0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page i FEMINIST THOUGHT 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page ii This page intentionally left blank 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page iii THIRD EDITION FEMINIST THOUGHT A MORE COMPREHENSIVE INTRODUCTION Rosemarie Tong University of North Carolina, Charlotte A Member of the Perseus Books Group 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page iv Copyright © 2009 by Westview Press Published by Westview Press, A Member of the Perseus Books Group All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address Westview Press, 2465 Central Avenue, Boulder, Colorado 80301-2877. Find us on the World Wide Web at www.westviewpress.com. 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A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-8133-4375-4 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page v Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Introduction: The Diversity of Feminist Thinking 1 1 Liberal Feminism 11 Conceptual Roots of Liberal Feminist Thought and Action 11 Eighteenth-Century Thought: Equal Education 13 Nineteenth-Century Thought: Equal Liberty 16 Nineteenth-Century Action: The Suffrage 21 Twentieth-Century Action: Equal Rights 23 Twentieth-Century Thought: Sameness Versus Difference 27 Contemporary Directions in Liberal Feminism 34 Critiques of Liberal Feminism 37 Conclusion 45 2 Radical Feminism: Libertarian and Cultural Perspectives 48 Libertarian and Cultural Views on the Sex/Gender System 51 Some Libertarian Views on Gender 52 Some Cultural Views on Gender 56 Sexuality, Male Domination, and Female Subordination 65 The Pornography Debate 68 The Lesbianism Controversy 71 Reproduction, Men, and Women 73 Libertarian and Cultural Views on Mothering 82 Critiques of Radical-Libertarian and Radical-Cultural Feminism 90 v 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page vi vi Contents 3 Marxist and Socialist Feminism: Classical and Contemporary 96 Some Marxist Concepts and Theories 97 Classical Marxist Feminism: General Reflections 106 Contemporary Socialist Feminism: General Reflections 110 Women’s Labor Issues 118 Critiques of Marxist and Socialist Feminism 125 Conclusion 126 4 Psychoanalytic Feminism 128 Sigmund Freud 129 Feminist Critiques of Freud 133 Early Feminist Appropriations of Freud 135 Later Feminist Appropriations of Freud 138 Psychoanalytic Feminism: General Reflections 152 Conclusion 160 5 Care-Focused Feminism 163 The Roots of Care-Focused Feminism 164 Maternal Ethics and the Ethics of Care 181 Conclusion 195 6 Multicultural, Global, and Postcolonial Feminism 200 Multicultural Feminism: General Reflections 201 Roots of Multicultural Feminism in the United States 202 Interlocking Sources of Women’s Oppression 204 Conceptual Challenges for Multicultural Feminism 207 Global and Postcolonial Feminism: General Reflections 215 Diversity and Commonality 217 Sexual/Reproductive Issues Versus Economic Issues 218 Knowing When to Respect Women’s Culture 228 Conclusion 233 7 Ecofeminism 237 Some Roots of Ecofeminism 238 Ecofeminism: New Philosophy or Ancient Wisdom? 242 Tensions in Nature: Ecofeminist Thought 243 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page vii Contents vii Spiritual Ecofeminism 252 Transformative Ecofeminism 256 Global Ecofeminism 261 Critiques of Ecofeminism 265 Conclusion 268 8 Postmodern and Third-Wave Feminism 270 Postmodernism/Postmodern Feminism: Keynotes 272 Critique of Postmodern Feminism 283 Third-Wave Feminism 284 Critique of Third-Wave Feminism 289 Conclusion 290 Notes 293 Bibliography 333 Index 401 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page viii This page intentionally left blank 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page ix Preface Oftentimes, a new edition of a book, particularly a third edition, amounts to lit- tle more than some added references and updates. But I can assure readers that this new edition of Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction, con- stitutes a major overhaul: eighteen months of drafting and redrafting. Chapters that remain substantially the same are the chapters on liberal feminism, radical feminism, and ecofeminism, though even these have significant revisions. Sub- stantially reformulated chapters are the ones on psychoanalytic feminism and Marxist/socialist feminism. I have reassigned some feminist thinkers I previ- ously classified as postmodern feminists to the psychoanalytic feminist fold, and I have amplified my discussion of socialist feminism in ways that better clarify the differences between it and Marxist feminism. In addition, although Chapter 6, “Multicultural, Global, and Postcolonial Feminism,” includes ideas from the second edition, I have thoroughly revised the section on multicultural femi- nism, offering new interpretations of this mode of feminist thinking. Further enhancing this chapter, which is now one of my favorite chapters, is a serious effort to address the differences between multicultural, global, and postcolonial feminism. New or expanded discussions of Susan Okin, Martha Nussbaum, Chila Bulbeck, Linda Martin Alcoff, and Adrian Piper are featured. Another chapter that blends a bit of old material with much new material is Chapter 8, “Postmodern and Third-Wave Feminism.” Among the feminist thinkers now showcased are Hélène Cixous, Judith Butler, Leslie Heywood, Jennifer Drake, and Rebecca Walker. Finally, a new chapter makes its debut in this third edition. Although Chapter 5, “Care-Focused Feminism,” includes previous discussions of Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, equally long discussions of Virginia Held and Eva Feder Kittay have been added. ix 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page x x Preface As I reflect on this third edition of Feminist Thought, I realize how quickly and richly feminist thinking has developed. I applaud the creative and schol- arly abilities of the feminists whose work I try to summarize, interpret, and share with as wide and diverse an audience as possible. Feminist thinking has energized the academy and challenged it to reject the limits that had been previously imposed on it by a “white/male/exclusionary” modality of thought. Just as importantly—indeed more importantly—feminist thinking has motivated feminist action. The world is more fair, just, and caring thanks to the ideas not only of the feminist thinkers featured in this book but also the many feminist thinkers who, for lack of pen perhaps, have not been able to write down, let alone widely publicize their ideas. It is to this group of feminist thinkers I dedicate this book. 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page xi Acknowledgments As anyone who has ever written a book knows, it is not a solo project. Rather, it is a collaborative effort. My only fear is that I will fail to say a public thank-you to one of the persons who helped me bring this book to completion. First, I want to thank Lisa Singleton for the long hours she spent research- ing for me and the even longer hours she spent typing draft after draft of a book that seemed without end. Without Lisa’s cheerful commitment to this project, it would not have seen the light of day. There is no way that I can thank this gifted woman enough. Second, I want to thank Karl Yambert, my editor. His patience is that of Job. Due to life’s unpredictable and sometimes sad detours, it took me far longer to complete this book than I hoped. Rather than chastising me, Karl made things easy for me. Had I had a less understanding editor, I would have probably abandoned this third edition. Third, I want to thank my diligent copyeditor, Patty Boyd, for perfecting my manuscript and the anonymous reviewers who motivated me to improve it. Their behind-the-scenes work is most appreciated. I also want to thank Laura Stine, my project editor, for getting this edition of Feminist Thought to press. Finally, I thank all feminist thinkers for building a body of thought that is moving us closer to being a more just and compassionate world. I am grateful to be a part of this effort and hope to remain a part of it until the day I die. xi 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page xii This page intentionally left blank 0813343754_TEXT 5/27/08 10:28 AM Page 1 Introduction: The Diversity of Feminist Thinking Since writing my first introduction to feminist thought nearly two decades ago, I have become increasingly convinced that feminist thought resists categoriza- tion into tidy schools of thought. Interdisciplinary, intersectional, and interlock- ing are the kind of adjectives that best describe the way we feminists think. There is a certain breathlessness in the way we move from one topic to the next, revising our thoughts in midstream. Yet despite the very real problems that come with trying to categorize the thought of an incredibly diverse and large array of feminist thinkers as “x” or “y” or “z,” feminist thought is old enough to have a history complete with a set of labels: liberal, radical, Marxist/socialist, psychoanalytic, care-focused, multicultural/global/colonial, ecofeminist, and postmodern/third wave. To be sure, this list of labels is incomplete and highly contestable. Indeed, it may ultimately prove to be entirely unreflective of femi- nism’s intellectual and political commitments to women. For now, however, feminist thought’s old labels still remain serviceable. They signal to the public that feminism is not a monolithic ideology and that all feminists do not think alike. The labels also help mark the range of different approaches, perspectives, and frameworks a variety of feminists have used to shape both their explana- tions for women’s oppression and their proposed solutions for its elimination.