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Becoming Taiwanese: Negotiating Language, Culture and Identity

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Becoming Taiwanese: Negotiating Language, Culture and Identity Becoming Taiwanese: Negotiating Language, Culture and Identity Ying-Chuan Chen Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a doctoral degree in Education Society, Culture, and Literacies Concentration Faculty of Education University of Ottawa © Ying-Chuan Chen, Ottawa, Canada, 2013 Abstract Between 1945 and 1987, as part of its efforts to impose a Chinese identity on native-born Taiwanese and to establish and maintain hegemony, Chiang Kai-shek‘s Kuomintang (KMT) government pursued a unilingual, Mandarin-only policy in education. This thesis studies the changing meaning of ―becoming Taiwanese‖ by examining the school experiences of four generations of Taiyu speakers who went to school during the Mandarin-only era: 1) those who also went to school under the Japanese; 2) those who went to school before 1949 when Taiwan was part of KMT-controlled China; 3) those who went to school during the 1950s at the height of the implementation of KMT rule; and, 4) those who went to school when Mandarin had become the dominant language. Two data types, interviews and public documents, are analyzed using two research methods, focus group interviews as the primary one, and document analysis as the secondary one. This research found that there is no direct relationship between how people negotiated language, hegemony and Taiwanese identity. First, as KMT hegemony became more secure, people‘s links to their home language became weaker, so their view of Taiwanese identity as defined by Taiyu changed. Second, as exposure to hegemonic forces deepened over time, people were less able to find cultural spaces that allowed escape from hegemonic influences, and this, along with other life-course factors such as occupation, had an impact on their contestations of language and identity. The study recognizes the role of human agency and highlights the interactive and performative aspects of identity construction. The results reflect the different possibilities of living with hegemony in different eras, and also show that Taiwanese identity is not fixed, nor is there a single, ―authentic‖ Taiwanese identity. ii Acknowledgements My supervisor used to say that the process of studying for a PhD is like trying to dig a way from this side of a mountain out to the other. The beginning is hard, because you don‘t know where to start digging. Your doubt, anxiety, and tension build up as time goes by, as you are not sure if you are in the right track. Not until a dim ray of light is seen in the far distance do you feel a bit relieved. There is still a long way to go, but at least you seem to be able to see the end. I am indebted to many people, without whom this thesis would not have been possible. My first and sincerest gratitude goes to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Tim Stanley, who has guided me through the dark, in moments of perplexity and uncertainty. I can never thank him enough for all I have learned from him, for his continuous support to keep me motivated, and for his being the true mentor. I am also blessed to have worked with the respected committee members, Dr. Sharon Cook, Dr. Lorna McLean, and Dr. Awad Ibrahim, who always believed in me, always were caring and supporting, and always offered invaluable insights and advice. Also, I owe my thanks to Dr. Henry Yu, who accepted to be the external examiner in my committee. I would also like to express my special appreciation to my friends near and far, especially the doctoral students in the faculty of Education at the University of Ottawa. Those wonderful people have made my doctoral journey not so lonely: Joan Harrison, Eric Duku, Maria Gordon, Osnat Fellus, Julie Comber, Natalie Gougeon, Jeela Jones, Christine Johnson, and Shari Orders. I am also beyond grateful to all of my research participants, who were generous with iii their contribution, in a way I can never repay. In addition, I could not have achieved this project without the financial assistance I received from the University of Ottawa. There are many more people to thank for their parts in the completion of my doctoral journey, and it is almost impossible to thank them all. Lastly, with greatest affection, I want to share the credit of my achievement with my father, who traveled thousands of miles alone to see his beloved daughter far away from home, and my husband, Wen-Te, whose selfless dedication to our family has made my dream of this research project a reality. iv Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................. iii 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 The Origin and Focus of This Study........................................................................... 2 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 17 2 Review of the Literature............................................................................................. 20 Colonial Taiwan and Language Policies .................................................................. 20 Japanese Period 1895-1945: Becoming Japanese .................................................... 23 KMT Rule 1945-1987: Becoming Chinese ……………………….…...................... 27 Review of the Literature ............................................................................................ 31 History of Language and Language Policy in Taiwan ..................................... 31 Key Theorists and Important Concepts ............................................................ 37 Conceptual Framework of the Research: A Summary............................................... 65 3 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 66 Theoretical Orientation ............................................................................................. 66 Oral History and Focus Group Interview ...........................................................66 Critical Discourse Analysis ................................................................................73 Research Design .........................................................................................................76 Rationale for the Research Design .................................................................... 76 Two Types of Data Sources, Data Collecting and Analyzing ........................... 80 4 Under Japanese rule—Language and education ........................................................ 98 About the Participants ............................................................................................... 98 Qing Control ............................................................................................................ 100 Social and Political System under Japanese Rule .................................................... 101 Early Years (1895-1915) ................................................................................ 102 Dōka: "Integration" (1915-1937).................................................................... 105 Kōminka: "Subjects of the Emperor" (1937-1945) ..........................................108 Education and Language ................................................................................ 112 What People Remember .......................................................................................... 116 Social Order ................................................................................................... 116 National Language Families .......................................................................... 120 Separate Schools ............................................................................................ 122 Language—Home Language and Japanese ................................................... 124 Conclusion: Construction of Hegemony ................................................................ 126 v 5 ―We learn Mandarin naturally‖—Early-KMT rule (1945-1949) ........................... 130 About the Participants ............................................................................................ 131 Constructing KMT Hegemony .................................................................................. 132 Coming of Mainland Chinese …..................................................................... 132 Role of Newspapers ........................................................................................ 140 Role of Language Policy ................................................................................ 148 Role of Schools .............................................................................................. 154 Growing Conflict ..................................................................................................... 162 Tensions in School ......................................................................................... 163 The 228 Incident ............................................................................................. 164 Conclusion: Construction of Hegemony ................................................................ 167 6 ―We took pride in speaking Mandarin‖— Establishing the hegemony of Mandarin (Mid-KMT rule 1949-1958) ..................................................................................
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