 Clematishirsut a 82 Caprariabiflor a 111 simensis 81,8 2 Capsicum 98 Clematopsisscabiosifoli a 40,4 1 Capsicumannuu m 109 Clerodendrummyricoide s 39 frutescens 25 Clitoriaternate a 119 Cardiogyneafrican a 117,11 8 Cocciniaindic a 124 Cardiospermumgrandifloru m 68 Cocosnucifer a 25 halicacabum 62 Coixlacryma-job i 24 Caricapapay a 25,7 4 Coleusscutellarioide s 119 Caryopterisodorat a 141 Colubrinaarborescen s 111 Cassia 97 Combretumapiculatu m 64 Cassiaabbreviat a 37,39 ,4 1 molle 39,49 ,6 4 acutifolia 20 platypetalum 42 angustifolia 20 Commiphoraafrican a 49 didymobotrya 67 Condylocarpon 96 fistula 25,13 6 Coniummaculatu m 85 sennae 136 Cooperiapedunculat a 71 singueana 53 Cordiacurasavic a 136 Cassinematabelic a 38 ovalis 64 Castelanichelsoni i 74 Cornusflorid a 71 tortuosa 71 Costusspeciosu s 28 Catharanthusroseu s 10,81 ,110 , Coussarea 98 115,12 0 Crabbeavelutin a 59 Cedrelaodorat a 137 Crassocephalumcrepidioide s 50

147 mannii 59 Dicomaanomal a 38,39 ,4 0 Crescentia 100 Dieffenbachiaseguin e 113 Crotalaria 81 Digitalis 9 Crotalariafulv a 112 Digitalislanat a 128 retusa 112 Dimocarpuslonga n 24 Croton 71,9 9 Dimorphandra 97 Crotondichogamu s 116,11 8 Dioscorea 40,41 ,42 ,8 1 lechleri 99 Diplacrum 101 raacrostachyus51 ,59 ,8 1 Diploida 126 megalobotrys 42 Dipteryx 97 tiglium 24 Dissotissenegambiensi s 67 Cucumis 42 Dolichoskilimandscharicu s 38 Cucumismel o 24 lablab 25,12 4 Cucurbitaceae 29 Dracaenacambodian a 19 Curcuma 29 Dracontomelondupereanu m 25 Curcumaaromatic a 25,26 ,2 7 Dryobalanopsaromatic a 25 domestica 74 longa 25,2 7 Ehretiacymos a 49 wenyujin 27 Ekebergiarueppellian a 60 zedoaria 25,2 6 Elephantopusmolli s 26 Cuscutareflex a 141 scaber 25 Cuspidaria 100 tomentosus 26 Cyathulacylindric a 64 Elephantorhizagoetze i 39 Cycasrevolut a 25 Eleusineindic a 25 Cycleabarbat a 28 Eleutherineamerican a 27 hainanensis 28 Embeliaoblongifoli a 22 Cymbopogon 101 ribes 22 Cymbopogoncitratu s 111 schimperi 85 Cynodon 117,11 8 Entamoebahistolytic a 70,71 ,74 , Cyperaceae 101 75,7 6 Cyperus 101,10 2 Epaltesmexican a 136 Cyperusarticulatu s 101 Epidermophyton 24 laxus 101 Eryngiumfoetidu m 72,109 ,111 ,11 2 luzulae 101 Erythrina 97 odoratus 101 Erythrinaabyssinic a 54,6 0 prolixus 101 Erythrocephalumafricanu m 42 Cyphomandra 98 Eucleadivinoru m 39 Cyphostemmacyphopetalu m 62 Eugeniaaromatic a 20 junceum 40 caryophylla 20 Euphorbia 42 Daemoneropsdrac o 25 Euphorbiaebracteolat a 29 Dalbergia 97 grantii 52 Dalbergiamelanoxylo n 53 hirta 52,74 ,11 3 odorifera 18,2 5 inaequilatera 52 Dalbergiella 42 ingens 38 Datiscaglomerulat a 72 royleana 141 Daturainnoxi a 129,13 7 tirucalli 74 stramonium 38,42 ,68 ,8 5 Euphorbiaceae 99 Dendrobiummoniliform e 19 Eupterotemullifer a 126 nobile 19 Derris 97 Fabaceae 97 Diaxenopsisapomecynoide a 126 Fagopyrumtataricu m 141 Dicerocaryumzanguebaricu m 40 Faramea 98 Dichroafebrifug a 24,7 1 Faureasalign a 61 Dichapetalumcymosu m 42 Ferulacommuni s 82 Dichrostachys cinerea Fibraurearecis a 27 (=D .glomerata ) 41,5 3 Ficusvast a 81

148 Galinsogaparviflor a 50 Jacarandacopai a 100 Garciniamangostan a 25 glabra 100 morella 25 Jasminumsamba c 25,12 0 Genipa 98 Jatropha 99 Gentiana 72 Jatrophacurca s 52 Geophila 98 nogalensis 52 Geraniumwallichianu m 140 Josephiniaafrican a 55 Gitonia 126 Justiciastriat a 48 Gliricidiasepiu m 137 Gloriosasuperb a 42 Kaempferiagalang a 25 Gnidiainvolucrat a 81 Kalanchoecalycinu m 136 kraussiana 38,39 ,4 2 densiflora 51 Gomphocarpusfruticosu s 81 Kigeliaafrican a 48 Gomphrenaglobos a 29 Kopsiaofficinali s 21 Gossypiumherbaceu m 116,117 ,11 E var.africanu m 116,117 ,11 8 Lacmellea 101 Grewiaflavescen s 40 Lagenariasicerari a 24 occidentalis 56 Lanneaeduli s 39 Gutenbergiafischer i 50 Lantanacamar a 25,110 ,112 ,115 , GynuraValerian a 50 119 Laporteaaestuan s 113 Habernaria 81 Leonotisnepetifoli a 111 Hamelia 98 Leucaenaleucocephal a 5,4 Haplosciadium abyssinicum 81 Lippia 81 Harrisohiaperforat a 26 Lippiajavanic a 39,5 7 Hedyotiscorymbos a 26 Litchichinensi s 25 Heinsiacrinat a 55 Litseacubeb a 19 Helicteresangustifoli a 29 Lonchocarpus 97 Heliothesarmiger a 126 Luffaacutangul a 25,14 1 Hemidiodia 98 cylindrica,_ 2 5 Heteromorphatrifoliat a 40 Luisiamorse i 25 Hevea 99 Lycianthes 98 Hibiscussurattensi s 117,11 8 Himatanthus 101 Macfadyena 100 Hippomanemancinell a 113 Macfadyenauncat a 100 Holarrhenafloribund a 74 Machaerium 97 Homalonemaoccult a 19,2 5 Maeruasubdecandr a 81 Hoslundiaopposit a 53 triphylla9 9 Hydnocarpusanthelmintic a 25 Maesalanceolat a 60 hainanensis 18 Magnolia aulacosperma 89 merrilliana 18 biondii 88,89 , 92 Hymenaea 97 f.biondi i 89 Hymenocalliscaribe a 71 f.flavescen s 88,8 9 Hymenocardiaacid a 52 f.purpuraseen s 88,8 9 Hypolytrum 101 coco 29 conspicua 89 Ilexguayus a 102 var. fargesii Illiciumveru m 19 denudata 89 Impatiensbalsamin a 136 elliptilimba 88,89 , 91 Imperatacylindric a 24 fargesii 89 Indigoferaarrect a 38 zenzii 89 Inga 97 Manettia 98 Ipomoeaaquatic a 25 Mangiferaindic a 25,13 6 Isertia 98 Manihotesculent a 42,11 9 Ixorachinensi s 25 Manilkarasulcat a 62 Mansoa 100 Jacaranda 100 Mansoaalliace a 100

149 standleyi 100 Ocimumbasilicu m 137 Margaritaria 99 kilimandscharicum 107 Markea 98 micranthum 137 Markhamia obtusifolia 117,11 8 Ocotea usambarensis 53 Marsdenia tenacissima 22 Oenanthepalustri s 81 Martinella 100 Oldenlandia diffusa 26 Martinella obovata 100 Olea africana 61 Maytenus 26 hochstetteri 55 Maytenushooker i 22 Opuntia dillenii 25 senegalensis 38,3 9 Origanum vulgare 141 Melastoma dodecandrum 25 Oroxylum indicum 25 Meiiaazedarao h 41,4 2 Oxaliscornlculat a 68 Meliaceae 74 Ozoroa insignis 38,3 9 Memora 100 subsp.reticulat a 38 Memora cladotricha 100 Menispermaceae 28, 29 Palicourea 98 Merrillia caloxylon 31,3 2 Panax notogin-seng 19 Metanastia hyrtaca 126 Pandanus tectorius 25 Metroxylon sagu 25 Paragonia 100 Micheliahedyosperm a 22 Parinari campestrls 111 kisopa 140 Parkia 97 Mirabilis jalapa 25 Partheniumhysteropheru s 136 Moghania philippinensis 25 Pastinaca sativa 107 Momordica 32 Pavonia 98 Momordica charantia 25,31 , 112, Peddiea africana 42 124, 137 Pedilanthus 99 cochinchinensis 25,3 1 Pelthophorum africanum 38 Monadenium lugardiae 42 Peperomia pellucida 109,11 1 Mondia whitei 37 ,38 ,3 9 Pergularia daemia 59 Moringa concanensis 124 Periploca linearifolia 48 longifolia 124 Phoenix dactylifera 25 oleifolia 124 Phyllanthus 99 pterygosperma 124 Phyllanthsemblic a 25,4 0 Murraya 11 niruri 74,9 9 Murraya paniculata 30 urinaria 25 section Bergera 31 Physalis 98 section Murraya 31 Phytolacca dodecandra 42 Musa paradisiaca 112,11 4 Picrasma excelsa 74 sapientum 25 quassioides 141 Mussatia 100 Picrorhiza kurroa 20 Mutingia calabra 137 Pimenta dioica 109 Myrica salicifolia 60 Pinus roxburghii 142 Myristica fragrans 25,10 9 Piper aff.aduncu m 137 Myrocarpus 97 amalgo 137 Myrothamnus flabellifolius 38 auritum 137 MyroKylonpereira e 25 betle )19,25 ,10 4 cubeba 25 Nardostachysgrandiflor a 141 longum 19,2 5 Nephelium lappaceum 25 nigrum 19,25 ,2 8 Nerium oleander 42 aff. schiedeanum 137 Neurolaena lobata 111,11 4 Pithecellobium 97 Nicotiana 98 Plasmodia 27 Nicotiana glauca 42 Plasmodium berghei 74 plumbaginifolia 130 cathemerium 71 Notonia 50 falciparum 70,72 ,73 ,7 6 gallinaceuiH 71 Ochna mossambicensis 54 lophurae 71

150 malariae 70 Saussurea obvallata 141 ovale 70 Scaphium lychnophorum 20 vivax 70 wallichii 25 Plectranthus sylvestris 53 Schkuhria pinnata 41 Pluchea symphytifolia 11 Schultesia lisianthoides 72 Plumeria rubra cv. acutifolia 25 Scleria 101 Podocarpus falcatus 61 Securidaca longipedunculata 39,40 , Pogostemon cablin 25 42, 55 Poiretia punctata 137 Senecio 11 Polyalthia nemoralis 27 Senecio gigas 81 Polygala erioptera 61 lyratipartitus 50 Polygonum salicifolium 61 Senefeldera 99 Pratia nummularia 25 Senna occidentalis 136 Prestonia 101 skinneri 136 Prlsmatomeris 29 spectabilis 136 Prismatomeris tetrandra 28 Sesamum indicum 24 Prunus cerasoides 141 Sida acuta 117, 118, 137 Psidium guajava 25,11 9 ovata 54 Psilotrichum scleranthum 59 rhombifolia 137 Psychotria 98 Simaba cedron 71,7 2 Pterocarpus indicus 25 Simarouba amara 70 Pyruspashi a 141 glauca 74 Simaroubaceae 29,71 ,7 4 Quassia amara 74,11 9 Siparuna andina 135, 137, 138 Quisqualis indica 18,25 ,2 6 Solanaceae 98 Solanum 42,9 8 Ranunculus multifidus 81 Solanum incanum 56,62 ,6 8 Rauvolfia serpentine 81 melongena 124 verticillata 28 nigrum 56 yunnanensis 21 schlechtendalianum 137 Remijia peruviana 72 torvum 137 Rhamphicarpa herzfeldiana 55 Sorbaria tomentosa 141 Rhodomyrtus tomentosa 25 Spathodea campanulata 59 Rhoiocissus revoilii 57 Spatholobus suberectus 25 tridentata 57 Spermacoce princeae 61 Rhusparviflor a 141 Sphaeranthus kirkii 59 Richeria grandis 111 Spirostachys africana 43 Ricinus communis 25,38 ,40 ,41 , Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 111 42, 99, 120 Stapelia semota 48 Rostelluria procumbens 24 Steganotaenia araliacea 38,4 1 Roupala montana 111 Stelmatocrypton khasianum 22 Rubiaceae 29,9 8 Sterculia scaphigera 25 Rumex abyssynica 55 Stereospermum kunthianum 48 Russelia sarmentosa 138 Strophanthus divaricatus 28 Rutaceae 29,7 4 Strychnos cocculoides 38, 43 ignatii 25 Sabicea 98 nux-vomica 18,2 5 Saccharum sinense 29 wallichiana 18 Sagotia 99 Styrax benzoin 25 Salvadora persica 55 tonkensis 19 Salvia officinalis 110 Swartzia 97 Sambucus mexicanus 136 Swartzia madagascariensis 41 Santalumalbu m 18,2 5 Synadenium grantii 52 Sapindus mukorossi 25 Syzygium aromaticum 25 Sapium insigne 142 Saponaria 10 Tabernaemontana 101 Satureja abyssinica 53

151 Tabernaemontana holstii Vinca rosea (=Catharanthus (=T.pachysiphon ) 48 roseus) 115 Tabernaemontana usambarensis Vitex negundo 141 (=T.ventricosa ) 48 trifoliata 24 Tacca chantieri 22 Tagetes erecta 136 Warburgia salutaris 38,4 0 fi li fo li a 136 ugandensis 86 Tamarindus indica 25,13 6 Warscewiczia 98 Taxusbaccat a 142 Wikstroemia indica 26 Tecoma stans 136 Withania somnifera 56,62 ,8 1 Tephrosia 97 Terminaliabeleric a 20,2 5 Xanthium abyssinicum 85 chebula 20,2 5 Xylomalos monospora 54 sericea 38,3 9 Tetragonia siva 126 Zanha africana 40 Thalictrum javanicum 140 Zantedeschia albomaculata 43 Thevetia peruviana 28 Zantoxylum nitidum 24, 26 Thymus vulgaris 107 Zehneria indica 25 Tilia europea 110 Zemin caffra 40 Tinospora cordifolia 140, 141 Zingiber fragrans 109 Tithonia diversifolia 136, 138 Zingiberaceae 29 Toddalia asiatica 25 Tragia volubilis 113 Tric hi li a 43 Trichilia emetica 38 Trichodesma ambacense 41 physaloides 38, 39 zeylanicum 49 Trichophyton 26 Trichosanthes cucumerina 124 dioica 124 kirilowii 31 Triumfetta rhomboidea 56 welwitschii 38 Tulbaghia leucantha 40 Tynanthus 100 Tynanthuspolyanthu s 100

Uncaria 29,9 8 Uncariagambi r 25 rhynchophylla 25,2 7 sinensis 27 Orena lobata 111 Urginea altissima 40 sanguinea 43

Veratrum 11 Verbascum sinaiticum 81 Vernonia aemuleins 51 amygdalina 38,40 ,8 1 karaguensis 51 lasiopus 51 wakefieldii 51 Vigna radiata 25 umbellata 24 unguiculata 39

152