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Title: The Perceptions of Native English Speakers Regarding Thai Nicknames Based on English Loanwords Author: Mr. Justin Akiyo Yoshida Degree: Master of Arts in English Language Studies Rajabhat Maha Sarakham University Advisors: Assistant Professor Dr. Sooksil Prasongsook Assistant Professor Dr. Mayureesirin Siriwan Year: 2019

ABSTRACT The objectives of this research were 1) to identify Thai nicknames that are loanwords from the English language within a sample group and 2) determine the reasons they were chosen. Another objective 3) was to determine how native English speakers perceive Thai nicknames. It was necessary to identify Thai nicknames that were loanwords from the English language, as well as determine if/ why English loanwords were purposefully chosen as nicknames. The methods for data collection were surveys of 155 parents and teachers of children with foreign nicknames and semi-structured interviews of 29 of that group. Determining how these nicknames were perceived by native English speakers was achieved by analyzing previous studies of nicknames and loanwords used by Thai speakers of English during conversation in English. Then, 100 native English speakers were surveyed and interviewed about what they thought of nicknames on the list collected in the first survey. The method of data analysis was content analysis and statistics were expressed in simple percentages. The results from the survey of parents at the chosen school showed that approximately one in six students had a nickname that may have originated from English. The main reasons nicknames were chosen were for (perceived) good meaning and how they sound. However, the results showed that many nicknames and meanings perceived to be NES ( Native English Speaker’ s) English by Thais are actually not, resulting in names that may sound strange or carry a negative meaning.

Keywords: Thai Nicknames, Loanwords, NES English

Major Advisor ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my thesis advisors, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sooksil Prasongsook and

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mayureesirin Siriwan, for supporting me throughout my studies at the

English Language Studies program at Rajabhat Maha Sarakham University. I also deeply

thank the other members of the thesis review committee, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Narongrit Sopa

and Dr. Thanaporn Pantawee for their invaluable comments and recommendations on my

thesis. In addition, Asst. Prof. Dr. Ladawan Wattanaboot and Dr. Nitaya Klangchanee

provided me unwavering support throughout my course of studies. Without the

constructive comments and feedback of all of the above-named parties, it would have

been impossible for me to complete this thesis to the standards of the university. I would also like to thank my friend and coworker, Chutipa Kongsombut, and esteemed boss, Dr. Wichaya Yoshida, as well as assorted friends and colleagues for spending many hours checking lists of nicknames and answering endless questions about Thai customs and culture.

Special thanks goes to Ajarn Chris Wright (AKA Chris Delivery) of television and English education fame for granting me a long interview on one special area of his expertise – unusual Thai names, which were too numerous (and concerned proper names rather than nicknames) to include in this thesis, but will be included in my future work. I would like to express my very sincere gratitude to the parents, teachers, and students of the schools around the northeastern region of Thailand who were kind enough to participate in my surveys, in particular those at Mahasarakham University Demonstration School. I would also like to thank the foreign participants of the second online survey, who provided invaluable information about their insights and perceptions of Thai nicknames and culture. Finally yet importantly, I would like to thank Rajabhat Maha Sarakham University, the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, and the Faculty of Graduate studies for supporting me with a grant for my studies and providing me an opportunity to learn and develop my skills.

It was only with all of the above-mentioned support and many other individuals and organizations who were not mentioned that I was able to complete this dissertation.

Thank you all!

Justin A. Yoshida

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Content ...... Page

ABSTRACT ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iiv LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... x CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...... 1 1.1 Introduction and Purposes of the Chapter ...... 1 1.2 Purposes of the Study ...... 3 1.3 Research Questions ...... 3 1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 3 1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...... 4 1.6 Definition of Key Terms ...... 4 1.7 Expected Outcomes ...... 5 1.8 Summary ...... 5 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 6 2.1 Language Change ...... 7 2.2 Loanwords in the Thai Language ...... 13 2.3 Thai Nicknames ...... 16 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 23 3.1 Research Methodology ...... 23 3.1.1 Exploratory Research ...... 23 3.1.2 Descriptive research ...... 24 3.1.3 Context ...... 24 3.2 Research Participants ...... 24 3.3 Research Procedures ...... 25 3.3.1 Sampling Method ...... 25 3.3.2 Sample Size ...... 25

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Content ...... Page

3.4 Research Instruments ...... 26 3.5 Research Period ...... 27 3.6 Secondary Data ...... 27 3.7 Summary ...... 28 CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ...... 29 4.1 Findings and Analysis of RQ1 ...... 29 4.1.1 Top Thai Nicknames that may be English Loanwords ...... 30 4.1.2 Reasons for English-Origin Nicknames in Thailand .... 32 4.2 Findings and Analysis of RQ2 ...... 41 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 73 5.1 Discussion ...... 73 5.2 Conclusions ...... 76 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 77 APPENDICES ...... 83 Appendix A Indexes of Item-Objective Congruence (IOC) Summary Form ...... 84 Appendix B IOC Approval Letter ...... 87 Appendix C Survey Request to MSU Sathit School ...... 89 Appendix D Thai Nicknames Survey for Parents (Paper Version) ...... 91 Appendix E Thai Nicknames Survey for Teachers (Paper Version) ...... 94 Appendix F Thai Nicknames Survey for Native English Speakers ...... 97 Appendix G Detailed Results - Thai Nicknames Survey for Parents ...... 106 Appendix H Detailed Results - Thai Nicknames Survey for Teachers ...... 119 BIOGRAPHY ...... 131

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LIST OF TABLES Table ...... Page

3.1 Top Names in Thai...... 28

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure ...... Page

3.1 Basic Research Plan ...... 25 3.2 Sample Size Formula ...... 25 4.1 Top 19 English Nicknames at MSU Demonstration School ...... 30 4.2 Top 17 English Nicknames at Northeastern Thai Schools ...... 31 4.3 Reasons for Surveyed Nicknames ...... 32 4.4 Respondents' English Dialect ...... 42 4.5 Respondents' Experience with Thai People/Culture ...... 43 4.6 Respondents' Knowledge of Thai Nicknaming Conventions ...... 44 4.7 Nickname: "Ball" ...... 45 4.8 Nickname: "Soft" ...... 46 4.9 Nickname: "Oil" ...... 46 4.10 Nickname: "Pea" ...... 47 4.11 Nickname: "Boy" ...... 48 4.12 Nickname: "Smart" ...... 49 4.13 Nickname: "Helicopter" ...... 49 4.14 Nickname: "Dream" ...... 50 4.15 Nickname: "Design" ...... 51 4.16 Nickname: "Save" ...... 52 4.17 Nickname: "Bank" ...... 52 4.18 Nickname: "Big" ...... 53 4.19 Nickname: "Guitar" ...... 54 4.20 Nickname: "Tourist" ...... 55 4.21 Nickname: "Cream" ...... 55 4.22 Nickname: "TrueMove" ...... 56 4.23 Nickname: "Cat" ...... 57 4.24 Nickname: "iPhone" ...... 58 4.25 Nickname: "Focus" ...... 58 4.26 Nickname: "FIFA" ...... 59

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Figure ...... Page

4.27 Nickname: "Cake" ...... 60 4.28 Nickname: "Ice" ...... 60 4.29 Nickname: "First" ...... 62 4.30 Nickname: "Best" ...... 62 4.31 Nickname: "Refill" ...... 63 4.32 Nickname: "Apple" ...... 64 4.33 Nickname: "Mint" ...... 65 4.34 Nickname: "Gmail" ...... 65 4.35 Nickname: "Bonus" ...... 66 4.36 Nickname: "Auto" ...... 67 4.37 Nickname: "Boss" ...... 68 4.38 OTOP Logo ...... 69 4.39 Thai "Pretties" at the Bangkok Intl. Motor Show Auto Import Expo ...... 70 5.1 English Signage on Khao San Road, Bangkok ...... 73

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations BMW Bavarian Motor Works CNN Cable News Network FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association ID Identification IOC Item-objective Congruence IQ Intelligence Quotient LTD Limited MSU Mahasarakham University NBA National Basketball Association NES Native English Speaker’s NFL National Football League NFL National Football League OTOP One Tambon One Product SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages WWII World War II

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CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction and Purposes of the Chapter

This chapter briefly covers the purposes, research questions, significance, rationale, and scope and limitations of this study, as well as definitions of key terms and a summary.

Thai people are famous for having long names. Some have very long names,

even by Thai standards. It is therefore often surprising for outsiders to learn that most Thais have shorter nicknames, and pleasantly so, because they usually are easier to remember and pronounce. The role of Thai nicknames may seem to be convenience,

but there may be a deeper rooted history contributing to their widespread use. Nicknames are extremely important to Thai people, who may not even know the real names of people they are in contact with every day. Just about every Thai person has a nickname by which they are known informally, given to them by their parents at birth. The pervasive use of nicknames in this way apparently comes from the old belief that evil spirits are constantly on the lookout for newborn children to snatch away and control, but using a nickname instead of a normal Thai name confuses the spirits and helps to keep the child safe. This is not a widespread belief nowadays of course, but nonetheless the use of nicknames remains so widespread in Thailand that it's not uncommon for friends to know each other for years and yet not know each other's real name and surname. (Into-

asia.com 2015) Many of these nicknames are Thai in origin, but nicknames originating from the English language are also popular. Some of these English nicknames are common

English names or nicknames such as James, Anne, Josh, or Tammy. Others are simply 2

English loanwords that have been borrowed into the Thai language and adapted for use as nicknames. One list of a teacher’s favorite nicknames at his school contains the following examples: Fork, Clean, Frong Teeth (possible misspelling of “Front”), Golf, Apple, Oil Easy, The Ice, Smilely, Pee, FIFA, Dream, Brings Boy, Guitar, Fresh, Nig (possible misspelling of “Nick”), Wine, Champagne, Poo, Name, Clutch. (Cook 2013)

A number of these are clearly loanwords from English (Fork, Apple, The Ice), and some may just coincidentally be words in English that are actually Thai names/ words ( Pee, Poo, etc.). One of the primary objectives of this paper is to determine just how common English loanwords are used as Thai nicknames. There is a near absence of formal research conducted on Thai nicknames in English, and although Thai nicknames have been researched in Thai academia, the studies conducted so far are only tangentially related to the main subject matter presented in this study. To accurately describe the gap in the knowledge in this particular area (reasons for using English loanwords as Thai nicknames) would be to state that, at this time, there is only gap. There are opinions and unsubstantiated name lists on the Internet, but there have been no formal studies. Therefore, it is the hope of the author that this paper can help begin filling in this gap with the name lists compiled as a result of the surveys completed in this study. This research was inspired by the bemused faces of foreign parents hearing students being summoned over the public announcement system at the school attended by the author’s children in rural Thailand: “Bomb! Beer! Boat! Your parents are here to pick you up!” It made the author wonder if nicknames like Ice, New, Star, or Opal present a more positive image, and about how other native English speakers feel about nicknames that defy all commonly-known Western naming conventions such as “Sea Games,” “Program,” “Car Phone,” or “Refill.” It presented itself as a topic that needed to be formally researched, and most importantly, it gave the author a chance to compile a list of interesting Thai nicknames for publication. Some of the questions posed within this study are often asked by foreigners living in Thailand, but also by Thais amongst themselves. The author identified the 3

absence of formal English language research in this area of study, and decided to investigate. It is the hope of the author that by conducting formal research into this

area, further areas of research can be explored in the future.

1.2 Purposes of the Study

The purpose of this study is twofold:

1.2.1 To identify Thai nicknames that are loanwords from the English language and determine the reasons they were chosen 1.2.2 To determine if and how Thai nicknaming conventions affect native English speakers, and determine how native English speakers perceive Thai nicknames If Thai nicknames could cause native speakers of English to adopt new words, word variations, or new meanings of already established words it would be an example of language change, wherein NES English was affected by Thai English.

1.3 Research Questions

From the stated purposes of this study, two main research questions are formulated:

RQ1: What Thai nicknames are (or could be) loanwords from the English language, and why are English loanwords chosen as nicknames? RQ2: How do native English speakers perceive Thai nicknames that are (or

could be) English loanwords?

1.4 Significance of the Study

As stated above, this study can begin filling the vast gap of knowledge that exists in this field. Do Thai parents knowingly name their kids after (as seen from the 4

outside) seemingly random objects, or do they just like foreign-sounding names? Are some of these interesting (from English native speaker’s perspectives, as well as Thai) names due to differences in meaning in NES English as compared to meaning in Thai English? Could some of these different meanings migrate from the dialect ( Thai

English) to the lexicon of NES English? These are some of the significant points that will be covered in this study.

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The advantages of this study are that the pool of survey subjects is large and easily accessible, and the subject of study is pertinent and possibly interesting to many people, which makes surveying on a larger scale than might normally be practical for a master’ s thesis possible. The chief area that will be surveyed, Maha Sarakham Province in Northeast Thailand, is known as a center of education because of its high concentration of schools. For the compilation of nickname lists necessary for the first part of RQ1, teachers will be a valuable resource. Parents of the students hold the key to answering the second part of RQ1, namely, why they gave these nicknames to their children. The main disadvantage of this study is that, as mostly qualitative research, no advanced statistical functions will be utilized, which could be disappointing to those living devoutly within the confines of SPSS.

1.6 Definition of Key Terms

The following definitions are used in this study:

1.6.1 English Loanwords are words that have been borrowed from the English language. 5

1.6.2 Thai nicknames are names substituted for the proper name of a person in the country of Thailand.

1.6.3 NES English (Native English Speakers’ English) refers, broadly, to English accepted as the norm in Native English Speaking countries. This usage may be original to this work, and the intent is to replace the term “Standard English,” which, depending on the usage, carries cultural baggage and may be outdated or offensive.

1.6.4 Thai English is the dialect of English spoken in the country of Thailand.

1.7 Expected Outcomes

In terms of scientific contribution, the expected results of this research are related to advancement of understanding of Thai nicknaming practices and reasoning. The possibly most important social impact is related to better understanding by Thais that not all foreign words make appropriate nicknames. Conversely, there may be better understanding on the part of foreigners that there are reasons for doing things in other countries which are not easily explained or understood, and this research can be expected to clarify some of the issues involved.

1.8 Summary

This chapter described the background and the rationale of the study. It also covered the purposes of the study, research questions, the significance of the study, limitations and scope of the study, and as well as definitions of frequently used terms.

In the next chapter, a review of the related literature will be presented.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews and discusses the relevant research on loanwords from English into the Thai language as well as previous research into language change, in order to explain the effect Thai naming conventions could have on the lexicon of NES English. Background information on Thai nicknames is also covered. Although writing specifically about loanwords with regard to phonology, Kenstowicz and Suchato begin their paper with a statement that holds true for this one as well: “In the past decade we have seen the study of loanwords evolve from a minor curiosity to a phenomenon meriting serious and sustained study.” (Kenstowicz and Suchato, 2006, p.921) Aktürk-Drake outlines the beginnings of this shift by stating, “From the 1950s until the early 1990s, phonological aspects of borrowing were not singled out as a special focus in research but rather treated alongside other structural and lexical issues regarding borrowing, notwithstanding certain exceptions…” (Aktürk-Drake, 2015) The topic of this paper concerns English words that are used, often in ways that are confusing or even nonsensical (even in the target culture, to the people using them), as nicknames for Thai people. This paper proposes that as English words are adapted to suit Thai nicknaming conventions, the English language is changing. Therefore, previous research into theories and patterns of language change is also analyzed. To provide some background into the extent of English usage in Thailand: English language study is compulsory in Thailand, and English is the lingua franca of ASEAN ( Association of Southeast Asian Nations) , which is a major driver for multiculturalism and multilingualism ( including English education) throughout the country at the present time. However, there has been backlash and opposition toward the adoption of English as an official second language at the highest levels of government. In October 2010 the previous government turned down a proposal by the committee on education reform to make English Thailand's second official language. 7

The reason given by the Education Minister at the time, Chinnaworn Boonyakiat, was that people might misunderstand Thailand's history and think that it was once a former foreign colony! (Kirkpatrick, 2012) That said, the practice of Thai parents giving their children English nicknames is significantly popular, as shown in the data collected during this study, and seems to be increasing.

2.1 Language Change

"The important thing to remember about change is that, as long as people are using a language, that language will undergo some change" (Ottenheimer, 2006). The term language change is used, in this study, to describe how alterations are made, over time, to the usage and characteristics of a language. "Systematic changes, as the term suggests, affect an entire system or subsystem of the language. . . . A conditioned systematic change is brought about by context or environment, whether linguistic or extralinguistic” (Millward, 1996). In this paper, I hope to explore the implications of English words being used as nicknames for Thai children, and the effect this practice could have on English spoken by native speakers. " For centuries people have speculated about the causes of language change. The problem is not one of thinking up possible causes, but of deciding which to take seriously. . . On the one hand, there are external sociolinguistic factors--that is, social factors outside the language system. On the other hand, there are internal psycholinguistic ones--that is, linguistic and psychological factors which reside in the structure of the language and the minds of the speakers" (Aitchison, 2001). There are arguments that have been made stating that exploring reasons for language change beginning are ultimately futile, or at least problematic. It is arguable that the use of the term motivated in explanations of change appears to assume that it is possible to access the initial reasons why a change might begin. Given, however, that language ultimately exists in the mind of the speaker, who is mostly unaware of his or her innate linguistic knowledge, this is highly unlikely if not downright impossible... Explanations of internally motivated change therefore, necessarily tend to describe 8 and theorise processes of change or the mechanisms by which change can occur, and to hypothesise about their possible motivations (Jones and Singh, 2005). It would be remiss to cover the topic of language change without including input from the comprehensive book, Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. The causes of language change find their roots in the physiological and cognitive makeup of human beings. Sound changes usually involve articulatory simplification as in the case of the most common type, assimilation. Analogy and reanalysis are particularly important factors in morphological change. Language contact resulting in borrowing is another important source of language change. All components of the grammar, from phonology to semantics, are subject to change over time. A change can simultaneously affect all instances of a particular sound or form, or it can spread through the language word by word by means of lexical diffusion. Social factors can play an important role in determining whether or not a linguistic innovation is ultimately adopted by the linguistic community at large. Since language change is systematic, it is possible, by identifying the changes that a particular language or dialect has undergone, to reconstruct linguistic history and thereby posit the earlier forms from which later forms have evolved… In fact, it has often been stated that language change provides one of the most direct windows into the workings of the human mind. Furthermore, the study of language change contributes to our understanding of how social, cultural, and psychological factors interact to shape language. Finally, the integration of studies on language change, language acquisition, and language universals remains one of the most important challenges facing linguists today (O'Grady, Dobrovolsky and Katamba, 1997). It is often stated that English has become lingua franca. There are, by many estimates, over a billion people on Earth speaking it in some form or another. For most of those people, it’s not their first language; from that perspective it’s easier to see how this language can change and be adapted by its users. The strength of the English language derives from the material and symbolic power of its native speakers, particularly Americans, the flexibility of its grammatical rules, and the rich diversity of the sources of its vocabulary. Almost every language in the world has contributed to the vocabulary of the English language (Kperogi, 2015). 9

Scholars in the field of linguistics often make comparisons between contemporary and past forms of language, but humans adapt language as they use it, making continuous changes. After the past century of social change, technological innovation, and globalization, combined with its adoption as a common language, the English language is especially subject to change. Language change is a phenomenon in which language features such as phonetic, lexis, syntax, and semantic vary as a result of the changing needs. As a language used by many people throughout the world, English has undergone a series of fascinating changes since the era of Old English until now. The English expressions which hundred years ago were considered simple and colloquial might seem strange to today’ s generation (Murtiani, 2012). And later: As Meredith ( 1997) argued, “ language change is not a superficial decision or event”, but rather as a way to survive in the changing world, and it is often as “the direct results of political, economic and cultural imperialism”. This can be seen from the fact how English develops from its native country England and spreads to the whole world. Firstly, it was because of colonialism, but then the people in the world just voluntarily adapt the language (Murtiani 2012). This study proposes that as words from English are adapted as Thai nicknames, sometimes being modified in nonstandard ways, it causes change in the dialect spoken in a distinct community of English speakers, and therefore changes the language as a whole. As such, it also has the potential to change NES English. Many examples of the English language changing and people’s perceived reasons for these changes can be found online: The language continues to grow, expanding to incorporate new jargons, slangs, technologies, toys, foods and gadgets. It is in this century that we get doodlebugs, gasmasks, gobstoppers, miniskirts and mods and rockers; we enjoy dim sum, cappuccino, chicken tikka masala and pizzerias; we talk of chavs, mingers and weirdos; and we are addicted to tellies, websites, cybercafes and compact discs (bl.uk, 2015). In addition: Language changes for several reasons. First, it changes because the needs of its speakers change. New technologies, new products, and new experiences require new words to refer to them clearly and efficiently. Consider texting: Originally it was called text messaging, because it allowed one person to send another text rather than 10

voice messages by phone. As that became more common, people began using the shorter form text to refer to both the message and the process (as in I just got a text or I'll text Sylvia right now). Another reason for change is that no two people have had exactly the same language experience. We all know a slightly different set of words and constructions, depending on our age, job, education level, region of the country, and so on. We pick up new words and phrases from all the different people we talk with, and these combine to make something new and unlike any other person's particular way of speaking. At the same time, various groups in society use language as a way of marking their group identity - showing who is and isn't a member of the group. Many of the changes that occur in language begin with teens and young adults: As young people interact with others their own age, their language grows to include words, phrases, and constructions that are different from those of the older generation. Some have a short life span ( heard groovy lately?) , but others stick around to affect the language as a whole. We get new words from many different places. We borrow them from other languages (sushi, chutzpah), we create them by shortening longer words (gym from gymnasium) or by combining words (brunch from breakfast and lunch), and we make them out of proper names (Levis, fahrenheit). Sometimes we even create a new word by being wrong about the analysis of an existing word. That's how the word pea was created: Four hundred years ago, the word pease was used to refer to either a single pea or a bunch of them. But over time, people assumed that pease was a plural form, for which pea must be the singular, and a new word - pea - was born. (The same thing would happen if people began to think of the word cheese as referring to more than one chee.) Word order also changes, though this process is much slower. Old English word order was much more 'free' than that of Modern English, and even comparing the Early Modern English of the King James Bible with today's English shows differences in word order. For example, the King James Bible translates Matthew 6: 28 as " Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not." In a more recent translation, the last phrase is translated as "they do not toil". English no longer places not after the verb in a sentence. 11

Finally, the sounds of a language change over time, too. About 500 years ago English began to undergo a major change in the way its vowels were pronounced. Before that, geese would have rhymed with today's pronunciation of face, while mice would have rhymed with today's peace. But then a 'Great Vowel Shift' began to occur, during which the ay sound ( as in pay) changed to ee ( as in fee) in all the words containing it, while the ee sound changed to i (as in pie). In all, seven different vowel sounds were affected. If you've ever wondered why most other European languages spell the sound ay with an e (as in fiancé) and the sound ee with an i (as in aria), it's because those languages didn't undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Only English did (Birner, 2012). Aided by the push to join the Asian Economic Community, every student in Thailand studies English to some extent, and English loanwords are prevalent in the media and advertising, as well as in daily Thai conversation. Thai society has seen a rise in English language media and the trend continues. There are a number of English periodicals and newspapers in circulation, including large mainstream publications such as The Bangkok Post and The Nation newspaper. Even Thai language publications will often have headlines and snippets printed in English, almost as if it makes it seem more 'chic' (Xpat.life, 2015). Whether conscious of it or not, the general population is exposed to English in various forms, and, “Thai people increasingly use English as a part of their daily life” (Chamcharatsri, 2015). Therefore, Thai English speakers, whose dialect is based on the model of standard British English and standard American English, exist as a distinct community. As Bennui and Hashim note:As Thai English is a rather new variety in which only a few studies of literary discourse creativity are evident, the notion of a Thai variety of English has remained obscure. The status of Thai English as another non- native variety illustrated in this literary analysis thus remains to be evaluated in terms of ‘four essential features of new varieties of English’ (Llamzon, 1983) – an ecology of transplanted Englishes in diglossia, polygossia, code-switching, code-mixing, and lexical shifts; a history of English via nativization processes; a sociolinguistics of English in functions, sociolect–ethnolect varieties, and rhetorical styles; and cultural aspects of English in local creative literature. The last feature is clearly seen in this 12

study. However, the other three are also found as stylistic innovations structured by the selected Thai English writers, especially code-switching and code-mixing, nativization, the use of a basilectal variety, and rhetorical strategies. Consequently, it seems fair to describe Thai English as ‘ a developing non-native variety of English’ (Bennui and Hashim, 2014). This development of a non-native variety of English can perhaps be seen as a natural progression of the language as it spreads through regions and cultures. An important point regarding the changing of English is that as it is assimilated into other languages and cultures, its standard form can lose relevance. English today is one of the most hybrid and rapidly changing languages in the world. New users of the language are not just passively absorbing, but actively shaping it, breeding a variety of regional Englishes, as well as pidgins and English- lexified creoles. Also, as in an increasing number of countries English is becoming an element of core education, a near-universal basic skill, native-speaker norms are losing both in relevance and in reverence (Paradowski, 2008). Finally, it must be noted that this study, because of its investigation into language change, might also be considered a study into social and situational usages of English (in Thailand). Since a language is passed down in the social and situational contexts in which speech events take place, the transmission of language must be a social process–that is to say that a language is transmitted from person to person, from group to group and from generation to generation-ithin social and situational contexts. Furthermore, if language is passed down in this social way, linguistic changes must be passed down in this social way also. Linguistic change takes place in the activities of human users of language in social and situational contexts and would not otherwise take place at all (Milroy, 2015). Some of the subjects surveyed during this study are not speakers of English (beyond the scope of English that is used in the Thai language plus, significantly, the names of their children in some cases), so normal rules or assumptions regarding language change and transmission may not apply.

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2.2 Loanwords in the Thai Language

The use of words from other languages is a significant factor in language change both in the present and the past. There is a great body of work to reference, and only a small fraction of that is sampled below. The 2008 book entitled Globally Speaking: Motives for Adopting English Vocabulary in Other Languages begins with the following introduction: English is the lingua franca of the modern world, the ‘ vehicular’ language used for science, international business and for communication at virtually any large international meeting. Speakers of English can be found in almost any corner of the globe, which is no wonder when you are the main or the official language in over 75 states and territories. Indeed, since WWII, English has occupied a new position never held by any other language before: it has become a global lingua franca. This is attested by the extent of its geographical spread, the number of its speakers and overall significance. Yet, English is not only spoken by an unprecedented number of people, both absolutely and relatively, but it also serves as a fertile field for lexical borrowing. That is, other languages are increasingly turning to English as a source for new vocabulary and incorporating English loan words in their lexicon ( Rosenhouse and Kowner, 2008). Many of the statements in the passage above cover important points about loanwords from English as pertains to this paper, which will covered in more detail below. Tranter states that, “ Lexical borrowing is an important feature of language contact and is acknowledged for its significant role in the history of languages and language change” ( Tranter 2000). The quoted work was built on the foundation of earlier work done by Lehmann, who stated that, “ Whether spontaneous or induced, borrowing is one of the important influences on language” (Lehmann 1992). From the 2005 book entitled, Exploring Language Change, “One of the ways in which languages productively increase and change their lexical stock is through externally motivated processes such as borrowing” (Jones and Singh 2005). Writing on the issue of L2 vocabulary in L1, Barrs opens with the statement, “ Language contact and transfer situations lead to the absorption, adaptation and 14 integration of linguistic elements from one language into the other” (Barrs, 2013) . However, this author explores an important point in another publication, which was an issue for this study as well: If relationships can be established between the learner’ s already known language(s) and the target language which they are studying, then awareness of any cross-linguistic similarities which are found can help them to draw upon and modify what they already know in their construction of new knowledge ( Daulton, 2008; Nation, 1990; Ringbom, 2007). In many of the world’ s languages, especially ones which are genetically related, these similarities are easy to identify and exploit. However in other languages that are more distantly connected (and by such processes as trade, travel and globalisation than by any genetic links), the similarities are often obscured by variances in scripts, phonology, semantics and syntax. An important area of investigation then becomes to establish whether significant similarities do in fact exist between the known languages and the one being studied (Barrs, 2012). In addition to the question of similarities between the languages being studied ( in this paper, Thai and English) , there is also the issue of loanwords retaining meaning after being borrowed. In her paper addressing false familiarity of loanwords, Masson states: It has been acknowledged that loanwords can mislead students if the L1 definition deviates substantially from the source word in L2. But as Uchida ( 2001) points out, loanword cognates are often incorrectly grouped together as a single category of ‘‘false friends,’’ when in fact the loanwords can be very different from one another in relation to English and Japanese meanings” (Masson, 2013). Regarding the issue of “ loanword bias,” which also affects this study, Shaffer notes that: Bias can originate for a variety of reasons. There is the tendency for the public and academia alike to fail to distinguish between direct borrowings from English and EBLs that have been altered in some way during the borrowing process. Ringbom (2007) notes that, in general, borrowings can generate laughable and absurd errors, which are quite memorable, and therefore assume an exaggerated importance in a teacher’s or learner’s mind (Shaffer, 2014). 15

In a related vein, Rogers states that, “in general, loanwords do not deviate to serve the purpose of mocking another language. They may deviate simply to conform to the grammatical, phonological, and/or semantic constraints that the mother tongue necessitates…” (Rogers, 2010) Without knowing the specifics of each, it may be safe to infer that there are few, if any, languages today that do not borrow words from English. Woollard states that “Some of these words relate directly to new technology – it is easier, for example, to use the word ‘computer’ than to create an entirely new word – while others may be more subtle by-products of globalization” (Woollard, 2008). However, centuries before term globalization was even coined, the borrowing of words from other people and cultures was already happening in Thailand as well as the rest of the world: Thailand is situated in an overlapping area of the “Sinosphere” – the area in Asia that has come under heavy Chinese influence – and the “Indosphere”, the area that has come under heavy Indian influence. Located in the geographical center of Southeast Asia, it is also surrounded by major local cultures and languages such as Khmer, Burmese, and Malay. Since the 17th century, Thailand (or, as it was known then, Siam) has also had diplomatic and trade relations with several European powers. This long history of intensive contacts with speakers (and literatures) of many different languages has led to the adoption of a large number of loanwords in Thai (Suthiwan and Tadmor, 2009, p.601), There are numerous lists of loanwords from English used in Thai published both online and off, and although many of the lists overlap, longer ones contain several hundred words. The Thai government is well aware of the prevalence of foreign words used in the Thai language and as Dockum states: “Like many other nations ( notably France) , Thailand has a governmental body charged with regulating the standard language. Thailand's is the Royal Institute ( which was modeled after its French counterpart). One of their jobs is to come up with Thai equivalents for English jargon. Yet even this prescribed vocabulary is subject to the court of public approval” (Dockum 2007). Indeed, when the Royal Institute proposed changing the spelling of 176 loanwords from English to include tone marks in 2012 ( Jaichalard and Na 16

Mahachai, 2012), there was a public outcry, and the proposal was dropped (Boonyai 2012). Historically, the Thai language borrowed primarily from Sanskrit and Pali (relevant to modern day Thailand as liturgical languages of Buddhism), and to a lesser extent, Mon, Khmer, Chinese, and English (Suthiwan and Tadmor 2009: 604). That trend has been shifting in the modern age. During the last century it has been noticed that English loanwords have played an important role in the Thai lexicon. English, instead of the long used Sanskritic languages, has become the most-favoured source for new vocabulary. Though there is a traditional preference for Sanskritic coinage, the influx of modern technology from the Western civilization is so strong that the English words which are the carrier of such influences have been accepted with an increasing rate of current usage, colloquially as well as in writing (Nacaskul, 1979, p. 151). A specific example of this shift was noted by Suthiwan and Tadmor: Many specific clothing items were indeed introduced from the West, but mostly before the 20th century, when lexical borrowing from Western languages became common. Before that period, borrowed Western articles were often given a name coined by compounding of native elements, for example ‘shoes’ (lit. ‘foot-bases’) and ‘socks’ (lit. ‘foot-bags’) (Suthiwan and Tadmor, 2009, p. 607). The ever-increasing trend of loanword borrowing, adaptation, and integration continues to this day, and can be observed in the use of English loanwords as Thai nicknames. In some cases, this is the highest degree of integration as described by Marie- Noelle Lamy, where “the borrowed word loses its billing and its pronunciation” (Graddol, Leith and Swann, 1996).

2.3 Thai Nicknames

In the surveys and interviews performed for this study, one question that will be addressed is, “to what extent Thai nicknames carry meaning?” Conventional wisdom and past research seem to agree that names in general have meaning. 17

Names mean something—not just in an etymological sense but in a synchronic sense. They carry important pragmatic meanings, which colour, and even shape, the character of human interaction (Wierzbicka, 1992). And: To have a name, any name, setting one apart by himself-a single individual, distinguished from, yet united to, all his fellows-this is no ordinary fact and no empty honor. It rests upon the fact that each of us is different in face, manners, habits, thoughts, from every other who ever has been, or ever will be, in all the vast host of humans. Here is something marvelous, something full of meaning and obligation, something to make one resolve to be—himself (Buckham,1944). Onomastics is a broad field, and studies on nicknames are comparatively few. As noted in a previous study that established an indexing system: In his classic work on the American language, H. L. Mencken commented over a half-century ago that nicknames were embedded deeply in American society ( Mencken 1919). Yet the research literature on personal nicknames is scant. Few sociologists-in fact, few scholars from any discipline, even from onomastics – have studied the significance of personal nicknames (Skipper, Leslie and Wilson, 1990). Even recent corporate researchers using quantitative compilation of millions of name-nickname associations based on information gathered from billions of public records ran into problems with secondary data: “To the best of our knowledge, there are no comprehensive, empirically derived nickname databases currently made freely available for research purposes” (Carvalho, Kiran and Borthwick, 2012) , Some nicknaming practices that have been studied in the west share similarities with the present study, but also contain information that just does not apply to Thai culture: Nicknames can perform different functions. Nicknames can serve as identification or classification, but can also serve a social function by indicating relation towards a group identity (Bosch and De Klerk, 1994, p.42). Leslie and Skipper (1990, pp.273- 278) indicate that the use of a nickname instead of a proper name can have specific significance and could relate something about the relationship between the person being addressed and the addressee as well as the context. As such, nicknames are one way of negotiating social settings. Furthermore, nicknames display aspects of the social and cultural values of communities ( Bosch, 1994,pp.28-29, 36; Bosch and De Klerk, 1997,pp.a: 21). In a 18

pragmatic sense nicknames can function as a way in which a relationship between the individual with the nickname and his or her role within a system can be relayed or as an identification of the individual with the nickname based on certain characteristics; grammatically nicknames act as a replacement for proper names ( Bosch and De Klerk, 1997,pp. a: 31). Brennan and Pettit ( 2004,pp. 143-145) note the use of pseudonyms by actors in theatre and cinema, who would for example choose professional stage names for the sake of developing a unique brand or even the practice in literature where authors would write under a chosen nom de plume and not their real names (cf. Room, 2010, pp.3-8). Bechar- Israeli (1995) emphasises the fact that, unlike real names, nicknames are not legal names. Shared knowledge is necessary for nicknames to be used successfully. However this does not imply that the origin of a nickname is necessarily very obvious. According to Leslie and Skipper (1990:274) the origin of a username is not always apparent and they state that “the subject matter of nicknames is rendered intelligible by revealing its internal rationality”. In addition, Leslie and Skipper (1990, pp.274) assert that “[m] eanings of nicknames are not to be found in dictionary definitions or even necessarily in their origins, but in their uses in everyday life”. The properties that distinguish a nickname from a name are important according to Leslie and Skipper ( 1990, p. 277) as these properties inform the understanding of a nickname. Furthermore, Leslie and Skipper ( 1990, p. 277) state that “ cultural conventions provide meaningful classifications and govern whether some phenomena in the social or physical world have been appropriately employed as a nickname, or as a nickname source”. To be able to use nicknames some form of shared knowledge or agreement is necessary and this implies that a nickname is assigned by means of normative rules that may be time- and context-specific ( Leslie and Skipper 1990, p. 279). Nicknames also tend to thrive in hierarchical contexts ( Bosch and De Klerk, 1997, pp. a: 22; Nicholls, 1995). In addition, Bosch and De Klerk (1997, pp.a:22-23) note the importance of the humorous aspect of nicknames and the lack of research in this regard. Starks and Taylor-Leech (2011, p.87) note that nicknames can relate to an individual’s physical appearance, personal habits or traits and personal histories, or can even play on proper names or surnames. (Olivier, 2014) 19

Some studies, however, speak in broader terms and make numerous points congruent to this research. A study from Ghana on student’s nicknames illustrates this very clearly: Irrespective of the names given to children by their parents however, it is common to hear students being called some names other than their real names. Some of these nicknames have positive, neutral or negative connotations ( Mehrabian and Piercy, 1993). Certain nicknames are generally considered desirable and have positive feelings associated with them while others are humiliating and are looked down upon as being undesirable and carry negative associations. Nicknames that are deemed undesirable can have deleterious effects on the bearers’ self-esteem, their learning and social relations. Anderson (1979) opines that nicknames have impact on the process of building a self-concept because the nickname helps determine the messages other people send the child. While some students love and cherish their nicknames, others hate and cannot stand theirs. This shows that not all nicknames are hostile; it may be deferential or signal membership of a friendship group (Kuranchie, 2012). It is this author’s intent to discern between points that apply and those that do not, flagging those that should be mentioned and omitting those that are not within the scope of this study. In addition, it should be noted that some of the humorous aspects of nicknames, which are covered in this research, are common between languages, cultures, and even generations. As John W. Buckham reminisced in his work, Names, Nicknames and Titles, more than 70 years ago, “ I recall some very choice and unique nicknames from boyhood days, e.g. that of a boy called “ Stewed Lemons”—why I never knew—another called “ Gov,” because his father once ran for Lieutenant-Governor of the State… “Old Pet” as we called one of our professors, and many others that seemed to fit and to stick, as if foreordained” (Buckham, 1944). Nicknaming practices in Thai culture have not been the subject of study in many academic English language publications. However, many inferences can be made from related studies. The list of possible personal naming systems must remain open-ended, as the history of human creativity has not yet finished. There are, however, a number of forms 20

of constituting systematicity in personal naming that are very recurrent in the anthropological and historical record. (Pina-Cabral, 2012). This study, at least in part, hopes to probe into the meaning and reasoning behind giving English language nicknames to Thai children. Of course, there is always the chance that there is no actual meaning of nicknames other than as an identifier. Since Russell’s (1911) classical paper on this theme, proper names have been treated as a test case for theories of reference in philosophical debates. Whereas those in favour of contextualism insist that names are a species of indexicals, the proponents of anticontextualism squarely place the discussion of proper names within a definite description paradigm, applying Russell’s original argument (with some important modifications) that names are essentially forms of concealed descriptions whose main function is to identify the bearer of that name (Das and Copeman, 2015). A common issue encountered when trying to identify/understand Thai nicknames is diminutive suffixes such as the “-y” or “-ie” suffix. As Wierzbicka explains it: In many languages, for example, in many Slavic and Romance languages, expressive derivation plays a role that can hardly be overstated. In particular, the functional load of many so-called diminutive suffixes is simply colossal. Yet the meaning of such suffixes ( and other related morphological devices) has never been studied in depth, and a suitable methodology for a rigorous study of this kind has never been developed. Labels such as 'diminutive' or 'augmentative', which may be useful as pointers to certain areas of meaning, prove hopelessly inadequate when treated as serious analytical devices (for semantic purposes). Even within individual languages, each such label covers a wide range of different functions, whose nature and interrelations remain a (usually unacknowledged) mystery (Wierzbicka, 1992). There are common themes that reoccur within the various explanations behind Thai nickname conventions, usage, and origin: Every Thai person has a first name and a nickname aka chue len. Parents give their children a chue len, in addition to a formal given name. Eighty percent of cases the chue len is a single syllable. Occasionally, the chue len is a shortened version of the first name, but more often it is completely unrelated. The first name is used only in formal situation, or outside personal life; for example when doing business transactions. In informal case chue len is commonly used and even introduced oneself to a new friend, 21 and the other may not discover the person’s formal name (“Top 10 Most Common Thai Nicknames, And Some Weird Ones”, 2013, from learnthaiwithmod.com). Also: If you know a Thai friend by her nickname, ask for the first name. When you hear it, you will understand why so many Thais have nicknames. Most names in Thailand are really long and made up of words with positive or desirable meanings, such as beautiful lady. Most of the time, parents give a nickname to their newborn child. Family members and close friends would normally use that nickname... Actually, in Thailand nicknames are more commonly used than first names. It should also be pointed out that the nicknames can be used by almost anyone; not only family and friends (Thailand Breeze, 2013). Niratpattanasai pointed out that first names and nicknames aren’t necessarily related: Most Thai people have a nickname... But the nickname does not necessarily have a correlation with the formal name. The widespread practice of using nicknames is a reflection of our Sabai-Sabai culture. Thais have a formal name that usually has a positive and traditional meaning. But at home or with those with whom we have a close relationship, the formal name is not usually used. So, we create the nickname (Niratpattanasai, 1999). A group of Thai university researchers who recently published a study on nicknames stated that in Thailand, nicknames play a role among families or people who are close to each other and are usually shorter than real names. They also noted that nicknames could be shortened forms of real names or set according to family values (Teeparaksapan, Sattong, Phanitwaraphan, and Sudhinont, 2018). Another example that contains many of the points covered above: A nickname in Thai is a chue len. Chue means ‘name’ and len means ‘play’. Every Thai person has a first name and a nickname aka chue len. Parents give their children a chue len in addition to a formal given name... Informal names begin at birth and may continue in use to the extent that one may have to check the legal registration to find the formal given name… the chue len is commonly used and even used to introduce oneself to a new friend. Many may never discover the person’s formal name… Nicknames are useful because official Thai names are often long, particularly among Thais of Chinese descent, whose lengthy surnames stem from an attempt to translate Chinese 22

names into Thai equivalents, or similarly lengthy Sanskrit-derived names (Huahintoday.com, 2013). To summarize, many Thais are given nicknames shortly after birth. These nicknames are used to such an extent, by anyone ( not just among friends) , that other people may not know formal names of people they know well. The common perception is that nicknames are used out of convenience, because given names are too long, but also possibly because they attempt to convey desirable meanings from another language.

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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This thesis was guided by a qualitative tradition and is a descriptive study of language consisting largely of original research. The two research questions posed at the outset of this study were:

1. What Thai nicknames are ( or could be) loanwords from the English language, and why are English loanwords chosen as nicknames? 2. How do native English speakers perceive Thai nicknames that are (or could be) English loanwords?

3.1 Research Methodology

The research approach used in this paper was exploratory, descriptive, and contextual. Methods used to analyze data were content and narrative analysis of survey responses, interviews, and observations from the field.

3.1.1 Exploratory Research The subject of Thai nicknaming practices as relates to language usage and change is a new area of study. In English language publications, it is an area of interest of which little is known. As far as academic research, it is a complete gap in the knowledge. In this study, Thai people who know of Thai nicknames stemming from English words will be surveyed, and parents who have given their children such nicknames will be surveyed and interviewed. Although opinions and origin theories flourish on the Internet, this research aims to document facts that can be used in more comprehensive studies in the future. 24

3.1.2 Descriptive research Descriptive research was used to classify names that “ sound unnatural or strange” when heard by a native English speaker. For example, it might be difficult to classify the feeling when experiencing Thailand for the first time, surrounded by so many females named Porn ( shortened from common first names like “ Supaporn,”

Tittiporn,” or “Vajiraporn”), under a quantitative system. Descriptive research was used throughout this research to develop theories.

3.1.3 Context This research was conducted chiefly in Maha Sarakham city, located in the province of the same name. This is a university town, described in Thai as a “center for education,” with the largest university in the region and a sizeable student/ education professional population. It may not be representative of the entire country regarding issues covered in this study.

3.2 Research Participants

The primary population surveyed and interviewed for this study was comprised mainly of teachers and parents of ( kindergarten to grade 6) students in a primary school with 885 total students located in Maha Sarakham city, northeast Thailand.

No minors (under 18 years of age) were directly surveyed or interviewed, but information gathered was related to nicknames of students. This was accomplished with surveys and interviews described throughout this chapter.

25

3.3 Research Procedures

The following diagram shows the basic research plan.

Figure 3.1 Basic Research Plan

3.3.1 Sampling Method A stratified random sampling technique (homogenous sampling) was selected

because the population was heterogeneous, but a certain homogeneous sub-population

(Thai children with English language-origin nicknames) could be isolated by planned

distribution of survey questionnaires.

3.3.2 Sample Size Sample size was calculated at 87 with the following formula.

Figure 3.2 Sample Size Formula 26

Above: Population Size = N (=885); Margin of error = e (=10%); z-score = z

(=1.96 = Confidence Level of 95%); e is percentage in decimal form.

3.4 Research Instruments

The primary data collection tools utilized for this research were online surveys generated with Google Forms framework, as well as semi-structured interviews. Teachers and parents from schools in the northeastern region of Thailand, who may already be known to the researcher, were enlisted to find willing participants in the survey. Participants were contacted by the researcher via email, messaging app,

telephone, or in person to complete the survey. Familiarity with the interview

participant was of limited concern. The survey helped determine the following points:

Did the nickname of the child (or children) in question originate from the English language? If so, what was the origin? Why was the nickname chosen? When survey answers required further inquiry or elucidation, interviews were conducted. For example, some interviews were necessary in order to determine whether a

specific name was really an English loanword or not. The interview questions were

designed to ensure that the interviewee did not become unwilling or uncomfortable. If the interviewee became unwilling or uncomfortable at any time, the survey was stopped. This created an atmosphere that allowed the interviewees to speak freely.

Once data collection was complete, nicknames that were ( or could be) English loanwords were identified (answering the first part of RQ1). Nicknames that were Thai

English were also identified and analyzed. Suitability for borrowing from Thai English to

NES English was also analyzed.

27

In addition, a second survey with open participant number was conducted online in order to gauge the reactions of Native English Speakers to the names collected in the first surveys. The results of this second survey may eventually serve as a guide to which Thai nicknames are suitable for use overseas, although this was not the primary objective for conducting it. Rather, it may more simply serve to indicate the importance of the

meanings of words in English in addition to how they sound.

3.5 Research Period

The Thai Nickname Survey for Parents and Thai Nickname Survey for Teachers were conducted during September and October of 2016, although some late entries were collected after this period. Collation and analysis of survey data was performed

until the end of 2018. The Thai Nicknames Survey for Native English Speakers was

conducted in January of 2019. Analysis of this survey data was concluded in February

2019.

3.6 Secondary Data

This study also examined secondary data from previous works that have been published online and were publicly available. An example of the type of data available

follows.

28

Table 3.1 Top Names in Thai GIRLS BOYS Rank Numbers Percent First names Rank Numbers Percent First names 1 10 0.20 % Eve 1 4 0.08 % Nut 2 10 0.20 % Bow 12 4 0.08 % David 3 9 0.18 % MinT 3 4 0.08 % Thawatchai 4 9 0.18 % Nam 4 4 0.08 % Golf 5 9 0.18 % Fah 5 4 0.08 % Teerapat 6 9 0.18 % Pim 6 4 0.08 % boom 7 9 0.18 % Sudarat 7 4 0.08 % chatchai 8 8 0.16 % praew 8 3 0.06 % sirawit 9 8 0.16 % Sai 9 3 0.06 % best 0 8 0.16 % Natcha 0 3 0.06 % Peerapat

This list did not distinguish the difference between nicknames and first names ( as they are collectively labeled as “ First names” in the rightmost column) , and

contained many other errors. However, it still contained data useful to this study,

mainly in that it showed that a number of the Thai respondents ( survey population

size: 4,638 students) seemed to have used their nickname instead of their given name.

3.7 Summary

To sum up, this research is qualitative, and more specifically, exploratory, descriptive, and contextual. The purpose of this paper was to identify Thai nicknames that are loanwords from the English language and then determine how native English speakers perceive them. To this end, surveys and interviews were conducted and the

results analyzed by a panel of experts. Secondary data was also analyzed, although the

quality and accuracy of it was known to be less than optimal from the outset.

29

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter, results from the surveys and interviews shall be presented and discussed. The research plan specified 87 survey participants and 15 interviews. However, the actual number of participants was 155 and the number of interviews was 29. Of the 155 surveyed participants, 72 were parents of students at a primary school in Northeast Thailand, and 83 were teachers at the same school or nearby schools. Many of the participants provided multiple answers, because they answered for multiple offspring/students with nicknames they thought to be of English origin. A special note must be made here to explain that the data collected in the surveys had to be initially examined by Thai nationals and language experts to try to filter out names that were not of English origin. To this end, interviews were also employed, mostly in person, to help determine the origin of nicknames. The survey questions for parents were also designed to help determine origin. Because of the sheer amount of data collected from participants, as well as the number of participants, the exact origin of every nickname could not be tracked down, so multiple experts were again employed to help provide the best judgment for every single survey result. In this chapter, only summaries of the results shall be presented, but more detailed data can be found in the appendices.

4.1 Findings and Analysis of RQ1

The first of two research questions posed at the outset of this study was actually two closely related questions written as one:

What Thai nicknames are (or could be) loanwords from the English language, and why are English loanwords chosen as nicknames? 30

Therefore, the findings for Research Question 1 shall be broken down into two parts:

What Thai nicknames are (or could be) loanwords from the English language? Why are English loanwords chosen as nicknames? 4.1.1 Top Thai Nicknames that may be English Loanwords The following chart shows every nickname that is, or could be, a loanword from English, which appears in the results for the parents’ survey twice or more. For this survey, there are no duplicate results for the same child.

Top 19 English Nicknames at Sathit MSU School 10

8

6

4

2

0

Figure 4.1 Top 19 English Nicknames at MSU Demonstration School

Total Names Received: 219 (79 online survey results + 140 paper survey results)

Total Names Counted*: 148

*Names were not counted if no English spelling was provided or if they were determined to not be from English.

As stated above, only 148 names out of 219 collected were determined to be, or possibly be, from the English language. There were 885 total students at the school and the survey was voluntary, so at least 16.7% (one in six) of them had a nickname that may have originated from English. Taking into account people that did not participate in the interview, the number is almost certainly higher, and may be substantially higher. 31

There were names in the Top 19 that were strongly suspected by the experts to originate from Thai: “Pea,” and, “Tim,” but parents were interviewed and confirmed that they thought the origins were from the English language. The next chart shows every nickname that is, or could be, a loanword from English, which appears in the results for the teachers’ survey five times or more. For this survey, there may be duplicate results for the same child, although care was taken to minimize this by confirming results with the teachers surveyed.

Top 17 English Nicknames at Northeastern Thai Schools 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Figure 4.2- Top 17 English Nicknames at Northeastern Thai Schools

Total Names Received: 739 (694 online survey results + 45 paper survey results)

Total Names Counted*: 536

*Names were not counted if no English spelling was provided or if they were determined to not be from English.

In this survey of teachers, 536 names out of 739 collected were determined to be, or possibly be, from the English language. Unlike the results from the parents’ survey, these results were not as verifiable or as useful in determining the reasons why English- origin nicknames are so popular. However, these results still have value as they represent the various English-origin nicknames that exist in the younger generations of Thais. For 32

future studies, further verification of one result (nickname) per person (student) may be necessary by matching nicknames to unique identifiers such as full names or student ID numbers.

Detailed lists of nicknames can be found in the appendices, and in-depth discussion of origins and reasons for these nicknames can be found in the following sections of this chapter.

4.1.2 Reasons for English-Origin Nicknames in Thailand The following chart shows reasons why specific nicknames were chosen for children. For this question, there are duplicate results for the same child because the participants were instructed to choose all answers that applied.

Survey Question: Why was this nickname chosen? 70 60 50 40 30

Responses 20 10 0

Figure 4.3 Reasons for Surveyed Nicknames

The following is a complete list of answers shown in the chart above (since some of them are obscured due to chart formatting) , shown with the total number of times an answer was selected.

33

Why was this nickname chosen? (Please select all that apply.)

1. For its good meaning in English. 59 selections (23.32%) 2. For how it sounded. 56 answers (22.13%)

3. No particular reason. 27 answers (10.67%)

4. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies, or other mass media. 26 answers

(10.28%)

5. For its good meaning in Thai. 26 answers (10.28%)

6. We knew other people with this nickname. 10 answers (3.95%)

7. For religious reasons. 2 answers (0.79%)

8. Don't know or can't remember. 2 answers (0.79%)

9. Other 45 answers (17.79%)

Explanations of each answer follow:

For its good meaning in English: As previously established in earlier chapters of this thesis, as well as in the works of others, names have meaning in the cultures related to this research. Considering the huge influence that the English language has in Thailand, it is no wonder that many people here want their children to have nicknames with (perceived) good or fortuitous meanings in English.

One of the problems encountered during this research was that the word “English”

is often equated to mean “foreign,” or, “alien.” First, we noticed that many of the nicknames collected in this survey were almost certainly of Thai language origin, such as, “ Noi,”

“Prim,” and “ Geng.” These were occluded from the results at an initial stage of analysis. Then, we noted that other submitted nicknames were from foreign languages other than English, such as “ Yuki,” and “ Shota” (both clearly from Japanese; although there were

other languages found, the specific origins and examples were not so clear – “ Okim,”

“Dong Dong,” “Nutky,” and others). These were also occluded from the results. Finally, there were many spelling mistakes and variations, even for the same nickname submission (for different questions), and these were confirmed/corrected to the greatest extent possible by interviewing the participants. All of these things were taken into 34

consideration in order to determine the accuracy of the most popular answer, “ For its

good meaning in English.”

For how it sounded: The main reason for this answer was to determine if how a

nickname sounds is as important as other factors. If this answer was selected and one of the other answers regarding meaning was not, it emphasized the importance of how a nickname sounded to the person who chose it. This answer was also partially provided with the intent of giving participants an option for nicknames that were of unknown meaning/origin. Indeed, it helped flag some of the nickname submissions that were not of

foreign origin at all.

No particular reason: AKA the lazy choice; self-explanatory. It became clear in

the course of unplanned interviews (talking to parents in the school parking lot) that at

least one survey participant chose this answer because they didn’t remember the exact

reason giving their child a particular nickname ( although it would have been more

accurate to choose the answer “ Don't know or can't remember,” and this is explained

below). This issue was resolved by interviewing the other parent, who did remember. There may have been other cases similar to this, and for future research, accuracy can be improved by interviewing both parents instead of just one and conducting more thorough and structured interviews in general. However, the methods used in this research were

accurate and thorough enough for the study.

Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies, or other mass media: Examples from the survey include children named Google, Popeye, Benz, iPhone, Sea Games, and Pancake (Thai actor).

For its good meaning in Thai: It is not surprising that Thai people want

nicknames for their children that have good meaning in Thai as well as English. If this

answer was chosen, it probably meant that the parent perceived their child’s nickname to

be a Thai word. If that word originates from the English language, then by very definition, it is a loanword. However, there were a small number of cases where classification of some of these nicknames as loanwords was dubious. 35

For example, according to the survey results, one set of parents chose the nickname “Music” for their child for three reasons: How it sounded, its meaning in Thai, and its meaning in English. The thing is, there is a word for music in Thai already, and the

English word is not freely used in place of it in normal conversation. The word in Thai and the word in English are not used interchangeably. Although most Thais are familiar the English word, “music,” and what it means, does not necessarily make it a loanword. It is therefore difficult to treat it as such, but fortunately, it is not necessary to make a permanent decision about it for the purposes of this research.

We knew other people with this nickname: Self-explanatory; some examples from this survey include: Pretty, Bam, Puff, KaKa, Ozone. A few respondents used the

“Other” field to specify the person they knew with this nickname.

For religious reasons: No explanation necessary.

Don't know or can't remember: Self-explanatory. After the survey had been released, it became clear that this was an embarrassing answer for some participants even if they really did not know or couldn’t remember the reason for choosing their children’s nickname, and that they would rather choose to answer “ No particular reason” instead.

Therefore, this could be considered the “ face-saving” choice and not the default “ lazy” choice, as described above in the explanation for the answer “No particular reason.”

Other: As it provides insight into Research Question 1, as to why English loanwords are used as nicknames, all information received regarding this answer as well as the corresponding names will be listed below. The English language responses will be minimally corrected, mostly for spelling and grammar, without changing the intended meaning. The Thai language responses will be translated, wherever possible. Additional information gathered during interviews will be added where it helps.

Child’s name: Andrea

Other reasons: Same name as an actor.

Child’s name: Bonus

Other reasons: Our family had just got bonus money. 36

Child’s name: Cake

Other reasons: Her mother likes to eat cakes.

Child’s name: Cartoon

Other reasons: Cute cartoon

Child’s name: Guitar

Other reasons: I like music and song. My husband plays guitar and I sing a song.

Child’s name: Kate

Other reasons: We have planned to support her to study abroad in the future

Child’s name: Mac

Other reasons: Similar to his sister’s name

Child’s name: Okim

Other reasons: Correlated with nickname of his grandma.

Child’s name: Orchid

Other reasons: We have beautiful orchids planted in our house.

Child’s name: Piano

Other reasons: I like music and song. My husband plays guitar and I sing a song.

Child’s name: Pipi (Piepie)

Other reasons: Chemical interaction

Note: Specifically, this refers to π-effects or π-interactions, a type of non- covalent interaction that involves π systems in the field of chemistry.

Child’s name: mTi

Other reasons: Related to his real name.

Child’s name: Jet

Other reasons: เกี่ยวกับชื่อ product ที่ทําธุรกิจอยู Translation: Product name related to a business I was doing.

Child’s name: Pangy

Other reasons: เปนชื่อที่คุณยาตั้งความหมายตามภาษาไทยอีสาน 37

Translation: Given by her grandmother for its meaning in Thai/Isan.

Child’s name: Fortune

Other reasons: เปนที่พบกันครั้งแรกของพอแม

Translation: Related to the place where his parents met.

Child’s name: Music

Other reasons: เปนนักดนตรี

Translation: Parent is a musician.

Child’s name: Jeans

Other reasons: เปนพยัญชนะที่มีชื่อพอกับแมรวมกัน

Translation: Made by combining her parents’ names.

Child’s name: Oil

Other reasons: เปนยุคน้ํามันแพง

Translation: Named when gasoline was expensive.

Child’s name: Amine

Other reasons: เปนศัพททางวิทยาศาสตร ซึ่งตรงกับสาขาที่พอเรียน คือวิทยาศาสตรเคมี

Translation: Chemistry term; father’s field is chemistry.

Note: Amines are derivatives of ammonia.

Child’s name: Saxophone

Other reasons: เพราะพอเปนคนสอนดนตรี

Translation: Father is a music teacher.

Child’s name: Nutky

Other reasons: เพื่อใหสอดคลองกับชื่อเลนของพี่สาว (แน็ตตี้)

Translation: Nickname created after aunt’s name, “Natty.”

Child’s name: Tammy

Other reasons: เอามาจากชื่อเลนของพอและแมและพี่ชายผสมกัน 38

Translation: Chosen because it sounds similar to nicknames of mother, father, and older brother.

Child’s name: Jina

Other reasons: ใหคลองจองกับชื่อพี่ชาย

Translation: Chosen because it sounds similar to older brother’s nickname.

Child’s name: Fern

Other reasons: คุณยายตั้งให

Translation: Given by her grandmother.

Child’s name: Puff

Other reasons: ชื่อเหมือนผลไม คือลูกพัฟฟ

Translation: Similar to fruit name.

Note: The fruit referred to was later determined to be “persimmon” in Thai, which would have meant the wrong answer was selected. However, it was also determined to not be the sole reason for deciding on this nickname. Some of the other reasons were related to English and Chinese meanings of unspecified root words as well, so this is still best classified as Other.

Child’s name: Bell

Other reasons: ชื่อคลองจองกับพี่ชายที่ชื่อ Boss

Translation: Matched sound to older brother’s nickname, which is “Boss.”

Child’s name: Pucker

Other reasons: ชื่อตัวแรกเปนคําผสมของชื่อพอแม

Translation: Matched sound to mother and father’s nicknames.

Child’s name: Shutter

Other reasons: ตั้งชื่อเพราะวา พอชอบถายภาพและเปนนักวิชาการโสตทัศนศึกษา

Translation: Father likes photography and works in related field. 39

Child’s name: Fafa

Other reasons: ตั้งชื่อฟ. ตามพี่พี

Translation: Matched to nickname of older sibling.

Child’s name: Mumin

Other reasons: ตั้งตามความเชื่อทางศาสนา

Translation: Linked to religious beliefs.

Note: Similar to “Muslim,” however, the term “Mu'min” is the preferred term

used in the Qur'an to describe monotheistic believers.

Child’s name: Ben

Other reasons: ตั้งตามความเชื่อทางศาสนา, easy to be called in other countries

Translation: Religious reasons, easy to be called in other countries.

Note: An interview revealed more detailed reasons:

1. The name “Ben” already exists in both Thai and English languages/cultures name (and does not have a negative sound/meaning like “Suckdeep,” or “Shitchai”)

2. Easy to pronounce both in Thai and in English

3. Thais understand that it is Thai, and International People can pronounce it easily Child’s name: Meta

Other reasons: ตั้งตามงานวิจัยที่กําลังทํา

Translation: Related to parent’s research.

Child’ s name: Vem

Other reasons: ตามเดือนเกิด

Translation: Matched to month of birth.

Note: This cannot be verified first hand as there was no contact info left for by the respondent, however, following standard Thai abbreviation patterns, “Vem” is

probably short for “November.” 40

Child’s name: Haru

Other reasons: ตามเดือนที่นองเกิด

Translation: Related to month of birth.

Note: Origin unclear. May be related to Japanese, Korean, or Ethiopian word.

Child’s name: August

Other reasons: ตามวันเกิด

Translation: Month of birth.

Child’s name: Coptain

Other reasons: ฝนวาคลอดออกมาเปนผูชายชื่อวานองกัปตัน

Translation: I had a dream where I gave birth to a boy and named him “Coptain.”

Note: “Coptain” is a common Thai English spelling of “captain.”

Child’s name: Vespa

Other reasons: พอชอบรถเวสปา ตั้งขื่อตามยี่หอรถ

Translation: Father likes Vespa motorcycles.

Child’s name: Team

Other reasons: พี่ชายชื่อแทค เลยตั้งใหสอดคลองเปน แทคทีม

Translation: Older brother’s name is “Tag.” So together they are “Tag-Team.”

Child’s name: Dong Dong

Other reasons: มีความหมายดีในภาษาจีน

Translation: Good meaning in Chinese.

Note: This nickname was specifically left listed because it sounds awesome.

Child’s name: Leo

Other reasons: มีตัวอักษรของชื่อเลนพอและแม

Translation: Created by combining spelling of mother and father’s names.

Child’s name: Sprite 41

Other reasons: สดใส ซาบซาเหมือนเครื่องดื่มสไปรท

Translation: Inspired by the feeling of drinking a Sprite.

Child’s name: Oil

Other reasons: สอดคลองกับชื่อของพี่นอง

Translation: Matched to older sibling’s nickname.

Child’s name: Tim

Other reasons: สอดคลองกับชื่อพอ/แม keeping the same 'theme' as parents' nicknames Translation: Matched to parents’ nicknames.

Child’s name: Oak

Other reasons: อักษรเดียวกันกับพอ

Translation: Matched to spelling of father’s name.

4.2 Findings and Analysis of RQ2

The second of two research questions posed at the outset of this study asked: How

do native English speakers perceive Thai nicknames that are ( or could be) English loanwords? In the second survey, native English speakers were asked about their backgrounds and familiarity with Thai culture, Thai people, and Thai nicknaming conventions. This chapter contains an analysis of results, but more detailed data can be found in Appendix G (Thai Nicknames Survey for Parents) and Appendix H (Thai Nicknames Survey for

Teachers).

Note: The number of respondents in the second survey was exactly 100, so percentages can be easily calculated if necessary. They will be omitted by default in the analyses below for better readability.

42

The following chart shows the origin of every participant’s English:

Question #1 Where is the origin of your English dialect?

United States of America 55

United Kingdom 32

Australia 6

Canada 3

New Zealand 2

Ireland 2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure 4.4 Respondents' English Dialect

The list of countries was chosen for this survey by reviewing several results for “native English speaking countries” in online searches. In all, there were 18 countries made available to choose from in the survey, and since there were no responses for “Other,” it appears they were adequate.

The following question was included in order to establish respondents’ familiarity or experience with the target country/culture of the survey. Although it is beyond the scope of this research, future studies may need to establish this baseline or use this information to separate results for different answers.

43

Question #2: Do you have any direct experience with or knowledge of Thai culture or Thai people?

Yes, a slight amount. 44

Yes, a moderate amount. 25

No. 21

Yes, a considerable amount. 9

Visited Chang Mai once for a fortnight holiday 1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Figure 4.5 Respondents' Experience with Thai People/Culture

Question #3 in the survey was, “ Do you know any interesting Thai nicknames?

Please list them and add any details you may have. Answering this question is optional.” Listed below are the recorded responses, edited lightly for spelling and punctuation:

1. Fern

2. "Moo, ling, gop, pla, boo, seems they like animal names....at least these names are and I know the people. Plus 2 people.... Real names: Auto (a boy), and Organ (a girl). Rippers, aren't they? 3. "Putter" The father of the boy is a Pro Golfer and wants his son to be the same.

4. Namtan, Oil, Poo, PaPa, Yim

5. Phone Link, Fluke, iPod, Pizza, Tourist, Folk, Piano, Pork, Dutchmill,

Mupmip, Copter, iFon, Genius, IQ, Rank, and Music.

6. Nicknames with one syllable seem odd like A or O.

7. Dam, Butter, Face

8. I know someone who is called Ruth instead of Karnsine.

9. Pook Pik, Tick, Basketball, Kookkai, Best, New, Melon, Can, Torn, Tuck, Beam, Pop, Fluke, Bam, Tacky, Blue, Milk, Dear, Game, Donut, Sugar, Jet, Knot, Eye, Took, Beauty, Pair, Mint, Knight, Beer, Air, Prince, King, Cake 44

10. Nut, Nook

11. Funk, Pork, Neey (short for Money), Bank (very popular), Eye (her brother’s name is Pop, sister named Peep), Pee (mothers name starts with letter P)

12. Donut, Tee

The following question was included in order to establish respondents’ familiarity with the main subject matter of this survey, Thai nicknaming conventions. Although it is beyond the scope of this research, future studies may need to establish this baseline or use this information to separate results for different answers.

Question: #4 Are you knowledgeable of Thai nicknaming conventions?

No, not knowledgeable at all. 56

Yes, but only slightly knowledgeable. 37

Yes, somewhat knowledgeable. 5

Yes, very knowledgeable. 2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure 4.6 Respondents' Knowledge of Thai Nicknaming Conventions

The following questions are nickname-specific. The nicknames were chosen from

the Top lists of the previous subsection ( Top Thai Nicknames that may be English

Loanwords), or were of special note and from the survey of teachers. The intent of these

questions was to show that even though an English nickname (or only English-sounding,

as many submitted nicknames were actually from other languages – Japanese, Chinese,

Spanish, Thai, and others) may be desirable in Thailand, they may sound quite strange in

the language they are from, or have negative meanings or usages. In fact, during the course of nickname review, it was the opinion of many experts that some of the 45

nicknames sound strange even in Thai. This result was not anticipated, and formal research was not conducted in this area during the course of this study, but perhaps it can be covered in future research. Question #5

Figure 4.7 Nickname: "Ball"

The origin of this nickname, as well as one other on the full list of nicknames (with two spellings, “ Bas,” and, “ Bass”), is from “ basketball.” Basketball is fairly popular in

Thailand, partially because it’ s one of the few countries from Southeast Asia ever to qualify for the Men's Basketball Tournament at the Summer Olympics. Unfortunately,

“ball,” is commonly-used slang for “testicle.” Question #6 46

Figure 4.8 Nickname: "Soft"

The negative meanings of “ Soft” are evident from some of its definitions: Not

strong, or foolish; silly. These are not the meanings the parents had in mind when giving

their child this name. The intended meaning was “sympathetic or compassionate,” and in

Thai culture, the term may be understood in this way, or in regard to sensation as in, “soft to the touch.” Question #7

Figure 4.9 Nickname: "Oil" 47

In this age of environmental calamity and climate change caused by the burning of fossil fuels, perhaps it is understandable why this name might have a negative meaning.

The results clearly show that most think it would sound strange. Question #8

Figure 4.10 Nickname: "Pea"

The full text of clipped answers in the chart are listed below:

1. Acceptable for women. For men, it sounds ok but would look strange if written.

2. Younger kids would have a field day with this nickname.

3. Just saying it: Without first knowing, the spelling might make it odd. Pee for instance.

All of these are probably referring to “pee,” which is urine. Question #9

48

Figure 4.11 Nickname: "Boy"

The full text of the clipped answer above reads: “For women it would be strange.

For men it would sound disrespectful.” This word actually has a long and dark history in the United States, rooted in slavery. The author of this thesis interviewed a Thai friend nicknamed Boy who went on a work-and-study program in Louisiana. He stated that everyone he met couldn’t believe it was really what he wanted to be called, because it’s such a demeaning name to be called, especially in the American south.

49

Question #10

Figure 4.12 Nickname: "Smart"

The results for this nickname plainly show that it would sound strange in a Western country, and perhaps it might sound arrogant or pretentious, as one respondent stated, in the sense that seeming to boast about your own intelligence might not actually be an intelligent thing to do. Question #11

Figure 4.13 Nickname: "Helicopter" 50

The full text of the clipped answer above reads: “Not necessarily strange but you would want to know how that name came about. Also, it is very long for a nickname.

Could have negative connotations like "helicopter parents".”

Over 90% of the respondents thought this nickname would sound strange in a

Western country. In addition, the Thai language experts thought that it sounds strange in Thailand as well, especially since there is a shortened version that seems to be more popular, “Copter.”

This nickname was collected in the teacher’s survey, and there were no details regarding origin or reason for choosing it. Question #12

Figure 4.14 Nickname: "Dream"

There are multiple definitions for “dream”:

1. (Noun) a cherished aspiration, ambition, or ideal.

2. (Noun) a series of thoughts, images, and sensations occurring in a person's mind during sleep.

3. (Verb) experience dreams during sleep.

4. (Verb) indulge in daydreams or fantasies about something greatly desired. 51

It is possible that parents had the first definition above in mind when they gave this nickname to their child, however, this meaning is often used as a noun adjunct (e.g., dream girl, dream job, dream team, etc.). The word used as a name, by itself, might hint at one of the other meanings. It also might sound exotic, which might be the reason for the

“Other” answers listed in the chart. Question #13

Figure 4.15 Nickname: "Design"

Perhaps a useful question to ask during future research would be: “Would it be a good idea to check with a native speaker before giving a foreign language nickname to your child?” Question #14 52

Figure 4.16 Nickname: "Save"

One detail not covered in the surveys was gender of the children. Again, this is not important for the purposes of this research, but may be for future studies. Interviews revealed that this nickname is for both boys and girls in Thailand. Question #15

Figure 4.17 Nickname: "Bank"

53

The full answers for “Other” in the chart are listed below: 1. Bank is sometimes a surname in England 2. Sounds like surname which is ok 3. Strange and potentially positive e.g., Rich 4. Might get you robbed haha “Bank” is indeed a surname, and not only in England. The third and fourth answers above refer to an informal meaning of the word, probably of US origin, referring to a large amount of money or being of high financial worth. Being rich is generally perceived as a positive, and hence the results above show that this nickname is perceived as sounding strange but not having a negative meaning. Question #16

Figure 4.18 Nickname: "Big"

In native English speaking countries, “ Big” is often used as a nickname in

conjunction with first names, usually as a descriptor of the person’s physical stature. “Big,”

by itself, would probably sound strange. It might be seen as silly or ironic if physical

stature did not match with, or was opposite of, the descriptor. Question #17 54

Figure 4.19 Nickname: "Guitar"

The full answers for “Other” in the chart are listed below: 1. I know someone English called Johnny Guitar 2. Person might just be VERY into his or her guitar 3. This might be a nickname within a band, the guy who plays guitar. Here again is a nickname that could be used as a nickname in conjunction with first names, e.g., “ Guitar Johnny.” Again, as shown by the survey results, it probably

sounds strange just by itself, which would be compounded if there were no guitar-related reason behind the name. However, in one of the cases (there were a total of 3 kids named

Guitar in the surveys), the mother has clearly stated that she named her kids Guitar and

Piano because she loves song and music, and her husband plays guitar. Even if Guitar’s name initially sounded strange to people he met, it would be easily explainable. It might even work out in Guitar’s favor because his name is so memorable, especially if he played in a band as alluded to in one of the answers above. Question #18 55

Figure 4.20 Nickname: "Tourist"

“Get out of here, you tourist!”

“How did you know my name?” Question #19

Figure 4.21 Nickname: "Cream"

56

The full answers for “Other” in the chart are listed below: 1. Potentially sexual connotation 2. Sounds erotic~ 3. Sexually suggestive.. 4. Future porn star? 5. Porn name. Bad for Thailand's already sleazy image.

6. Inappropriate or suggestive. Without going into specific reasons, it should suffice to say that this nickname has sexually suggestive/inappropriate connotations. Question #20

Figure 4.22 Nickname: "TrueMove"

TrueMove is a shortened moniker (full name: TrueMove H) for the second largest mobile telecommunications operator in Thailand, and is probably known to every living Thai. Most non-Thais would not know this name ( or understand this combination of words) and it would sound strange. It might be difficult to explain why someone chose it as a nickname. Question #21 57

Figure 4.23 Nickname: "Cat"

The full answers for “Other” in the chart are listed below:

1. It is a short version of a woman’s name

2. Yes if referring to the animal. No if short for Catherine etc.

3. No, because it might be short for Katerina or Caitlyn or Catherine.

4. I have a friend called Cat/Cathy

5. This is an Australian nickname. As seen in the results, this nickname does not sound strange to the majority of native English speakers who were surveyed. The reason for this is seen in the answers for

“ Other,” that is, this nickname already exists in their countries, at least partly as a shortened version of longer Western names such as “Catherine” and its variations. This is actually the same reason, at least in some cases, for its popularity as a Thai nickname as well: “Cat” is sometimes the shortened version of a longer Thai name,

“Cathleeya” or Cathaleeya.” In other cases, it does refer to a feline, as does its related Thai nickname, “Meow.” Question #22 58

Figure 4.24 Nickname: "iPhone"

Outside of a few specific groups and uses, e.g. the entertainment industry and rappers’ stage names, luxury brand names used as nicknames are not very common in native English speaking countries. Question #23

Figure 4.25 Nickname: "Focus" 59

This nickname and the alternative spelling found in the survey results, “Fogus,” do not have a negative meaning in English, but would probably sound strange in a native English speaking country. Question #24

Figure 4.26 Nickname: "FIFA"

FIFA is an acronym for Fédération Internationale de Football Association in French. However, it is also the accepted name for the International Federation of

Association Football in English. Whether the person hearing this nickname knows that or not may determine just how strange this nickname sounds to them; it may be better to not know and just accept it as a foreign word/name. Question #25 60

Figure 4.27 Nickname: "Cake"

Even though the word “ cake” may elicit overwhelmingly positive feelings to

Westerners who enjoy delicious baked goods, it would sound strange as a person’ s nickname, according to the survey results. Question #26

Figure 4.28 Nickname: "Ice"

61

This nickname, which is not used in Western countries for non-Thais (unlike “Cat”), is the single exception in this survey that the majority of responders said would not sound strange and did not think might have a negative meaning. In fact, a couple of respondents thought it was “ cool.” Obvious pun aside, it is the nickname in the survey of Native

English speakers that seemed most acceptable for use in Western countries. This may be because there is precedence of “ Ice” being used in well-known Western nicknames, particularly in hip-hop culture, professional sports, and Hollywood, for example: Ice-T

(rapper), Ice Cube (rapper), Just Ice (rapper), Matty Ice (NFL player) , Ice Trae (NBA player), and Ice Man/Iceman (numerous movie characters and pro athletes).

The English word “ice” is understood to mean the same in Thai English as it does in

NES English, i.e., frozen water. In addition, at least one slang usage of the word referring to a narcotic substance is also common to both dialects.

If children in Western countries started adopting the nickname Ice (because of the

Thai nickname “Ice”), would it have the possibility of affecting NES English? In regards to meaning, no, because the word in both dialects means the same thing. However, an argument could be made that NES English would be affected in such a scenario simply because Ice would start being used as a nickname in Western countries and hence enter the lexicon. Question #27 62

Figure 4.29 Nickname: "First"

The intended meaning of this nickname is “firstborn.” According to unreliable baby

name websites, “ Firstborn” is an actual first name in Western countries, although not popular. As the responses indicate, this nickname would most probably sound strange in

Western countries. Question #28

Figure 4.30 Nickname: "Best"

63

The responses indicate that the nickname “Best” would probably sound strange in

Western countries. The answers for “Other” indicate that the person with this nickname, or

the person who decided on it may be thought of as having a high opinion of themselves. However, the number of respondents who indicated a possible negative meaning were in the minority, albeit a comparatively opinionated minority. Question #29

Figure 4.31 Nickname: "Refill"

Possible negative meaning aside, this nickname was overwhelmingly selected as a nickname that would sound strange in a Western country ( total 98% , including one respondent who claimed it was the “strangest name I’ve ever heard”). In the Thai language,

“Refill” is a loanword from English mostly used in reference to drink fountain refills. The Thai language experts that checked the survey results went so far as to wonder how somebody could get this nickname.

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Question #30

Figure 4.32 Nickname: "Apple"

Although the majority of respondents indicated that this name would sound strange in Western countries, “Apple” has already been used in several of them as a surname, a given name, and a nickname from at least as far back as the nineteenth century, all the way to modern times. Not a single respondent thought it might have a negative meaning.

Note: A shortened form of this nickname is also popular in Thailand. It also appeared in the survey results: “Ple” (the latter half of the word). Question #31 65

Figure 4.33 Nickname: "Mint"

The single answer indicating this as a “call girl name” perhaps reflect more on the respondent’ s social habits more than anything else, as the majority of those surveyed answered that “Mint” would neither sound strange, nor have a possible negative meaning in a Western country. Question #32

Figure 4.34 Nickname: "Gmail"

66

Both the vast majority of native English speaking respondents and the Thai language experts checking the results agreed that “Gmail” sounds strange as a nickname in their respective languages/ countries. It does not, however, appear to have a negative meaning. Question #33

Figure 4.35 Nickname: "Bonus"

The majority of native English speaking respondents in this survey thought the nickname “Bonus” would sound strange.

One of the Thai respondents from the parent’ s survey gave the reason for choosing this nickname as: “ Our family had just got bonus money.” Without that explanation, might it be assumed that the nickname referred to the child as an unexpected or extra child, a “bonus child,” so to speak? That might explain the few respondents who answered that this nickname might have a negative meaning.

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Question #34

Figure 4.36 Nickname: "Auto"

This type of result is unique to this nickname, seen in the answers for “Other.” There is a German surname, “ Otto,” that is pronounced the same as this nickname. That is,

“Auto,” and, “Otto,” are homophones. Otto is purportedly a common name among families of German heritage in Western countries. It is possibly known to most of the respondents of this survey, probably more than indicated in the responses. However, perhaps because of the completely different spellings and languages/cultures involved, it is possible that many of the respondents did not think of the

German name Otto in the context of Thai nicknames – and neither did the author of this study when selecting nicknames to include in the survey. Although, it is possible that some respondents answered that it would sound strange because they pictured a young Thai boy with a traditional German name. For future research, it would be best to avoid situations like this as it introduces an indeterminate amount of unknowns into the results.

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Question #35

Figure 4.37 Nickname: "Boss"

The majority of responses indicate that the nickname “ Boss” would not sound strange in Western countries. A few answers for “Other” indicate some possible negative meaning for this name. Considering social hierarchies from all countries involved, it would appear that for the majority of respondents, the Boss is always right. As shown in the results above, native English speakers have some strong opinions about Thai nicknames; some of the results seem to express concern for the bearers of some nicknames. Multiple loanwords from Thai to English already exist in the lexicon of Native English Speakers. These include:

1. Bong ( บอง ): A bamboo water pipe. 2. Chedi ( เจดีย ): An alternative term for a Buddhist stupa, mainly used in Thailand. 3. Isan ( อีสาน ): The northeastern region of Thailand. 4. Siam ( สยาม ): The former name of Thailand 5. Thai ( ไทย ): Relating to Thailand, its people, or their language. 6. Wai ( ไหว ): A polite Thai greeting. 69

7. Wat ( วัด ): A Buddhist monastery or temple. Another example of a loanword from Thai to English that already exists was found in the survey results: “OTOP.” OTOP is an acronym for “One Tambon One Product”

(a tambon is a sub-district). According to the Royal Thai Embassy of Singapore: It is a local entrepreneurship stimulus program which aims to support the unique locally made and marketed products of each Thai tambon all over Thailand… It selects one superior product from each tambon to receive formal branding as a "starred OTOP product", and provides a local and international stage for the promotion of these products.

("What Is OTOP? | Royal Thai Embassy" 2010) In this case, the nickname OTOP came sometime after the word was coined by the Thai government and it may have entered the NES English lexicon when Westerners explained in English how they “purchased OTOP products,” or, “visited OTOP shops.”

Figure 4.38 OTOP Logo (“สินคาโอท็อป: OTOP Product” 2019)

Alternatively, if this Thai child introduced himself as OTOP overseas, it is possible that he would have to explain what his name meant. This could be another theoretical way for OTOP to enter the lexicon of native English speakers. In the course of data analysis, multiple examples of Thai nicknames with meanings unique to Thailand were found. Below are the best three examples:

Bank: This nickname appeared in the results for both the parent and the teacher survey. In Thai, the main meaning of “ bank” is “ banknote.” In native English speaking countries, a banknote can be referred to as a bill, a note, or paper money, but not as a “bank.” 70

Pretty: This nickname appeared in the results for the teacher survey. One adapted and perhaps predominant Thai English meaning of “pretty” is an attractive female model used to promote a product, brand, or event, especially related to automobiles or auto sports. In NES English, this specific kind of model is commonly referred to as a car show model, a promotional model, or a “booth babe,” but not as a “pretty.” Although “pretty” is sometimes used in by native English speakers to refer in a condescending way to an attractive person, this is not the same usage in Thai.

Figure 4.39 Thai "Pretties" at the Bangkok Intl. Motor Show Auto Import Expo

("GRAND PRIX PHOTOLIKE: www.grandprixphotolike.com" 2017)

Inter: This nickname appeared in the results for the teacher survey. “Inter” in Thai

English is the shortened form of “international.” It has nothing to do with the verb in

English meaning to place in a grave or tomb, pronounced /inˈtər/ (which, ironically, is closer to the Thai pronunciation of this nickname). When a Thai person says they are

“going inter,” it means they are travelling abroad. 71

As shown above, Bank, Pretty, and Inter are all Thai nicknames with meanings unique to Thai English. Below, the second part of the question will be analyzed. Data regarding reasons for giving these nicknames was only collected for one response among the many received, so it is not known whether the reasons for giving them was based on meanings in English or meanings in Thai. If the nickname Bank was chosen for its meaning in Thai, it is possible that it could affect NES English. However, it is not very likely, because there are already many well-established words that mean “banknote,” and the word “bank” has multiple meanings, one of which is also directly related to money -- it might be confusing, for instance, to explain that one could exchange old banks for new banks at new banks but not old banks. If the nickname Pretty was chosen for its meaning in Thai, it is possible that it could affect NES English. However, it is not probable for a couple of reasons. First, because “ pretty” already has a specific usage that refers to females, as described above.

Second, because the practice of using “ booth babes” in Western countries has become frowned upon in recent years:

There's something different about this year's Geneva Motor Show: The "booth babes" are almost all gone. For decades, automakers have paid glamorous and often scantily clad female models to appear at major auto shows and pose for photos next to their new cars. But the practice is quickly being abandoned in the era of #MeToo, with carmakers now choosing other ways to attract a crowd at motor shows. Major automakers including BMW, Nissan, Toyota and Kia told CNN they were not using models at this year's event. (Kottasová 2018) If the practice continues to decline in popularity, decline of the word might be expected to follow. Likewise, the probability of the Thai word being borrowed into NES

English would also decrease. There is usually no need for a new word for an outdated practice. In the case of the nickname Inter, it refers to something else entirely in NES English and could become a true loanword adopted back into NES English from Thai English. Out of all nicknames collected in the course of this research, it may have the best 72

chance of affecting NES English, if it came to be used to mean “international,” as it is in

Thailand. Consider the following scenario: A Thai student nicknamed “Inter” studies in the

USA. She introduces herself to everyone using her nickname, and explains that it’s short for “international.” If those people in turn explained this to others, it would be transmitting the word orally, classifying this as a popular loanword. But to take it further: She starts a business taking American students back to Thailand for homestay: Go Inter with Inter! People who knew her would understand what it meant and might explain it to others, enabling the spread of the “new” word and usage. In this manner, or any number of others, it is quite conceivable that the nickname “Inter” (or others), could affect English in native English speaking countries.

73

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Discussion

In an estimated population of one billion English speakers worldwide, the scope of this study is extremely narrow, mostly confined to a far province of Thailand. However, if the effects of English as the default language of tourism and globalization can be seen in the rural areas, they should be even more prevalent in the areas popular with tourists:

Figure 5.1 English Signage on Khao San Road, Bangkok ("Khaosan" 2019)

74

As explained in the literature review of this study, one of the ways humans adapt language is to make continuous changes to it. One need only examine popular English expressions from past generations to see how greatly vocabulary, expressions, and speech constructs change as relatively little time passes. This is a common theme in language studies. Pearson English, a leading education and publishing firm, wrote that one of the main influences on the evolution of languages is when “speakers of one language coming into contact with those who speak a different one.” In addition, “ a language always embraces new words, expressions, and pronunciations as people come across new words and phrases in their day-to-day lives and integrate them into their own speech” (Zazulak, 2016). This study has shown that Thai nicknames have the possibility of affecting native English speakers by being added to the lexicon of NES English. This was accomplished with a survey of parents and teachers in Northeast Thailand in order to compile a list of modern Thai nicknames ( Appendix G and H) with pertinent background information, then by analyzing and interpreting the results with expert help and conducting interviews. Specific examples of Thai nicknames that are loanwords from NES English were identified, as well as the reasons why they were chosen. Thai nicknames with meanings unique to Thai English were also identified, as were multiple scenarios through which these nicknames could affect NES English. In the course of determining the best nicknames to use as examples above (e.g. Bank, Pretty, and Inter) , a more simple method of Thai nicknames possibly affecting native English speakers became clear, that is, as nicknames of native English speakers. For example, the nickname “ Cat” was evaluated in the survey of native English speakers, and was determined to not sound strange in the West because it already exists as a nickname there, as a shortened version of a first name (Catherine) – which is also the case in the Thai language (Cathleeya)! For nicknames that do not seem to exist in native English speaking countries already, both “ Boss” and “ Ice” would seem to be the best candidates for usage/transfer there judged by their survey results (overwhelmingly chosen as not sounding strange or having a possible negative meaning). Another finding that seems to be supported by comments in the surveys ( in the “Other” fields) as well as interviews conducted is that some of the nicknames here could work better if the meanings actually matched the bearer. That is, if the person named 75

“ Guitar” played guitar in a band, or if “ Big” was of large stature, it would make more sense to Westerners. While there are some names that were judged to possibly have a negative meaning in native English speaking countries because of different cultural meanings (e.g. Soft, Boy), or perceived meanings (e.g. Pea, Cream) there also seems to be a negative effect for names that might sound self-aggrandizing (e.g. Genius, Best) as well. It was not the intention of any of the parents surveyed or interviewed to give their children nonsensical names, or names with negative meaning. As has been covered by Thai researchers before, the most common reason for choosing a specific nickname in Thailand is for its meaning (Ronakiat, 2012). However, it was also noted that parents who planned to send their children overseas at some point did think about how their nicknames would be pronounced and perceived in English-speaking countries. Perhaps this can serve as a future guideline for all parents concerned with how their children’ s’ nicknames can affect them, especially since the use of English is constantly spreading, even in the farthest regions of their own country. Some provisions were made to the surveys with future works in mind. More background data on the background and knowledge of the native English speakers surveyed was collected than was necessary for the purposes of this study with the hopes that it could be used in future related research. It would be possible to extend this particular research to include a wider area, possibly even for the whole country. The initial data collection could be automated in much the same way, but on a larger scale, with the use of online surveys and spreadsheets. Interviews and data analysis regarding reasons for choosing nicknames would be daunting as there is no way to process it without some human judgement. One area of research that could use the data from this study is the popularity of monosyllabic Thai nicknames of English origin. The top four nicknames from both the school and regional surveys were single syllable: Ice, Boss, Dream, Oil, Ball, Boy, May, Bank. This conflicts with previous research papers that have stated the popularity disyllabic nicknames for Thai children ( Ronakiat, 2012 and Charunrochana, 2011) , although the geographic region and target population of the studies were completely different. 76

The nature of this research seemed to be of interest to the majority of participants, researchers, and advisers the author relied on, and to whom he owes a great deal of thanks.

5.2 Conclusions

Research Question 1 was: What Thai nicknames are (or could be) loanwords from the English language, and why are English loanwords chosen as nicknames? Both parts of this question were answered in this paper. The results from the survey of the school showed that approximately one in six students had a nickname that may have originated from English. Survey results with popular nicknames are outlined in section 4.1.1 in Chapter 4 of this paper, and more detailed data can be found in Appendix G (Thai Nicknames Survey for Parents) and Appendix H (Thai Nicknames Survey for Teachers). The results show that the main reasons nicknames were chosen were for 1) (perceived) good meaning and 2) how they sound. However, there were multiple instances where perceived meaning and actual meaning differ, and in some cases, might result in awkward or embarrassing social situations. There was ample data collected in this research to enable further study on these types of differences. Research Question 2 was: How do native English speakers perceive Thai nicknames that are (or could be) English loanwords? This research found that some nicknames in Thailand are also nicknames in native English speaking countries, although they may have different meanings and origins. Other nicknames are uniquely Thai, but would not sound strange or have a negative meaning in native English speaking countries. Some were even complemented on by the surveyed native English speakers. However, the results also show that many nicknames and meanings perceived to be NES English by Thais are actually not. Some of these nicknames sound strange or have negative meanings in NES English. There is a great need for further study in this field, because no child should have an embarrassing or socially awkward nickname. 77

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APPENDICES

84

APPENDIX A

Indexes of Item-Objective Congruence (IOC) Summary Form 85

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APPENDIX B

IOC Approval Letter (Dr. Piyathida Phanya) 88

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APPENDIX C

Survey Request to MSU Sathit School

90

91

APPENDIX D

Thai Nicknames Survey for Parents 92

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APPENDIX E

Thai Nicknames Survey for Teachers 95

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APPENDIX F

Thai Nicknames Survey for Native English Speakers 98

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APPENDIX G

Detailed Results - Thai Nicknames Survey for Parents

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Oil a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... h. Don't know or can't remember. Cake a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. Other: Mother like to eat cakes Mind a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth b. We knew other people with it. c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Pea a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Je Jee a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. Oil a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: สอดคล้องกบชื่อของพี่น้องั Game a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth g. No particular reason. Kaka a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... b. We knew other people with it. Music a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Other: เป็นนักดนตรี Jina Other: ตั้งเองให้คล้องก บพี่ชายั a . Before birth Other: ให้คล้องจองกบชื่อพี่ชายั Save a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Saxsophone a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: เพราะพอเป็นคนสอนดนตรี่ Dream a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. New a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English.

107

108

Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Pretty a. His/her parent(s) Other: หลังคลอด ภายใน1วัน b. We knew other people with it. c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. Grace a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Other: เป็นศัพท์ทางวิทยาศาสตร์ Amine a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth ซึ่งตรงกบสาขาที่พั อเรียน่ คือวิทยาศาสตร์เคมี Peace a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Smile a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... b. We knew other people with it. e. For its good meaning in English. g. No particular reason. Blue a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... g. No particular reason. Ice a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... c. For how it sounded. Pea a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Mars a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Focus c. A relative b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. View a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth c. For how it sounded. First a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Chetah (Sitar?) a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth g. No particular reason. Mac a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. 10 8

109

Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Name a. His/her parent(s) Other: หลังจากคลอดเสร็จ g. No particular reason. Owen a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. Bonus a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Atom a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... c. For how it sounded. Tammy a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth Other: เอามาจากชื่อเล่นของพอและแม่ และพี่ชายผสมก่ นั Smart a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Coptain a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Other: ฝันวาคลอดออกมาเป็นผู้ชายชื่อว่ าน้องก่ ปตันั Cream a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Earth a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. Bell c. A relative a. Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. Other: ชื่อคล้องจองกบพี่ชายที่ชื่อั Boss Vespa a. His/her parent(s) Other : หลังจากคลอด 1 ปี g. No particular reason. Other: พอชอบรถเวสป้า่ ตั้งขื่อตามยี่ห้อรถ Gatpat a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth g. No particular reason. Satamp b. Brother or sister a. Before birth g. No particular reason. Boss c. A relative Other: วันที่เกิด e. For its good meaning in English. Mark a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. 109

110

Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Ice c. A relative b. Within a month after... g. No particular reason. h. Don't know or can't remember. Sem (Same? ) a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... g. No particular reason. Po-A a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... g. No particular reason. Oak a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... Other: อักษรเดียวกนกั บพั อ่ Boss a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Aten c. A relative b. Within a month after... g. No particular reason. Alunn (Alan?) a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth g. No particular reason. Nutky b. Brother or sister a. Before birth Other: เพื่อให้สอดคล้องกบชื่อเลั ่นของพี่สาว (แน็ตตี้) Pizza a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Anova a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. Leo c. A relative a. Before birth Other: มีตัวอักษรของชื่อเล่นพอและแม่ ่ Save a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Soft a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Smart a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Punch a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. Peach a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Tac a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... g. No particular reason. Ice a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English.

1 10

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Dream a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Boss a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Dream a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. g. No particular reason. Andrea a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... Other: Use the same name as a actor Bam a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth b. We knew other people with it. Dome a. His/her parent(s) Other: หลังคลอกภายในหนึ่งสัปดาห์ c. For how it sounded. Otop a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Sprite a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: สดใส ซาบซ่าเหมือนเครื่องดื่มสไปร์ท Book a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth g. No particular reason. Pucker a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: ชื่อตัวแรกเป็นคําผสมของชื่อพอแม่ ่ Cream a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Guitar a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. Pipi (Piepie) a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... Other: chenical interaction Stamp c. A relative b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. Bank c. A relative b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Fame a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Ice a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. Puff a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... b. We knew other people with it. c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai.

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Other: ชื่อเหมือนผลไม้ คือลูกพัฟฟ์ Pat a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... c. For how it sounded. Kate a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth c. For how it sounded. Other: we have planned to support her to study abroad in the future Ice a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth c. For how it sounded. Next a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Build a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. Gina a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Ice a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Ice a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Proton a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. Title a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Jeans a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. Other: เป็นพยัญชนะที่มีชื่อพอก่ บแมั รวมก่ นั Soft a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Fresh a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English.

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Folk a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Cake a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Design a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Fafa a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth Other: ตั้งชื่อฟ. ตามพี่พี Nana a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth g. No particular reason. Note a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Force c. A relative b . Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Auto a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... c. For how it sounded. Nano a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth g. No particular reason. New Year a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Boat a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth g. No particular reason. Bogus a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Party a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... g. No particular reason. Cartoon c. A relative b. Within a month after... Other: Cute cartoon Veta a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... 113

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? c. For how it sounded. Mint a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Jet a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Other: เกี่ยวกบชื่อั produet ที่ทําธุรกิจอยู ่ Google a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... e. For its good meaning in English. Guy a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth g. No particular reason. Towa a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth b. We knew other people with it. c. For how it sounded. Pangy Other: คุณยาตั่ ้งชื่อ แพง คุณแมเติม่ b . Within a month after... Other: เป็นชื่อที่คุณยาตั่ ้งความหมายตามภาษาไทยอีสาน เป็ น แพงก้ี Nice a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Mark a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. Shutter a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: ตั้งชื่อเพราะวาพ่ อชอบถ่ ่ายภาพและเป็น นักวิชาการโสตทัศนศึกษา Team a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: พี่ชายชื่อแทค เลยตั้งให้สอดคล้องเป็น แทคทีม Ice a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. First a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... d. For its good meaning in Thai. Other: He is the first son. Dean a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Design a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Ozone a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth b. We knew other people with it. 114

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? e. For its good meaning in English. g. No particular reason. Euro a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Fa c. A relative b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. Neon a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth c. For how it sounded. Fiew (Fuse?) a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. Orchid a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Other: We have beutiful orchids planted in our house. Pee a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Best a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Hope a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Tim c. A relative b . Within a month after... Other: Related to his (formal) name. Fluk a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded.

Fern a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth Other : คุณยายตั้งให้ 115

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Focus a. His/her parent(s) Other: When he eas a todler a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... e. For its good meaning in English. Nemo a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Salapao b. Brother or sister b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. Bonus a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... d. For its good meaning in Thai. Other: Our family just got bonus money. Mumin a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... d. For its good meaning in Thai. f. For religious reasons. Other: ตั้งตามความเชื่อทางศาสนา dong dong c. A relative b . Within a month after... Other: มีความหมายดีในภาษาจีน Jo a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... d. For its good meaning in Thai. chain c. A relative b . Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. sean c. A relative b. Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. Other: สอดคล้องกบชื่อพั อ่ /แม ่ (keeping the tim a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth same 'theme' as parents' nicknames Alex a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth b. We knew other people with it. c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Marco a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. g. No particular reason.

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? ben a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth f. For religious reasons. Other: ตั้งตามความเชื่อทางศาสนา, easy to be called in other countries Vip a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Vanda a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. d. For its good meaning in Thai. Mac a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth Other: Similar with his sister james a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Mint a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Toto a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. g. No particular reason. Tata a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. g. No particular reason. Oil a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... Other: เป็นยุคนํ้ามันแพง Meta a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: ตั้งตามงานวิจัยที่กาลังทําํ Benzin a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Nino a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. Ball a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... b. We knew other people with it. lucky b. Brother or sister b . Within a month after... d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English.

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Nickname Who gave it? When was it given? Why was this nickname chosen? Auto a. His/her parent(s) b. Within a month after... c. For how it sounded. e. For its good meaning in English. Okim Other: dad mum & a . Before birth Other: correlated with nickname of his grandma grandma Mirin a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth g. No particular reason. August c. A relative a. Before birth Other: ตามวันเกิด FORTUNE a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth e. For its good meaning in English. Other: เป็นที่พบกนครัั ้งแรกของพอแม่ ่ Champion a. His/her parent(s) b . Within a month after... e. For its good meaning in English. home c. A relative a. Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. e. For its good meaning in English. Heinz c. A relative a . Before birth g. No particular reason. Haru a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth Other: ตามเดือนที่น้องเกิด VEM a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth d. For its good meaning in Thai. Other: ตามเดือนเกิด Pitta a. His/her parent(s) a . Before birth c. For how it sounded. Emily a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... MAY c. A relative a. Before birth a. Influenced by the Internet, TV, movies... Other: I like music and song Guitar a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth My husban play guitar and i sing a song. Other: I like music and song. Piano a. His/her parent(s) a. Before birth My husban play guitar and i sing a song. 118

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APPENDIX H

Detailed Results - Thai Nicknames Survey for Teachers

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Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Ball บอล 12 Boy บอย 12 May เมย 10 Bank แบงค 9 Ann แอน 8 Big บิ๊ก 7 Cat แคท 7 Ice ไอซ 7 Joy จอย 7 Best - 6 Jane - 6 Max แม็กซ 6 Apple แอปเปล 5 Jack แจ็ค 5 Mint มิ้น 5 Nick - 5 Arm อารม 4 Bas บาส 4 Boss - 4 Cake เคก 4 Dear เดียร 4 First เฟรส 4 Focus โฟกัส 4 Game เกม 4 Joe โจ 4 June - 4 Man แมน 4 Mark มารค 4 121

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency New นิว 4 Pat - 4 Atom อะตอม 3 Auto - 3 Beer - 3 Benz - 3 Bird เบิรด 3 Dream - 3 Fame - 3 Golf กอลฟ 3 Guitar กีตาร 3 Jame - 3 James เจมส 3 Jenny - 3 John - 3 Nice - 3 Oil ออย 3 Peter ปเตอร 3 Sun - 3 Team - 3 A - 2 Air - 2 Am แอม 2 Art อาท 2 August - 2 Beam บีม 2 Beauty บิวตี้ 2 Bell เบล 2 122

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Bella - 2 Belle เบล 2 Boat - 2 Bobby นองบอบบี้ 2 Bow - 2 Captain - 2 Caros - 2 Earn เอิรน 2 Eddy - 2 Eye อาย 2 Film - 2 Frank แฟรงค 2 Get เก็ท 2 Gift กิ๊ฟต 2 Grace เกรซ 2 Ham แฮม 2 J เจ 2 Jim จิม 2 Jimmy จิมมี่ 2 Kat แคท 2 Lilly ลิลลี่ 2 M - 2 Mike ไมค 2 Mild ไมลด 2 Mind - 2 Mk เอ็มเค 2 Mos มอส 2 Nano - 2 123

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Newyear นิวเยียร 2 Nut - 2 Oak - 2 On ออน 2 Owen โอเวน 2 Peach - 2 Pete พีท 2 Piano เปยโน 2 Pink พิ๊งค 2 Pop ปอบ 2 Pp พีพี 2 Rita ริตา 2 Sand - 2 Set - 2 Smart สมารท 2 Soda โซดา 2 Teen ทีน 2 Tommy ทอมมี่ 2 Top ทอป 2 (Ap)Ple เปล 1 Andrew แอนดริว 1 Andria แอนเดรีย 1 B - 1 Bam แบม 1 Bas (Basketball) - 1 Ben - 1 Bete เบส 1 Big C - 1 124

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Bigboss - 1 Blue บลู 1 Bob ปอบ 1 Bogus โบกัส 1 Bom - 1 Bomb บอม 1 Bonus โบนัส 1 Book - 1 Boom - 1 Brazil - 1 Browny - 1 Bueaty - 1 Bus - 1 Cardphone การดโฟน 1 Care - 1 Champ - 1 Coke - 1 Copy กอปป 1 Cp - 1 Cram - 1 Danny - 1 Dave - 1 DeDe ดีดี้ 1 Deer - 1 Denmark - 1 Dent - 1 Design ดีไซน 1 Dom ดอม 1 125

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Dome - 1 Domon - 1 Dragon - 1 Ducky - 1 Duk ดัง 1 Earth - 1 Effect - 1 Emily - 1 Emmy - 1 English - 1 Euro ยูโร 1 Famous เฟมัส 1 Fan แฟน 1 Fax แฟกซ 1 Fight - 1 Fluke ฟลุค 1 Fogus - 1 Force ฟอรซ 1 Fortune - 1 Fram เฟรม 1 Frame เฟรม 1 Freshy - 1 Furtune - 1 Gafile กาฟว 1 Gate - 1 Geegie จีจี้ 1 Gitar - 1 Gmail นองจีเมลย 1 126

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Goft กอลฟ 1 Gus - 1 Guy กาย 1 Heaven - 1 Helicopter - 1 Ic - 1 Ichi - 1 Icon ไอคอน 1 Idea - 1 If อีฟ 1 Inter - 1 iPhone - 1 Ivy - 1 James Bond - 1 Jan - 1 Janny แจนนี่ 1 Jay เจ 1 Jayda เจดา 1 Jazzy - 1 Jeena จีนา 1 Jen เจน 1 Jerry เจอรรี่ 1 Jn - 1 Jo - 1 Joey - 1 Johny จอหนนี่ 1 Jonh จอนห 1 Kate เกต 1 127

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Keen - 1 Ken - 1 Kendo เคนโด 1 Kevin - 1 Kim คิม 1 King - 1 Kiwi - 1 Kun กัน 1 Laser - 1 Leo - 1 Lift ลิฟต 1 Linin ลินิน 1 Lion - 1 Lucky - 1 Mac แม็ค 1 Mai ใหม 1 Marcus - 1 Mars - 1 Mary แมรี่ 1 Michael - 1 Mick - 1 Micro - 1 Min - 1 Mina มินะ 1 Minny - 1 Mix - 1 Moss - 1 Music มิวซิค 1 128

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency My Dear - 1 Name เนม 1 Nancy แนนซี่ 1 Neda - 1 Nemo นีโม 1 Next เนกซ 1 Nicky นิคกี้ 1 Nike ไนทกี้ 1 Nina นีนา 1 Ninja นินจา 1 Not น็อต 1 Note โนต 1 Off ออฟ 1 Oiy 1

Olive โอลีฟ 1 Opal - 1 Oshi - 1 Osol โอโซน 1 Otop โอท็อป 1 Oven โอเวน 1 Painting นองเพนติ้ง 1 Pan แพน 1 Pancake - 1 Panda แพนดา 1 Pie ปาย 1 Piko ปโก 1 Pim พิม 1 Play เพล 1 Popeye - 1 129

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Poppy - 1 Porter - 1 Preme - 1 Pretty - 1 Program - 1 Proud - 1 Punch - 1 Radar - 1 Rain - 1 Refill - 1 Safety เซฟตี้ 1 Sea Games - 1 self เซฟ 1 Semon ซีมอน 1 Sharp - 1 Shota - 1 Smile - 1 Spy นองสปาย 1 Stamp นองสแตมป 1 Sunny - 1 Taiton - 1 Tee ที 1 Ten - 1 Tent นองเตนท 1 Tim - 1 Titer เสือ 1 Tom - 1 Tono - 1 130

Nickname (ENG) Nickname (TH) Frequency Tony - 1 Toom - 1 Uro ยูโร 1 Valentines นองวาเลนไทน 1 Vego วีโก 1 Victor - 1 View วิว 1 Warm วอรม 1 Wave เวฟ 1 Wave (Microwave) - 1 Wax แวกซ 1 Win - 1 Window - 1 Wine - 1 Winner - 1 Winnie - 1 Yard หยาด 1 Yes - 1 Yim - 1 Yufa ยูฟา 1 Yuki - 1

BIOGRAPHY

Name: Justin Akiyo Yoshida

Place of Birth: Los Angeles, USA

Residence: Maha Sarakham, Thailand

Education Background: Bachelor of Arts in Japanese Studies Tenri University, Japan

Master of Arts in English Language Studies Rajabhat Maha Sarakham University, Thailand

Employment History: Lecturer, Rajabhat Maha Sarakham University Maha Sarakham, Thailand (2006 – Present)

Head of Japanese Studies, Strisuksa School Roi Et, Thailand (2014 – 2015)

Curriculum Advisor, Ekka Juku Maha Sarakham, Thailand (2014 – 2015)

Lecturer, Maha Sarakham University Maha Sarakham, Thailand (2011)

Project Planner, SANYO Electric Co., LTD. Hyogo, Japan (2000 – 2006)

Co-Owner, UniDoc Productions Inc. Vancouver, Canada (1999-2000)

Project Manager, Highland Inc. Osaka, Japan (1997 – 2000)