Thinking in Forest Time A Strategy for the Massachusetts Forest

Charles H. W. Foster David R. Foster Thinking in Forest Time

A Strategy for the Massachusetts Forest

Charles H. W. Foster David R. Foster

With contributions from Mary Berlik, Jill Blockhus, Yoshihito Enomoto, Edgar Feinberg, Priscilla Feinberg, Karen Filipovich, Thomas Fullum, Keith Furukawa, Stacy Greendlinger, William Haney, Robb Johnson, James Levitt, Veronica Loewe, Kaori Nakamura, Brent Plater

1999

HARVARD FOREST, HARVARD UNIVERSITY PETERSHAM, MASSACHUSETTS

HARVARD FOREST PAPER NO. 24 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 5

THE FORESTS OF MASSACHUSETTS 7 Natural and Pre-settlement Disturbance 7 Historical Dynamics 7 Post-Settlement Dynamics — Post-agricultural and Modern Periods 8 Present Conditions 8

A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR THE MASSACHUSETTS FOREST 9 A Vision for the Massachusetts Forest 9 The Comprehensive Plan 10 Managment and conservation 10 Utilization 10 Ownership 11 Education 11 Programs and services 11

IMPLEMENTING THE COMPREHENSIVE PLAN 12 Private Sector Intitiatives 12 Academic Research and Measurement 13 A New Role for Cities and Towns 14 State Agency Actions 14 Federal Agency Involvement and Support 15 Legislative Action 16

MASSACHUSETTS LEGACY FORESTS 17 North Quabbin Regional Landscape Partnership 17 Lessons from North Quabbin 19

EPILOGUE 20

APPENDIX A: CLASS PROFILE 21

APPENDIX B: VISITING LECTURERS 22

APPENDIX C: PUBLICATIONS 23

APPENDIX D: WORKING REFERENCES 23 Copyright © 1999 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

Photographs by D. R. Foster

Front cover: Beaver pond adjacent to the Quabbin Reservoir

Back cover: Millers River watershed INTRODUCTION series of substantive and implementation memos developed by student teams, and a set of individ- In the fall of 1998, Harvard University’s John F. ual papers (Appendix C), the findings and rec- Kennedy School of Government offered a ommendations of this policy paper have been graduate-level course, Using History to Inform derived. Its title underscores several important Policy: Lessons from the Massachusetts Forest. The themes that we feel need to be kept in mind. instructors were Charles H. W. Foster, adjunct The importance of “thinking in forest time” research fellow and lecturer, and former echoes a thesis first set forth by Harvard Massachusetts state forester, secretary of environ- University faculty members Richard E. Neustadt mental affairs, and dean of the Yale University and Ernest R. May, whose own Thinking In Time: School of Forestry and Environmental Studies; The Uses of History for Decisionmakers (The Free and David R. Foster, director of the Harvard Press, 1986) has guided national security experts Forest. and inspired generations of Kennedy School stu- The course had an enrollment of fifteen stu- dents in their preparation for public policy dents (Appendix A). Nineteen outside lecturers careers. We are grateful to Professor May for (Appendix B) were invited to share their views encouraging us to apply this concept to environ- and experiences with the class. A special collo- mental and natural resources issues. quium of national forest history experts was con- In brief, the concept asserts that problems vened to provide added perspective on the rela- occur simply as elements in a continuous time tionship between history and policy. stream — the process by which the present moves The course was inspired by the recently pub- to become part of the past. Thus, problem solving lished history of the Massachusetts Forest, in the absence of an historical context can lead to Stepping Back to Look Forward (Charles H. W. inadequate or even flawed solutions. In the case Foster, editor, Harvard Forest/Harvard University of forests, this concept is particularly appropriate Press, 1998), which chronicles more than three as historical events, processes or decisions may centuries of forest use in the Commonwealth of control future conditions for many centuries — Massachusetts. Students were asked to identify at the very least. the principal lessons they learned from the book But “thinking in forest time” also identifies a and to develop policies and actions that would principal problem in forestry today. In make the current cycle of growth and utilization Massachusetts, forests grow and mature over peri- one of intent and design, not simply an accident ods of 80 to 100 years or more, whereas the own- of history. In so doing, it was hoped that these ership of forests changes about once every seven future public and private managers would learn years. Thus, to grow a forest to full maturity how history can and should be used to inform requires a dozen or more owners, each commit- policy. ted to completing the full biological and eco- The first third of the course constituted an nomic cycle — under normal circumstances, an introduction to the principles and practices of unrealistic expectation. For these reasons, the forestry, culminating in a field trip to the Harvard typical Massachusetts forest will likely be harvest- Forest and metropolitan Boston’s Quabbin ed just as soon as it achieves any economic value, Reservoir watershed in north central Massa- thereby depriving the Commonwealth of the full chusetts. During the second unit, students range of goods, services, and values this remark- systematically examined the historical record per- able resource is capable of delivering. taining to ecology and land use, economic uses, The subtitle of this book is our answer to this state forestry programs, private and community problem — the need for a thoughtful strategy, forestry, and the national and cultural context for illuminated by history, to apply reason and intent Massachusetts forests and forestry. During the to the natural process of forest growth and devel- final unit, students posed questions on possible opment. In a state like Massachusetts where initiatives to invited non-governmental, govern- forests are predominantly privately-owned, and mental, and legislative policy leaders. From a where the tradition of individual freedom is still

5 fiercely defended, the idea of foresight and inter- vention may prove anathema to some. But, as the lens of history informs us, for at least the last few centuries of forest growth and utilization, the laissez faire approach has determined the manage- ment, use, and ultimate condition of the Massachusetts forest. For our current forest, we are convinced that we can and should do better.

Charles H. W. Foster David R. Foster

6 THE FORESTS OF MASSACHUSETTS mable and fire-adapted vegetation. In contrast, forests of northern hardwood and hemlock in the The vegetation in Massachusetts is controlled by Berkshires experience few fires. Although there is climate, physiography, geology, natural distur- extensive debate over the frequency, extent and bances such as windstorms and fire, and human broad-scale impacts of aboriginal burning, there activities past and present. Excluding Cape Cod, is general agreement that Indians did burn the the state is rectangular, 125 miles east to west and New England landscape to create fields and reju- 50 miles north to south, and receives approxi- venate understory browse for deer and other mately 40 inches of precipitation annually. With game animals, and that this activity decreased a mean temperature near 50 degrees F., the cli- inland from the coast. These frequent and wide- mate is very well suited for forest growth. Geology spread, Indian-caused fires may have had an varies, but except for the Connecticut Valley and important impact on the vegetation. Taconic Mountains, it is generally acidic and fair- ly nutrient-poor, producing shallow soils. Historical Dynamics Forest zones are broadly determined by tem- perature, which varies principally with elevation. Commencing in the early seventeenth century, Southeastern Massachusetts, Cape Cod, and the European settlement spread inland and up the Islands fall within the pitch pine-oak type, which Connecticut Valley at uneven rates, with the predominates on sandy soils and is characterized northern portions of Worcester County and the by drought-tolerant and fire-adapted pitch pine, Berkshires settled as late as the late eighteenth tree and scrub oaks, and huckleberry. Elsewhere, century. Initial clearing occurred slowly due to in the coastal lowlands, southern Worcester coun- the lack of markets and transportation, however, ty, and the Connecticut Valley is the central hard- starting in the late 1700s, the rural economy shift- woods-hemlock-white pine zone; the northern ed from home production and local consump- extension of the oak-hickory forest of the central tion to market-oriented intensive agriculture, and Appalachians and middle Atlantic States. To the farmers began clearing more forested land. By north and west, and extending up river valleys in the mid-nineteenth century most rural towns western Massachusetts, is the transition hard- reached their agricultural and population peaks. woods zone, characterized by greater amounts of However, the start of regional industrial concen- northern species. Higher elevations in the tration, national transportation networks, and Berkshires and northern Worcester County sup- westward expansion signaled the eventual decline port northern hardwoods and spruce-fir forests, of New England agriculture. Hilltowns began a dominated by sugar and red maple, yellow birch, gradual decline and the factories of river valleys beech, spruce, and fir. and urban centers grew tremendously, while the developing railroad network could transport raw Natural and Pre-settlement Disturbance materials and finished products across the land. The new roads and railroads allowed many non- Major natural disturbances affecting the region’s perishable farm products to be shipped from the forests include windstorm (hurricanes and down- Midwest less expensively than they could be pro- bursts), pathogens, ice-storms, and fire. duced in Massachusetts. Catastrophic hurricanes are uncommon and gen- State-wide, peak deforestation for agriculture erally parallel the path of the 1635, 1815, and was reached about 1860 when nearly 70 percent 1938 storms, which strongly affected central and of the land was cleared. Remaining forests were eastern Massachusetts. Fire, like windstorms, var- harvested intensively as growing rural popula- ied geographically and over time in response to tions required large amounts of cordwood for climate, vegetation, and ignition by lightning, fuel. For example, many hardwood forests were Indians, and European settlers. Fires are gener- managed using a “coppice” system, in which trees ally frequent in southeastern Massachusetts were harvested every 20–40 years, left to re- where droughty, sandy soils support very flam- sprout, and harvested again. Although fuelwood

7 represented the greatest demand, hemlock and federal lands elsewhere in the country and a chestnut were also cut to provide tanbark, lumber strong export market has increased prices. was cut for construction, and various woods were However, despite these pressures, the size and age used for charcoal production and assorted build- of trees and the total volume of wood in the ing materials. Massachusetts forest are steadily increasing.

Post-Settlement Dynamics — Post-agricultural Present Conditions and Modern Periods Today, open land in rural parts of the state is pri- The decline of agriculture in the second half of marily restricted to broad river valleys and the the nineteenth century initiated a corresponding crests of broad ridges. Urban areas, which devel- expansion and growth of forest. Consequently, oped first along the coast and along major rivers, the modern forest can be divided into secondary have spread inland and suburban development forest on land once cleared, and primary forest has increased, especially near the junctions of on land that remained in forest through the his- major highways. Today, forests predominate out- torical period. The secondary forests that estab- side these zones and in protected reserves; the lished themselves on abandoned fields were often greatest pressure on these forest areas occurs at dominated by white pine and, by the late nine- the edges of these zones. teenth century, these forests were harvested The history of our land has favored a modern across the region for lumber, boxes, and assorted landscape of even-aged forest stands with sharp containers. Tremendous volumes of “old-field” boundaries in species composition and forest white pine and other species were cut, peaking in structure between adjacent stands. Land-use reg- 1910–1911. In turn, these cutover lands recov- ulations and land ownership boundaries create ered rapidly to produce large tracts of even-aged, visible breaks that are perpetuated through time young, low-value stands, dominated by oak, red and subsequent ownership changes. The even- maple, ash, birch, and cherry. The hurricane of aged structure and imposed forest pattern that 1938 reinforced the effect of the earlier logging exist across much of our landscape today increase as it selectively blew down the tall and susceptible the potential for future disturbances to be more white pine, most of which were then salvaged. damaging than they might be in a more composi- Many of the cut-over stands, considered nearly tionally diverse but structurally homogeneous for- worthless at the time, were acquired by the state est. Moreover, the decline in open areas and the and now form the basis of our state forest system. relative absence of very young forests has led to a Humans have been unwitting accomplices in regional decline in species dependent on such other recent disturbances. In particular, with habitats. increasing transport of products internationally, The human dimensions of our present forest many exotic forest pests and pathogens have are also worthy of note. For example, fragmenta- been introduced, including the gypsy moth, tion of forest ownership patterns has reduced the chestnut blight, Dutch elm disease and, most average parcel size to approximately 10 acres, half recently, the hemlock woolly adelgid. Logging of what it was a decade ago. The new group of and land conversion to suburban use are direct owners has different expectations of the forest human activities most affecting our forests over and seemingly less commitment to sustainable recent decades. Significant numbers of people management than preceding generations. are now building homes on large, forested lots, Smaller ownerships have resulted in larger num- clearing trees immediately around the buildings bers of owners, making it increasingly difficult to and fragmenting the forest land into increasingly reach those who control the bulk of the resource smaller parcels. Meanwhile, the maturing forest and to coordinate management efforts. of Massachusetts has and is being harvested with Topping all of these human-related issues has varying intensity, particularly as environmental been the steady urbanization of the state’s popu- disputes have placed limitations on harvesting of lation. Our citizenry is now spatially and psycho-

8 logically removed from the land. Environmental titatively abundant but qualitatively deficient. battles are increasingly fought over growth man- agement, open space, recreational access, and A Vision for the Massachusetts Forest biodiversity without much consideration of the actual biology or resource potential of the forest Before proceeding with a comprehensive forest that forms the basis of most land use in plan, Massachusetts needs to first develop a Massachusetts. Yet, in our judgment, the thoughtful vision of how this extensive resource Commonwealth’s high levels of education and could be made to contribute more substantially noteworthy concern for the environment make to the present and future well being of the it perhaps the ideal place to develop and practice Commonwealth. The visioning process should innovative and sophisticated forms of forest examine the forest as a whole, from individual stewardship. trees to entire landscapes, watersheds, and regions. It should reach out to a wide range of A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR THE interests and be participatory in nature. Upon MASSACHUSETTS FOREST completion, the public and/or the legislature should validate it. The vision should attempt to Blessed with an abundance of woodland located answer five basic questions: within easy reach of its five million citizens, the 1. What is the status of the Massachusetts for- Commonwealth seemingly needs little incentive est today? to develop a comprehensive plan for its nearly 2. How did it get that way? three million acres of productive forest. But 3. What future conditions do we want to cre- appearances can be deceiving. The Massachusetts ate and why? citizenry literally cannot see the forest for the 4. Where are we now relative to our vision of trees. For example, there is tacit recognition that the future? trees abound, but little realization that trees form 5. How should we act to achieve these desired larger complexes, forest ecosystems, which are care- conditions? fully shaped and fitted to the land, and forested landscapes, which support important natural To develop the vision that is contemplated, we processes and a wealth of biological diversity. The propose that the secretary of environmental uses and values derived from forests, such as affairs, acting under the provisions of Section 5 of water, wildlife, recreation, and carbon storage are Chapter 21A, establish a forest environment pro- but dimly understood. Little connection is made gram review board of nine to fifteen individuals between the wood that helps warm our hearths, who have demonstrated interest, competence, sustains our business enterprises, and graces our and leadership in matters relating to the households, and the trees that are needed to pro- Massachusetts forest. The scope of the inquiry duce the material. Aesthetically, of course, trees should embrace private as well as public forests. have always occupied a firm place in the affec- The board should include, but not be limited to, tions of humankind, but principally as backdrop members with professional training in forestry or ornament. Natural forests are too frequently and related disciplines. As examples, those with cut down indiscriminately to make way for devel- land trust, municipal, watershed, wildlife, and sci- opments, only to be replaced later at consider- entific experience and competence would be able expense with largely exotic plant material. especially welcome. The board should be given To the average citizen, the prospect of harvesting ready access to the technical facilities and trees triggers instant environmental concern resources of Commonwealth agencies but oper- notwithstanding the fact that carefully managed ate entirely independent of them. forests tend to provide more uses, values, and In his selection of members and his charge to benefits than those lacking responsible steward- the board, the Secretary should recognize that ship actions. The net result has been a the forest is Massachusetts’s principal landscape Massachusetts landscape in which forest is quan- attribute. Thus, in addition to its own physical

9 attributes, the forest should be evaluated as a con- knowledgeable of the nature and potential of the tributor of plentiful and pure water, a place for Massachusetts forest. Thus, it should be prepared recreation and enjoyment, an important compo- by foresters, ecologists, and conservationists with nent of biodiversity, a crucial element of open- the help of planners — not the reverse — and space conservation, and a source of continued involve those who are the most likely to be cultural enrichment, education, and inspiration. charged with the plan’s implementation. A spe- The Secretary should encourage a vision of cial allocation of federal funds should be sought the forest as a means to interconnect disparate to assist with the project. Among the broad areas programs operating within the Executive Office of inquiry should be those relating to manage- of Environmental Affairs, thereby advancing the ment and conservation, utilization, ownership, goal of enhanced interagency cooperation. and public education. In addition, the task force Examples include the land, water, wildlife, and should address the institutional adequacy of agricultural management activities conducted by forestry programs and services. Areas and specific state agencies, but also special watershed, wet- topics that may be addressed are given below lands, and biodiversity initiatives; state and local from examples that emerged from class papers. park and conservation land acquisition; areas of Management and conservation. The manage- critical environmental concern designations; ment of state forestlands currently suffers from riverways and greenways programs; environ- an acute lack of personnel, program support, and mental joint powers agreements; Geographic broad-scale vision. The comprehensive manage- Information Systems and planning activities; and ment of private and municipal forests is virtually future actions that may be initiated to contain non-existent. The Commonwealth’s small com- urban sprawl. plement of public foresters, there to provide serv- The board should be activated no later than ices to forest landowners, are currently preoccu- July 1, 1999 and given the goal of completing a pied with the administration of state forest cut- draft Massachusetts forest vision by October 1. ting practices regulations and the oversight of Thereafter, on behalf of the board, the Secretary certifications under Chapter 61, the forest land should request the Special Commission on Forest use classification act. Thus, forest management in Management Practices to conduct public hear- Massachusetts has become largely cutting man- ings on the proposed vision prior to submission agement. At least two remedial initiatives seem of the board’s final report and recommendations worthy of serious exploration. The first would be to the secretary on or before December 31, 1999 a determination of priority areas where forest . protection and management could be under- The Comprehensive Plan taken on a region-wide rather than ownership basis, including provisions for joint public/pri- Concurrent with the preparation of the vision, vate action. The case study of the North Quabbin the Secretary would be expected to establish a region (see below) is a vivid example of that Department of Environmental Management/ approach in practice. The second initiative to be Bureau of Forest Development-led interagency considered would be some form of intervention task force to prepare a comprehensive plan for to secure those prime forestlands for the future. implementation of the proposed forest vision. Use of timber rights purchases or timber banking Given the recently-completed state forest inven- approaches would be among the possible tory update by the U.S. Forest Service, the re- options. The state’s successful farmland preserva- measurement of continuous inventory plots on tion (APR) program could be a useful model state forest lands, and the evaluation of state here. forestry programs currently underway, the under- Utilization. While we applaud the current taking of a state-wide, comprehensive, forest plan efforts to find outlets for underutilized materials, would be most timely. develop and apply new technologies, and create Unlike the earlier visioning process, the state new markets, the potential for applying “green plan should be the responsibility of those most certification” programs more widely in

10 Massachusetts also seems quite promising. One present “Tree Farm” designation. Ways to revital- possibility is a “chain of custody” approach that ize the largely moribund town forest system would enable a consumer to track a forest prod- should be an early order of business, too. uct back to an ecologically responsible set of man- Education. Fundamental to all of these areas agement and harvesting practices. A special of concern is the appalling lack of awareness and Masswood label, attached to any such products understanding of forests by the general public. It and available to the buyer at a slight product pre- reminds us of a similar ignorance of the role of mium, would provide a tangible degree of assur- watersheds and river basins in the late 1950s, and ance and represent a significant source of sup- the remarkable study initiative of the League of plementary revenue. In addition, there is a need Women Voters that helped bring these matters to to examine the economic potential of other prod- the attention of ordinary citizens. The develop- ucts and uses of the forest. The values of water ment of a state-wide, science-based environmen- yields and wildlife habitat are already well-known, tal curriculum for grades K-12 is long overdue in but associated activities such as the gathering of Massachusetts, and this need should be brought mushrooms, cones, berries, “greens,” and other directly to the attention of the Secretary of plant materials, ecological services such as carbon Environmental Affairs’ Special Advisory Group offsets, outdoor recreation, and ecotourism may on Environmental Education (SAGEE). But for have significant and undeveloped economic forests and forestry, we particularly favor place- potential for Massachusetts. based educational programs based in locally Ownership. The response of landowners to accessible forests where school and community Chapter 61’s tax deferral provisions is encourag- groups can see firsthand how these remarkable ing, but far from realizing the potential for this environments function and contribute. Such a program. Approximately, one-quarter million system of demonstration forests is urgently need- acres of Massachusetts’s forestland have been so ed in Massachusetts, especially in urban and sub- certified. However, less than 10% of eligible urban areas. The aforementioned Chapter 61 landowners are currently enrolled (D. Kittredge, tracts, portions of the metropolitan park system, pers. comm.), growth in enrollments has slowed and some of the smaller state and municipal recently, and many of the current ownerships are forests, could fulfill these functions nicely, beginning to change hands. The latter point although the expertise needed to interpret and highlights one of the hidden benefits of the convey the importance of these lands to students Chapter 61 program: Towns have the right of first will require development. Consideration should refusal to acquire or protect land when it changes also be given to calling a special state-wide con- hands and thus the program could serve as a ference on Massachusetts forests. The model major safeguard in the maintenance of open- might be the Seventh American Forest Congress, space. Reforms are needed in the present convened in Washington under private auspices Chapter 61 regulations, and the future of the in February 1996, during which national and already certified tracts, especially those on urban regional forest policies were presented and debat- fringes, warrants priority attention. Tragically, ed. Completion of the visioning and comprehen- many of these long-term, managed forests have sive planning projects would provide a good rea- been lost by having to meet counterproductive son for such a congress in Massachusetts. From state and federal estate tax requirements. In our that event could arise the broad-based coalition opinion, forestry interests need to forge new of interests needed to implement a revitalized alliances with the state’s influential land trust and statewide forestry program. conservation commission communities, con- Programs and services. Regardless of the par- tributing their management competence in ticular area of interest, the planning task force return for a more active role in open space pro- needs to keep in mind two cross-cutting issues: tection. The forest planning task force also needs the institutional adequacy of present agencies to find ways to extend societal recognition of and services, and the funds required to support good stewardship beyond such systems as the them. For example, in contrast to the early days

11 of the Commonwealth, the state’s forestry pro- statewide goal of 30 percent wood self-sufficiency grams are now buried deep within the environ- for communities outside the metropolitan areas mental bureaucracy. No longer can such impor- would be a challenging prospect. At the very least, tant issues come readily to the surface. We would a few towns or regions in the state should be invit- urge the Commissioner of the Department of ed to serve as self-sufficiency pilot projects. Environmental Management, and the Secretary of the Executive Office of Environmental Affairs, IMPLEMENTING THE to examine carefully the adequacy and the place- COMPREHENSIVE PLAN ment of these functions. As for funding, there is an urgent need to Private Sector Initiatives explore supplemental revenue sources to support and expand forestry services and related conser- Each of the comprehensive plan elements will be vation activities. At present, the Commonwealth is expected to carry its own set of recommendations substantially dependent upon the availability of for implementation. However, using the lessons federal funds for its initiatives. As examples, the of the past as prologue, no such program will be present arrangements for the disposition of tim- successful without active and influential private ber sales revenues should be reviewed. There may leadership. Lacking any well-established, recog- be significant disincentives for their development nized, forest environment organization, and use. “Green product” certification, as men- Massachusetts needs to develop and exert a col- tioned earlier, may offer significant opportunities lective form of leadership, a process certain to be for revenue enhancement. In some states (e.g., stimulated by the visioning process described ear- Alabama), a special license plate has been used to lier, but the advocacy for forestry heard in execu- generate funds for forestry education. In some tive, legislative, and public arenas must still countries (e.g., Japan’s “green owner” program) remain clear and forceful. In today’s climate of citizens and corporations can buy individual public participation, even governmental actions shares in the national forests, an investment that must be preceded by thoughtful citizen involve- heightens their sense of stewardship and makes ment and backed by an informed and supportive them feel closer to their forests. public constituency. Thus, of all the implement- At the very least, a detailed study should be ing actions contemplated, the reconnection of made of the disposition of the revenues already forests to people should command the highest being generated by the taxation of forest prod- priority. ucts and industries, the largest portion of which is As one such example, most Massachusetts the sales tax revenue derived from retail sales of forests today are simply woods. They have little or lumber and wood products manufactured else- no identity. Where they do, they are known prin- where. The promotion of locally produced mate- cipally by ownership (e.g., the Swann Forest), by rials to meet local needs could give Massachusetts feature (e.g., the Willard Brook State Forest), or wood producers a significant and sizable new by location (e.g., the Erving State Forest). A pro- market as well as providing new revenues to help gram to personalize forests through an improved with implementation. understanding of their origins and history could Consider for example the prospect of a state be rewarding in many ways. For example, a self-sufficiency policy for forest and wood prod- “broad arrow” forest could designate a site that ucts. Such a policy could trigger innovative once produced mast trees for the British navy, a approaches — cooperatives, wood products “pauwau forest” to reflect the swamp abodes exchanges and clearinghouses. It could also stim- where native American conjurers might once ulate long-term silvicultural practices leading to have gathered to seek divine intervention. Or the higher quality products. Far-fetched, you might appellations chosen might be contemporary in say, but who would have expected Massachusetts meaning — a “witness” forest to mark an impor- cities and towns to be recycling 40–50 percent of tant boundary, or a “mill forest” where a saw or their solid wastes annually as they are now? A gristmill once existed. The detective work

12 required to come up with appropriate names cerned with the forest, and between them and the would be challenging to citizens, intriguing to governmental forest administrators, but there is schoolchildren, and contribute to education in no strategic plan for ongoing measurement and general. A “name the forest” campaign could lead research, nor even a regular, annual occasion at naturally to an “adopt a forest” program with an which research results and research needs are eventual state-wide constituency of knowledge- exposed to critical review. The recent history of able and committed citizens, and a network of the Massachusetts forest, Stepping Back to Look productive and prized forest places. Forward, summarized the situation correctly when Private leadership should also be used to it observed that in any other billion dollar underscore the importance of forests and forest resource industry, the ineffectuality of the products to society as a whole. Consider that an research and development program would be audience of citizens opposed to tree cutting, for regarded as a scandal. example, is apt to be sitting on wooden seats, Those seeking improvements through the often behind wooden school desks, in a timber- comprehensive forest plan should look first at frame construction building. In addition, the what seems to be standing in the way — for exam- announcement of the meeting, and its results, ple, lack of personnel, lack of resources, impedi- undoubtedly appear in correspondence, ments in the current institutional and procedural newsprint and other paper-dependent channels. systems, perhaps even a fundamental skepticism Correcting this anomoly may simply require about the value of research. Rather than a highly greater exposure of people to forests and their structured research and monitoring program, a renewable products through group field trips, simple set of opportunities and incentives might study tours, educational materials, and positive be able to trigger naturally the necessary respons- personal and family experiences associated with es. On the other hand, perhaps some of the prob- forests. The current disconnect with urban peo- lems are more endemic — for example, the ple is particularly egregious. For that reason, non- inability of science-trained individuals to qualify profit organizations such as the Massachusetts for positions in forestry organizations and agen- Community Forestry Council have an opportuni- cies, procurement policies that require competi- ty for really significant private leadership. tive bidding and set-asides, the inability to enter into long-term contracts for long-term research, Academic Research and Measurement and the absence of an advocate for science and technology in an increasingly regulatory public In a state marked by such a concentration of bureaucracy. The creation of Mount Wachusett higher education, research, and education facili- Community College’s Forest and Wood Products ties, it is simply astonishing that so little is being Education and Development Center promises to done to harness science and technology for the fill an important gap in the marketing and prod- benefit of the forest and to monitor land-use uct development phases of forestry, but there are change and the loss of forests on a timely basis. In no such centers at present to provide consolidat- an era of satellite imagery there is little excuse for ed sets of spatial and ecological data, nor to stim- an affluent and densely populated state that relies ulate and coordinate research. Given our later extensively on high tech businesses not to provide recommendation for the designation of high-pri- comprehensive records of land-use activity in ority forest regions, perhaps the bulk of these relationship to changing cultural, biological and capacities should be decentralized to make them physical factors. Outside of the periodic (every fif- more readily available to users and managers. At teen years) Forest Service inventories, there is no the very least, urgent attention should be paid to systematic, state-wide assessment of the resource finding a dependable source of funding for on a meaningful scale, nor any attempt to devel- research and measurement, and devising an equi- op an orderly approach to address issues and table mechanism for allocating and evaluating problems that may arise. Relationships are cor- such investments using recognized peer review dial among the few research institutions con- and other procedures.

13 A New Role for Cities and Towns state-local machinery and, by executive action, institute a companion system of local forestry offi- The retrospective lens of history reveals that we cials. The tools are there if the will could be have strayed far from the original concept of revived. But what the comprehensive forestry Massachusetts forestry. For example, in his 1907 planners must do first is to examine inter-juris- annual report, State Forester Frank Rane made dictional responsibilities with fresh eyes, consid- much of the newly authorized local forest war- ering perhaps the delivery of state services dens as ones “who can intelligently handle forest through municipal means and even the use of fires and other forestry matters of vital concern.” local entities to carry out some regulatory func- Indeed, the state forester would later be author- tions. The state’s new environmental joint powers ized to conduct inventory, management, and agreement enabling act (Chapter 491, Acts of even regulatory activity on a town by town basis 1996) now permits cross-jurisdictional arrange- using the network of state-approved local forest ments of this sort on an area-wide basis. In addi- wardens, a provision that remains on the statute tion, as towns develop open-space plans, which books to this very day. are required by the Executive Office of The encouragement of forestry at local levels Environmental Affairs in order to be eligible for was further strengthened by legislative action self-help open space acquisition funding, they in 1913 permitting municipalities to own and should be encouraged to recognize the impor- manage forestlands independent of the tance of forests at a local and regional level. Commonwealth. As of 1949, 127 of Massa- Once a prospective, revised role for cities and chusetts’s 351 cities and towns had established towns has been defined, a state-wide town forest official municipal forests. But regrettably, the conference should be called — the first in more promising town system never fulfilled its much than fifty years — to review and approve the poli- heralded potential. In most instances, with the cy changes and help reinvigorate the state’s active consent, the office of forest warden Massachusetts town forest movement. The bene- was allocated to the local fire chief, limiting the fits to be gained can be expected to occur on sev- activities to the single forestry function of sup- eral levels. A town-based forest advisory capability pressing fires. should be in high demand by local citizens and Since then, the concept of town-based landowners alike, effectively preconditioning the forestry has fallen into further disrepair — even public for further education, program, and con- disrepute — to be replaced by largely state-based sulting services. But the largest benefit is likely to concepts of management and regulation, and accrue at the state level. For the first time in its ownership-based programs and services. At the history, an interconnected state/local forestry local level, town forests have literally been “lost”; network would give forestry an organized and many exist but few are still administered by for- influential, grassroots, constituency base. mal town forest committees or even acknowl- edged by citizens and local government. The State Agency Actions modern managers, where there are any, tend to be conservation commissions. The modern objec- Charged generally with the “perpetuation, exten- tives are generally limited to recreation and open sion, and proper management of forest lands space. The natural, historic connection between within the Commonwealth, both public and pri- communities and forests — what town forest vate,” the state forester has both the obligation expert Robert L. McCullough characterizes as the and the responsibility to design and carry out pro- dual traditions of culture and stewardship — grams for this major resource. Thus, the remains to be rediscovered. The new mandate Department of Environmental Management may well have to be a reawakening through edu- (DEM) is assigned the primary task of preparing cation of the fundamental relationship between the comprehensive plan. Unlike previous plans, humans and nature. we expect this one to concentrate less exclusively One is tempted to simply dust off the existing on DEM and other state lands, and also to con-

14 sider the private forests that represent 85 percent forests makes one wonder whether certification is of the ownerships in Massachusetts. However, the actually a deterrent to active management. The responsibility for implementing the plan is still case of the North Quabbin region attests to the expected to fall heaviest on the DEM and its com- ways this material could and should be used to ponent agencies. help inform policy. A first step for the comprehensive plan team Perhaps the most interesting question for should be to review and consolidate the various the state is whether it should intervene further statutory authorities relating to forestry. in the forest enterprise system. During the early Reflecting varying periods in history, they are lit- 1900s, in the aftermath of devastation from over- erally scattered throughout the General Laws of cutting and fire, the legislature enacted special the Commonwealth. Many overlap, some are acts to permit private lands to be temporarily redundant, and most are outdated. A thorough acquired and reforested. With much of the re-codification, tied to a modernized and stream- Massachusetts forest now halfway through its lined vision of the forest, is long overdue. current growth cycle, a new form of public Much of what may be recommended in the action may be needed to ensure that the forest way of changes is likely to be an adjustment of reaches full economic maturity and, in some existing programs. For example, the retrospective instances, biological maturity (old growth). By look now underway at the experience of Chapter acquiring timber rights to its best growing 61 may reveal a need for improved base data, forests, the Commonwealth could offer current more extensive management actions, and even landowners a measure of the income they seek some statutory changes. At the very least, the state while, at the same time, assuring the state a future needs to regard these tracts not just as managed source of high quality and high value products forests, but as key units of potential open space in on a sustainable basis. “Timber banking” is cur- a rapidly urbanizing environment. As it stands rently attracting interest in many parts of the now, state foresters are engaged actively during country, and Massachusetts would be well the planning and certification stages of the advised to consider it seriously. Chapter 61 forests, but tend to become detached until a change in status becomes imminent. By Federal Agency Involvement and Support then, it may be too late. Chapter 61 owners should be made to feel that they are a distinct A heartening feature of Massachusetts forestry “family” from the time of certification on. They programs, past and present, has been the support may even need an organization of their own. received from the U.S. Forest Service and other Similarly, the provisions of the forest cutting federal agencies. According to the most recent practices act (Chapter 132) serve to moderate the survey of America’s nonfederal forests (National effects of harvests. Their existence is what makes Research Council, 1997), funds flow to the state the present cycle of utilization different than its through two primary forms of assistance and predecessors. The submissions generate an incentives: cooperative forestry and transfer pro- extraordinary amount of useful data on how grams. Cooperative forestry, for example, is the extensively Massachusetts is actually using its for- primary source of funds for the state’s fourteen est resource. However, through the review of cut- service foresters, the heart of its technical assis- ting applications, there may be a need to be more tance capability. As for transfer programs, seven proactive about encouraging silvicultural prac- separate categorical federal programs currently tices and achieving sustainable management over offer cost-share assistance to forest landowners. the long-term, rather than simply accommo- In other instances (e.g., Forest Legacy, forest dating short-term profit-taking. At present, the inventory), funds or services are made available information from the approximately 800 annual directly to the state. At present, approximately filings remains largely unanalyzed and thus one-third of the Massachusetts Bureau of Forest underutilized. For example, the fact that propos- Development’s $5 million annual budget is sup- als for harvest occur largely on non-Chapter 61 plied by the U.S. Forest Service. While the state is

15 to be congratulated on making effective use of Legislative Action federal dollars, the degree of dependence upon them is matter of some concern. In a state as Massachusetts is fortunate to have in place a heavily forested as Massachusetts, it seems incon- Special Commission on Forest Management Practices. gruous that its own investments in its own The creation in 1995 of former Senator Robert D. resource are so limited. The reliance on external Wetmore, a Worcester County forest landowner funds has meant that methods of inventorying and widely-respected legislator, the Commission and monitoring, for example, are determined consists of three members each of the House and largely by others, and that information is absent Senate, and eight public and/or official repre- at appropriate time and area scales. Many of the sentatives. Senator Stephen M. Brewer (Barre) is state’s special forestry initiatives (e.g., the timber the current chairman. The presence of the com- bridge initiative) are triggered simply by the avail- mission provides a singular opportunity for spe- ability of federal funds. cial investigations, public input and, ultimately, It is not that special funds for state forestry review and implementation of the comprehensive support are unavailable; they remain largely plan recommendations. unidentified and undeveloped. For example, the As examples of subjects warranting special forest products manufacturing and sales sector in study, the matter of green certification, and Massachusetts is one of the largest industrial con- accompanying product identification, would figurations in the state. Although most of the raw relate well to the commission’s concern for materials are derived from elsewhere, we do know improved utilization and market development. that the harvest from Massachusetts forests alone So too would ecotourism and “wild crafting”, the reached 70 million board feet in 1998 (perhaps economic opportunities related to non-timber one-quarter billion dollars in ultimate product products and services obtainable from the value), and the total continues to grow. Even Massachusetts forest. The commission might also where a portion of the forest-derived revenues sponsor a comparative study of the initiatives in are recaptured, such as those allocated to the other states, such as the creation of landowner Forest Products Trust Fund, the use and distribu- management and marketing cooperatives and tion of these revenues needs to be examined timber banking, and the parallel planning and carefully in light of future needs. “visioning” projects in states like New Hampshire, Thus, Massachusetts should continue to be Missouri, and Vermont. Another area warranting alert to the opportunities for federal support, but special commission attention would be the incen- not to the point of neglecting its own needs. For tives, programs, and services needed to have example, supplemental federal grants and/or in- Commonwealth forests yield a higher proportion kind assistance should be sought as Massachusetts of the materials in demand at community and develops its own comprehensive plan. The consumer levels. In many respects, the least- Massachusetts forest plan, conceived as a broad tapped market for materials may turn out to be framework for forest environment initiatives and Massachusetts’s own. actions in general, could well attract support for Two particular activities are suggested for the implementation from other federal quarters, commission. The first would be to receive and such as the Environmental Protection Agency’s open to public comment the “vision” of the recently announced campaign against urban Massachusetts forest drafted by the Secretary’s sprawl. And the increasing popular concern for Program Review Board. Visualized are a series of human and environmental health, as manifest in public hearings, held at strategic points through- climate effects, non-point source runoff, biodi- out the Commonwealth, where additional citizen versity, water supply, and quality of life within views could be obtained. The board would incor- urbanizing environments, all signal new and porate comments from the special commission in important roles and opportunities for a well- the modified, final “vision” submitted to the planned and managed forest under active Secretary by the end of 1999. Massachusetts leadership. Similarly, the commission should be the pri-

16 mary legislative review agent for any message vation and forest stewardship, and an informative from the Governor in 2000 relating to forestry history of how vision, information, collaboration, that would implement the DEM/EOEA forest and a historical perspective can blend together to plan. In its discretion, the commission should rec- assist in both the protection and active use of ommend and advance implementing actions forests within a larger open space context. This either as individual legislative or budgetary initia- section ends with a discussion of how the legacy tives, or as a comprehensive package. Serious con- approach might be extended more generally to sideration should be given to an entirely new help implement the state’s forthcoming forest Massachusetts forest protection, management, environment vision and comprehensive plan. and utilization statute that would conform to prior authorities and contain the new authoriza- North Quabbin Regional Landscape Partnership tions required. In anticipation of these important responsi- Stretching east from the Connecticut valley to bilities, we would respectfully suggest several Mount Wachusett, and south from the New modifications in the current commission status. Hampshire border to include the Quabbin First, in order to accomplish the tasks suggested Reservation, the 1800 square mile North above, it would need to have assured existence at Quabbin region presents a landscape of rolling least through June 2001 rather than being acti- forested hills, small hill towns and larger old mill vated on an annual basis. Second, in the interest towns, wetlands, winding streams, and river val- of creating a body with full forest environment leys. The region is fortunate in hosting a number representation, the commission’s composition of important constituencies, including numerous may need to be modified. For example, represen- governmental agencies plus conservation and tation should be considered from the recreation, educational organizations with wide expertise in scientific, watershed, biodiversity, local govern- forest ecosystems and land management. mental and open space (land trust) communities. However, this diversity also brings the potential The ratio of timber and non-timber interests on for lack of coordination and even conflict. the commission should be kept roughly in bal- The impetus for development of a broad per- ance. spective and cooperative approach came from the private Mount Grace Land Conservation MASSACHUSETTS LEGACY FORESTS Trust. Incorporated in 1986, the Trust within its first decade has protected more than 10,000 acres To help carry out this modern view of the in 75 parcels by promoting the use of conserva- Massachusetts forest, we recommend a focus on tion restrictions, bargain sales, and gifts of land. how the forest occurs naturally — as distinct asso- Importantly, the Trust has taken a broad perspec- ciations, soil and vegetation types, ecosystems tive of its land stewardship responsibilities, and, ultimately entire landscapes — and a perva- including both active forest management and sive sense of heritage that we call “ forest legacy.” simple preservation in its activities. However, as This approach does not preclude the authoriza- the Trust moved to prioritize its land protection tion and conduct of statewide programs. It simply efforts and coordinate more effectively with other highlights the fact that the Massachusetts forest is organizations, a series of meetings revealed a not one but many forests that occur without number of problems. First, there were many land regard to conventional ownership boundaries. It management and conservation organizations also promises a more intimate relationship operative within the region but little information between Massachusetts citizens and their forests, exchanged between them. Second, there was no a centerpiece of our earlier recommendations. comprehensive open space plan for the area as a We illustrate this concept first with the case of whole. Third, the objectives of the numerous the North Quabbin Region Landscape Partnership. organizations were ill defined, poorly under- This growing initiative provides a quiet though stood, and lacking in coordination. remarkably successful experiment in land conser- In 1993, Hampshire College student Alisa

17 Golodetz, in collaboration with the Harvard committee had been convened to develop pro- Forest’s David Foster, undertook an undergradu- posals for the U.S. Forest Service’s new “Forest ate thesis that sought to improve the informa- Legacy Program,” which offered federal funds for tional and decision-making bases for conserva- the purchase of conservation easements to pro- tion in the region. Golodetz began by developing tect key private forest ownerships from conver- a regional Geographic Information System of sion and fragmentation. By early 1992, the com- protected lands that included physical, cultural, mittee had nominated the so-called North and biological overlays, and a database of owner- Quabbin Corridor for consideration. Second, ship. With this spatially explicit data she was able early in 1997, the Massachusetts Department of to assess the history and pattern of land conserva- Environmental Management completed a review tion in relation to numerous landscape and cul- of state forests and parks in the northeastern por- tural features, the organizations involved, and the tion of the Connecticut valley, an area that signif- methods of protection employed. She then was icantly overlapped the North Quabbin region. able to assess how the spatial pattern of protected This effort represented the first time that such a lands reflected the physical, biological, and cul- review was based on an entire region rather than tural features of the landscape, and to offer guid- individual forests and parks. The resulting guide- ance for using this historical and regional per- line plan for operations and stewardship spective as a basis for future planning and land (GOALS) stressed many of the same broad-scale protection. Conclusions from the study were management themes of the Golodetz and Foster quite revealing. study, specifically its emphasis on regional plan- For example, a surprising 37 percent of the ning, its concern over lack of interaction among North Quabbin region was already found to be in agencies and groups, and its call for a regional a protected state, but this land area consisted of a open space council. Third, the Mount Grace very heterogeneous mixture of parcels, sizes, and Land Conservation Trust moved to develop its management approaches established by twenty- “Plan for the Second Decade,” which underlined five different federal, state, and municipal agen- the importance of a cooperative and collaborative cies in addition to private groups. Motivations for approach to successful land protection. land acquisition and protection were extremely The recognized need for information sharing varied, and there was a nearly complete absence and collaboration led to the formation in 1997 of of coordination in acquisition, land manage- the North Quabbin Regional Landscape Partnership, ment, and information sharing among the an informal coalition of conservation groups and groups. Equally important, it was recognized that land management agencies with a mission to the existing biological, timber, and management “identify, protect, and enhance strategic ecologi- databases were completely inadequate to assess cal, cultural, and historic open space within the the regional attributes and conservation values of landscape of the North Quabbin region.” The the land base, or to serve as an effective basis for partnership steering committee, consisting of future planning. The large extent of protected representatives of private, municipal, regional, land suggested that future conservation priorities state, and federal organizations, now meets regu- should include: habitat for species requiring larly to provide communication, coordination, broad, intact areas of forest and wetland; the and advocacy for land conservation and to select maintenance of broad-scale ecological processes; and further specific collaborative projects. the creation of connections with other regional Projects are identified on the basis of major con- systems in the Connecticut valley and northern servation criteria, including the need to synergis- New England; the provision of extensive recre- tically link protected lands and to preserve signif- ation; and the development of an extensive, coor- icant natural or cultural resources. dinated approach to forest and land management. As examples, the protection of Tully The study coincided with three other major Mountain was the first project endorsed by the assessments and planning activities underway at Partnership. A second project is a seventeen mile the time. First, in the fall of 1991, a state-wide loop trail connecting the mountain with numer-

18 ous other protected lands to the north, east, and view, designed for a desired future condition? If west across a variety of federal, state, conserva- the latter, data will have to be developed validat- tion, and private ownerships. Logistical and ing the sites best suited for growing and main- financial support are provided by the Mount taining forests, the representation of species and Grace Land Conservation Trust, the Harvard types needed, and the preferred distribution of Forest, the Trustees of Reservations, the National such forests throughout the Commonwealth. Park Service’s rivers and trails program, the The scale of legacy forests also needs to be Commonwealth, and private philanthropy. determined thoughtfully. Given the varying Additional projects currently under review natures of the host regions, some forests are cer- include the expansion of conservation lands tain to be larger than others. Legacy forests around Lake Rohunta in Athol and the should be sized and bounded according to prin- Thousand Acre Swamp in Phillipston. ciples of ecological integrity, but also be sensitive In addition, the Golodetz database has been to social, economic, and political realities. To the expanded in significant ways. As one such exam- extent possible, they should encompass whole ple, scientists at the Harvard Forest have overlain jurisdictions. information obtained from Massachusetts Forest Legacy forests are envisioned as permanent Cutting Practices Act filings showing the location areas of mixed ownership — both public and pri- and extent of forestry operations in the region. vate. They are not intended as targets for outright The results indicate graphically that the forest is governmental acquisition. Yet, without intruding being cut substantially and at an increasing pace. unduly on the individuality of private ownership, cooperation and collaboration should be encour- Lessons from North Quabbin aged and enabled, and arrangements made for the retention of the land in forest when owner- What can be learned from this encouraging ship changes hands. account of the North Quabbin Region Landscape The purposes and uses of legacy forests Partnership? We suggest several important les- should be defined carefully and revisited at regu- sons. lar intervals. For example, not all need be wood- The first is the crucial role of non-govern- producing areas. Some may end up being used mental leadership and participation in any more intensively than others. But all should be Massachusetts forest environment initiative. The more than fallow open space and be managed private sector not only represents a traditional carefully and professionally to yield the desired source of ideas, enthusiasm, and resources but, in values. light of Massachusetts’s dominant private form of Comprehensive databases should be assem- ownership, its commitment is absolutely essential. bled for each forest, and any new information The second is the desirability of letting initiatives collected should conform to and expand upon grow from the bottom when they are ready, rather those bases. Through arrangements with nearby than being imposed from the top. The third is institutions, each legacy forest should be given that mutual cooperation can work only if it ready access to analytical, scientific, research, and receives sufficient encouragement and support educational capabilities. from others. These lessons suggest that govern- Finally, the administrative arrangements for ment must provide a measure of assistance if the establishing and operating such areas could well North Quabbin approach is to play a useful role be crucial. We visualize a potential system of lega- in the implementation of the Commonwealth’s cy forests first identified by the Department of comprehensive forest plan. Environmental Management according to the cri- For example, careful thought needs to be teria expressed above. Interested parties would given as to what might constitute the guidelines then be invited to petition for their designation. for a candidate to be designated a legacy forest As environmental joint powers agreement entities region. Are such areas to be based simply upon provided for in Chapter 491, Acts of 1996, they the extent of existing forests or, taking the long would be formally chartered by the Secretary of

19 Environmental Affairs after public hearings had Massachusetts woods, we have learned much been held in the areas affected and agreement about the state’s forest environment, but even had been reached on their objectives, responsi- more about the process that will ultimately deter- bilities, methods of operation, and forms of gov- mine its future. ernance. Once chartered, the partnerships would New England-trained forester-environmental- operate independently, but the state would have ist Aldo Leopold, in his much-celebrated essay the option of channeling services and programs “Good Oak” in A Sand County Almanac (1949), of its own through the regional entity. reflects upon the history of forests and land use as What is likely to be gained through a his saw bites steadily through the concentric rings Massachusetts legacy forest initiative? Much as at of a mature oak. Even earlier, Henry David North Quabbin, there will be enhanced opportu- Thoreau had observed that the history of a wood- nity for group interaction in the interest of the lot is often, a history of cross-purposes: “. . . of forest environment as a whole. Planning and steady and consistent endeavor on the part of informational capacities will be proximate to Nature, of interference and blundering with a those who require them. Forest landowners will glimmering of intelligence at the eleventh hour enjoy priority access to advisory and program on the part of the proprietor.” (Journals, October services. Host communities and their citizens will 16, 1860). have a heightened understanding of the values, While we do not claim to be counterparts of uses, and products of the forest. Most important these historic figures, our view of the of all, the Commonwealth will be assured of a per- Massachusetts forest has been similarly influ- manent forest resource base, varied in composi- enced by the stream of time that brought the for- tion, ownership, and distribution, which will be est to its present condition and the need again for managed ecologically and sustainably for all time. a clear application of intelligence, purpose, and direction. Thus, we close this account with one EPILOGUE concluding observation: The final chapter of the Massachusetts forest story is yet to be written. We The completion of this paper brings to an urge those concerned with the forest — in a real end our three-year odyssey through the sense, its proprietors — to put our recommenda- Massachusetts forest. The experience has been tions to work promptly. To do so will not only be alternately enlightening and challenging. It all an initiative of enduring value to Massachusetts, began with a meeting in October 1995 to discuss but an example worthy of emulation by the the compilation of the first history of forests and nation as a whole. forestry ever assembled for the Commonwealth as a whole. Within a year, nine knowledgeable forest environment specialists had volunteered their services and completed a draft account, which was then reviewed at a state-wide Massachusetts forest history conference held at the University of Massachusetts (Amherst) in October 1996. By the end of 1997, a book-length manuscript was com- plete. In May 1998, the Harvard Forest published Stepping Back to Look Forward, a book now among the holdings of every city and town library in the Commonwealth. The critical review of the Massachusetts forest at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government, upon which this paper is based, has completed our analysis. In the course of this extended walk through the

20 Appendix A: Class Profile Karen E. Filipovich (Oregon) is a 1994 graduate of Willamette University and has worked for the Montana Mary Berlik (Netherlands) is a senior concentrator Conservation Corps of Americorps, the American in environmental science and public policy at Harvard Wildlands’ Yellowstone to Yukon biodiversity strategy, College. She has two summer’s experience in the envi- and is currently a research fellow/coordinator for ronmental consulting industry, focused on minimizing ENRP’s project in greenhouse gas reduction in Russia. the environmental impacts of pipeline projects. Ms. Her master’s project in public policy involves improv- Berlik completed an undergraduate thesis that exam- ing land management strategies for the Yakama Indian ined the potential for reducing global environmental Reservation and Nation. degradation through enhanced use of forest resources in developed regions such as the Commonwealth. Thomas Fullum (Montana) holds a B.A. from Prescott College. A longtime forest advocate, he has Jill Blockhus (Minnesota) is a Ph.D. candidate in worked in various positions at the Ecology Center, environmental policy at MIT. She has a bachelor’s Native Forest Network, Taiga Rescue Network degree from Luther College, an M.B.A. from Norges (Sweden), Great Gila Biodiversity Project, and Handelshoyskole, and has just completed the two year Montana Coalition for Health, Environmental and MPA program at the Kennedy School. During her six Economic Rights. Currently, he is the forestry chair for years as programme officer for the Forest the Massachusetts chapter of the Sierra Club and a Conservation Program of IUCN-The World public service fellow in the master’s of public policy Conservation Union, she was responsible for following program at the Kennedy School. global forest conservation policy issues internationally, and designing and monitoring conservation and Keith Furukawa ( Japan) is a graduate of Sophia development projects in the Philippines, Laos, University (Tokyo). He has worked for the ITOCHU Vietnam, and Sri Lanka. While at the Centre for Corporation as the manager for log/lumber export International Forestry Research in Bogor, Indonesia, from Canada, as the assistant manager and manager she collaborated on a research project on local uses of for log/lumber sales based in its Tokyo office and, non-timber forest products. Ms. Blockhus has lectured most recently, as the company’s overseas develop- on tree and land tenure issues at Kaesart University in ment/project researcher. Bangkok, Thailand, and the University of Peradeniya (Kandy, Sri Lanka). Stacy Greendlinger (New York) received her B.A. from Wellesley College and is currently a master’s of Yoshihito Enomoto( Japan) received his master’s public administration candidate at the Kennedy degree in law from the University of Tokyo in March School. She has worked for the U.S. Environmental 1994 and has worked for the Ministry of Health and Protection Agency for the last seven and a half years at Welfare of Japan for four years dealing with water sup- the Chicago regional office and the headquarters in ply and waste management issues and international Washington, D.C. Her work for E.P.A. has included affairs related to international organizations such as extensive interaction with state and business represen- OECD. Mr. Enomoto is currently pursuing a master’s tatives, and community advocates concerning national degree in public administration at the Kennedy School. and local environmental policy issues.

Edgar Feinberg (Louisiana) is a practicing physician William Haney (Massachusetts) is a graduate of whose primary interest is in healthcare policy but, in Harvard College in history and science and currently partnership with his wife, has an interest in the use of serves as a visiting fellow in the Kennedy School’s envi- forestry and wetland mitigation as an unconventional, ronment and natural resources program. A specialist conservative means to reach retirement goals. in the commercialization of revolutionary environ- mental technology, Mr. Haney has founded and oper- Priscilla Feinberg, (Louisiana) is a graduate of ated companies in fuel technology, energy biosystems, Duke University in political science. She spent time as and molten metal technology. Among his many advi- a legislative assistant in the office of Senator J. Bennett sory roles, he is a board member of the World Johnston (D-Louisiana) in the 1980s doing research Resources Institute and the Natural Resources on energy policy. She later worked as a legislative assis- Defense Council. tant to the Louisiana State Legislative Council on nuclear energy policy. Robb Johnson (Nebraska) holds a master’s in public

21 health from the University of Michigan and is a public APPENDIX B: VISITING LECTURERS service fellow enrolled in the master’s in public adminis- tration program at the Kennedy School. He is studying Massachusetts Forest History: matters of land use, open space conservation, and trans- Contributors to Stepping Back to Look Forward portation planning. Mr. Johnson has worked in Boston for the past ten years in health and human service pro- Dr. John F. O’Keefe, coordinator, Fisher Museum, grams, principally involving violence, AIDS, and sub- Harvard Forest stance abuse. He is currently the co-chairperson of Dr. Nancy M. Gordon, consulting historian and econ- Friends of Magazine Beach, a member of the omist, Amherst, Massachusetts Community Development Department’s neighborhood Dr. Robert S. Bond, research economist and educator, development study committee and, an amateur arborist, Mashpee, Massachusetts and he was involved in the early development of the William H. Rivers, state-wide management forester, Cambridge Tree Project, an urban forestry initiative. Mass. Department of Environmental Management William A. King, president, New England Forestry James Levitt (Massachusetts) has a B.A. and master’s Foundation degree in public and private management from Yale Dr. Robert L. McCullough, community forest historian, University and is currently a fellow at the Kennedy Montpelier, Vermont School’s Taubman Center for State and Local Dr. Stephen Fox, social historian, writer, and inde- Government. He is writing a paper and organizing a pendent scholar conference on “The Internet and Conservation: Dr. Alice E. Ingerson, Institute for Cultural Landscape Threats and Opportunities.” Previously, he served as a Studies, Arnold Arboretum principal at Geopartners Research, Inc., working on corporate strategy assignments in the information Massachusetts Forest Policy: State and Private technology field. Mr. Levitt also serves as a board mem- Dr. Warren E. Archey, chief forester, Massachusetts ber of the Massachusetts Audubon Society and the Department of Environmental Management Quebec-Labrador Foundation. Dr. David A. Kittredge, Jr., Massachusetts extension Veronica Loewe (Chile), is a master’s in public forester and professor, University of Massachusetts administration (mid-career) degree candidate at the James A. Gomes, president, Environment League of Kennedy School and is a trained forest engineer. She Massachusetts spent four years at Bologna University in Italy working Robert T. Perschel, regional director, The Wilderness in and studying high value timber production, an area Society she later developed in Chile. Since 1991, Ms. Loewe Gregory Cox, executive director, Massachusetts has been working for the Chilean Forestry Institute Forestry Association (INFOR) as project leader, business manager, execu- tive vice-director, and director of the Institute. Massachusetts Forest Policy: Legislative Stephen M. Brewer, state senator and chairman, Special Kaori Nakamura ( Japan received her B.A. from the Commission on Forest Management Practices University of Tokyo and entered the Ministry of Labour Robert D. Wetmore, former state representative and where she serves as planning section chief of the senator, chairman, advisory board, Forest and Employment Promotion Division. She is in charge of Wood Products Education and Development employment security in various industrial sectors, Center, Mount Wachusett Community College including timber and other elements of the wood mate- rials industry. She entered the Kennedy School’s mas- Symposium Speakers: ter’s in public administration program through the Using History to Inform Policy Japanese government’s Longterm Fellowship Program. Dr. Susan L. Flader, Department of History, University Brent Plater received a B.S. from the University of of Missouri Michigan’s School of Natural Resources. After working Dr. Nancy Langston, Institute for Environmental as an intern in Washington, D.C. for a non-profit organ- Studies, University of Wisconsin ization, Mr. Plater entered a joint degree program with Edgar B. Brannon, Jr., director, Pinchot Institute for the Kennedy School of Government and the Boalt Hall Conservation, U.S. Forest Service School of Law, University of California, Berkeley. Dr. Steven Anderson, president, Forest History Society

22 APPENDIX C: PUBLICATIONS APPENDIX D: WORKING REFERENCES

STUDENT WORKING PAPERS Baldwin, H. I. 1949. Wooden Dollars: A Report on the Berlik, M. 1998. “Fostering a timber ethic in a cosmo- Forest Resources of New England. Federal Reserve politan state: the case for developing local mar- Bank of Boston: Boston, Mass. kets in Massachusetts.” Beattie, Thompson, C., and L. Levine. 1993. Working Blockhus, J. 1998. “Community forest management: with Your Woodland: A Landowner’s Guide. case examples.” University Press of New England: Hanover, New Enomoto, Y. 1998. “Watershed management in Japan.” Hampshire Feinberg, E. 1998. “The role of evolutionary psycholo- Bickford, W. E. and U. J. Dymon. 1990. An Atlas of gy in the new millennium of forestry.” Massachusetts River Systems: Environmental Designs Feinberg, P. 1998. “A management plan for Oxbeaux for the Future. University of Massachusetts Press: Hills and farm, St. Landry Parish, Louisiana.” Amherst, Mass. Fullum, T. “1998. The national forests and timber sub- Bormann, F. H. and G. E. Likens. 1979. Pattern and sidies.” Process in a Forested Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag: Furukawa, K. 1998. “Forestry in the province of British New York Columbia.” Connor, S. 1994. New England Natives: A Celebration of Greendlinger, S. 1998. “Sustainable forestry certifica- People and Trees. Harvard University Press: tion.” Cambridge, Mass. Johnson, R. 1998. “Town responses to suburban devel- Cronon, W. 1983. Changes in the Land: Indians, opment and forest loss in eastern Massachusetts.” Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Hill and Loewe, V. 1998. “Forestry research policy in Chile: Wang: Boston, Mass. ideas for improvement looking at the U.S. fund- Davis, M. B. (ed.). 1996. Eastern Old-growth Forests: ing R & D system.” Prospects for Rediscovery and Recovery. Island Press: Nakamura, K. 1998. “Forestry policy in Hokkaido, Japan.” Washington, D.C. Plater, B. 1998. “The Act to save America’s forests: a Dickson, D. R. and C .L. McAfee. 1988. “Forest statis- lesson in forest policy.” tics for Massachusetts, 1972 and 1985.” Resource Bulletin NE-106, USDA Forest Service. STUDENT TEAM REPORTS Forman, R. T.T. 1995. Land Mosaics: the Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge University Analytical Press: Cambridge, England. Berlik, M., Enomoto, Y., Loewe, V. and S. Foster, C H.W. (ed.). 1998. Stepping Back to Look Greendlinger. “State forestry recommendations.” Forward: A History of the Massachusetts Forest. Blockhus, J., Feinberg, E., and K. Nakamura. Harvard Forest and Harvard University Press: “Economic uses of Massachusetts forests.” Petersham and Cambridge, Mass. Feinberg, P., Furukawa, K., Johnson, R., and W. Haney. Foster, D. R. 1995. “Land use history and four hundred “Policy recommendations for private and com- years of change in New England”: pp. 253–321. munity forestry in Massachusetts.” In Global Land Use Change: A Perspective from the Filipovich, K., F, T., Levitt, J., and B. Plater. “Policy con- Columbian Encounter (Turner, B.L.; Sal, A.G.; siderations and recommendations regarding Bernaldez, F.G.; and F. DiCastri, eds.). SCOPE forest ecology and land use in Massachusetts.” Publication. Consejo Superior de Investifaciones Cientificas. Madrid. Implementation Foster. D. R. 1988. “Species and stand response to cat- Berlik, M., Enomoto, Y., Feinberg, P., and T. Fullum. astrophic wind in central New England, USA.“ “Legislative priorities for Massachusetts forests.” Journal of Ecology 80: 753–772. Blockhus, J., Feinberg, E., Furukawa, K., Johnson, R., Golodetz, A. and D. R. Foster, 1997. “History and and B. Plater. “The role of the non-governmental importance of land use and protection in the sector in the implementation of recommended North Quabbin region of Massachusetts.” actions for the Massachusetts forest.” Conservation Biology 11:227–235. Filipovich, K., Greendlinger, S., Loewe, V., and K. Haden-guest, S. et al. 1956. “A world geography of for- Nakamura. “Governmental implementation est resources.” Special Publication No. 33, recommendations.” American Geographical Society. Ronald Press:

23 Washington, D.C. Hunter, M. L. Jr. 1990. Wildlife, Forests, and Forestry: Spurr, S. H. and B. V. Barnes. 1980. Forest Ecology. John Principles of Managing Forests for Biological Diversity. Wiley: New York. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliff, N.J. Torrey, B. and F. H. Allen (eds.). 1962. The Journal of Jorgensen, N. 1977. A Guide to New England’s Landscape. Henry D. Thoreau. Dover Publications, Inc.: Globe Pequot Press: Chester, Conn. Mineola, New York. Kelty, M. J. et al. 1992. The Ecology and Silviculture of Walker, L. C. 1999. The North American Forests: Mixed- species Forests. Kluwer Academic: New York Geography, Ecology, and Silviculture. CRC Press: Kimmins, J. P. 1987. Forest Ecology. MacMillan Boca Raton, Florida. Publishing: New York Waring, R. H. and W. H. Schlesinger. 1985. Forest Kohm, K. A. and J. F. Franklin. 1997. Creating a Forestry Ecosystems: Eoncepts and Management. Academic for the 21st century: The Science of Ecosystem Press: San Diego, California. Management. Island Press: Washington, D.C. Westveld, M.V. 1956. “Natural forest vegetation zones Lee, R. 1980. Forest Hydrology. Columbia University of New England.” Journal of Forestry 54: pp. Press: New York. 332–338. Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Whitney, G. C. 1994. From Wilderness to Fruited Plain: An Here and There. Oxford University Press: New Ecological History of Northeastern U.S. Cambridge York. University Press: New York. MacCleery, D. W. 1996. “American forests: a history of Wilkie, R. W. and J. Tager. 1991 Historical Atlas of resiliency and recovery.” Forest History Society. Massachusetts. University of Massachusetts Press: Durham, NC Amherst, Mass. MacConnell, W. P. 1975. “Remote sensing: 20 years of Yahner, R. H. 1995. Eastern Deciduous Forest: Ecology and change in Massachusetts.” Massachusetts Wildlife Conservation. University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 630. Press: Minneapolis, Minn. Manion, P. D. and D. Lachance (eds.). 1992. Forest Young, R. A. and R. L. Giese. 1990. Introduction to Forest decline concepts. ASP Press. Science. John Wiley: New York. Maser, C. 1997. Sustainable Forestry: Philosophy, Science, and Economics. St. Lucie Press. National Research Council. 1998. “Forested land- scapes in perspective: prospects and opportuni- ties for sustainable management of America’s nonfederal forests.” National Academy Press. Oliver, C. D. and B. C. Larson. 1990. Forest Stand Dynamics. McGraw-Hill: New York. Patterson, W. A. and Sassaman, K. E. 1988. “Indian fires in the prehistory of New England.” In Holocene Human Ecology in Northeastern North America (G. P. Nicholas, ed.). Plenum Publishing: New York. Perry, D. A. 1994. Forest Ecosystems. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, Maryland. Peterken, G. F. 1996. Natural Woodland: Ecology and Conservation in Northern Temperate Regions. Cambridge University Press: New York. Peterken, G. F. 1993. Woodland Conservation and Management. Chapman & Hall: New York. Pritchett, W. L. 1979. Properties and Management of Forest Soils. John Wiley: New York. Raup, H. M. and R. E. Carlson. 1941. “The history of land-use in the Harvard. Forest.” Harvard Forest Bulletin 20: pp. 1–64. Smith, D. M. 1986. The Practice of Silviculture. John Wiley: New York.

24 Thinking in Forest Time A Strategy for the Massachusetts Forest

Charles H. W. Foster David R. Foster