Fifteen Years of Forest Community Management in Niger: from a Technician’S Dream to Social Reality
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International conference on smallholder and community forest management in Montpellier, France, in March 2010. Title: Fifteen years of forest community management in Niger: from a technician’s dream to social reality. Authors : Fanny RIVES, CIRAD ( [email protected] , corresponding author); Régis PELTIER, CIRAD ( [email protected] ); Pierre MONTAGNE, CIRAD ( [email protected] ). INTRODUCTION Degradation of tropical forest is a major concern in environmental policies. To face this problem, some southern countries have developed policies of devolution of forest management from state to local stakeholders (Bertrand , et al. , 2007, Cuny , et al. , 2006, Gautier , et al. , 2008). This strategy postulates that local management and an appropriation of forest resource by local stakeholders insure sustainable management. In Niger, during 1980’s, state became aware of failure of policies that aim to exclude rural stakeholders from forest. This acknowledgement of failure favored the emergence of community forestry (Bertrand, et al., 2006, Montagne, et al. , 2006). Community forestry in Niger resulted in the creation of forest cooperative since 1981, and then the creation of firewood Rural Markets (RM) since 1992. The creation of Rural Markets (RM) aims sustainable management of forest ecosystems and sustainable supplying of towns with firewood. Devolution of forest management rests on acknowledgement of the rural stakeholders’ capacities to manage their resources (Montagne , et al. , 1997). However, technical rules that local stakeholders have to follow in order to reach the objectives of sustainable management were defined by the forest administration helped by forest experts of projects. These technical rules resulted from ecological and socio- economic studies done during different projects in Niger (Ichaou, 2005, Noppen , et al. , 2004, Peltier, 1994, Projet IDA/FAC/CCCE, 1988). In 2010, RMs have been applied for twenty years. With the benefit of hindsight, we can now assess the consequences of these technical and political choices at middle course. Our analysis implied two aspects. First, we assessed if technical rules are applied and respected. Then, we assessed the consequences of practices on sustainable management of forest supplying Rural Markets. Our results could help Box 1: The Project Energy II (PEII) forest policy makers improve technical rules for more sustainable forest management in the context Forest administration in Niger implemented the of Rural Markets. Project Energy II from 1989 to 1998. They were helped by the World Bank and were financed by The RMs of Ñinpelima and Tientiergou are among DANIDA (Danish cooperation). This project aims: the first RM created in Niger in 1993. The Project - To organize firewood supplying of Niamey; Energy II (PEII, box 1) has come along their creation - To think and enforce the edict number 92-037 that creates firewood rural markets and that and defined technical rules to reach sustainable defines a new tax system for firewood trading; management of harvested forest ecosystems. - To bring the conditions of sustainable management of forest ecosystems by the mean of the creation of 200 rural markets. All these actions would contribute to the implementation of the Domestic Energy Strategy in Niger. CONTEXT In Niger, Rural Markets of firewood (RM) have been recognized in 1992 by the edict number 92-037. This edict defines RM as “places where organizations are set up for commercial exploitation of firewood outside big towns”. A forest is delimited for each Rural Market. A “ Local Structure of Management ” (LSM) undertakes to sell the wood and to check out woodcutter practices. A. Location The Rural Markets of Ñinpelima and Tientiergou are in the Southwest of Niger, in the rural councils of Torodi and Say respectively, in Say Department, Tillaberi Region (Figure 1). Rural Market of Tientiergou Rural Market of Ñinpelima Figure 1 : Rural Markets of Ñinpelima and Tientiergou in Tillaberi Region. B. Agro-ecological conditions In the Southwest of Niger, climate is soudano-sahelian with a long dry season (from October to May) and a short rainy season (from June to September). Landscape alternate plateaus with superficial lateritic soil, valleys with deep ferruginous soil and slopes between plateaus and valleys with sandy soil (Ichaou, 2000). Between 13° and 15° north latitude, vegetation on plateaus is organized in a particular way (Ambouta, 1997). This kind of vegetation, called “tiger bush” is made up of bands covered by dense woody vegetation and bands without woody vegetation. Water runoff on bands without vegetation and it is accumulated on bands with dense vegetation. This process allows vegetation to resist under scarce rain conditions. It is difficult to grow on plateaus as their soil is not deep enough. Therefore, plateaus are either not farmed at all, either they are farmed for a short period. Most of the valleys are farmed. Slopes can be farmed but they need to be lain fallow or to be fertilized. In the village of Torodi, 50 km north from Ñinpelima, annual rainfall is 588 mm (average rain for 30 years). Annual rainfall in Ñinpelima may be higher than in Torodi. In the area of Ñinpelima, there is a little surface of plateaus. In these latitudes, the “tiger bush” structure in bands tends to attenuate. The structure alternates with vegetated and bared areas but it is not organized in bands (‘speckled bush’; Ambouta, 1997). Most of the valleys are cultivated with sorghum. Some of the fields in valleys are lain fallow during short period (five years maximum). A part of the slopes is cultivated with millet (Montagne, 1997). In the area of Tientiergou, annual rainfall is 600 mm (average rain for 40 years). There is a large surface of plateau with rare area of slash-and-burn cultivation. The tiger bush is organized in patches (‘spotted bush’; Peltier , et al. , 1994). C. Human conditions In the RM of Ñinpelima, the ethnic groups of villagers are Fulani and Gourmantché . Gourmantché people have been in this area for 400 years. Their ancestors came from Bilanga, Burkina Faso. Because of the population growth, this group has expended on 14 villages including Ñinpelima. The 14 villages are under the authority of the same customary chief. The customary chief has the power over land tenure and deals with the collection of state tax. The Fulani arrived in this area later. They have their own traditional chief who is in charge of resolving conflicts between farmers and breeders. The Gourmantché people are traditionally farmers. They have developed breeding for over 50 years. The Fulani are traditionally cattle breeders. They have developed agriculture since they were settled in this place. Before the creation of the RM, some Gourmantché men were woodcutters and worked for traders. Since the RM was created, the woodcutters’ number has increased. Yet, no of Fulani has become woodcutter. In the RM of Tientiergou, the ethnic group of villagers is in majority Fulani . This group is made up by noblemen called Fulbe and by their former slave called Rimaïbé. The main activity of Fulbe people is breeding whereas the principal activity of Rimaïbé people is agriculture. The customary chief exercises his authority for the clearing of the land of Tientiergou. Each chief in this area has identified the land of his village. Before the creation of the RM, some Rimaïbe men sold wood along the road to traders. However, woodcutter was seen as a caste profession. With the creation of RM, this sense of the profession disappeared. Accordingly, woodcutters’ number has increased, particularly among Rimaïbé people. Their enrichment has modified social hierarchy between Fulbe and Rimaïbe. D. Technical rules The project Energie II has come along the creation of RM. In order to guarantee a sustainable management, project experts established technical rules for wood harvesting. Two types of RM were created (“oriented” and “controlled”); each one of those was characterized by different technical rules. The Rural Market of Ñinpelima is an “Oriented” RM (ORM). The edict number 92-037 states that RM are “oriented” when “they are supplied by areas delimited but not managed” (Article 10). When the RM of Ñinpelima was created, a forest was delimited and an exploitation quota was fixed. All stakeholders (Forest administration, project, woodcutters, and traders) agree that ORM have to exploit only dead trees, although this rule is not mentioned in legal text. The RM of Tientiergou is a “Controlled” RM (CRM) which “is supplied by areas delimited and managed”. When it was created, a forest was delimited and divided into six plots. Each plot has to be exploited during one year. A quota was fixed for the harvesting of dead and live trees. Woodcutters are allowed to harvest four species (Combretum glutinosum, Combretum micranthum, Combretum nigricans and Guiera senegalensis) . Forest technicians recommended a minimum diameter cutting limit of 6 cm for Combretum micranthum and Guiera senegalensis and a minimum diameter cutting limit of 8 cm for Combretum glutinosum and Combretum nigricans (Peltier , et al. , 1995) . MATERIALS AND METHODS The studies in the two types of RM were compared to assess the effect of different technical rules on effective management. These two RM are among the first in Niger and they allow benefits of insight for such analysis. We collected data in 2009 in the RM of Ñinpelima and in 2007 in the RM of Tientiergou. Both study used vegetation inventories, interviews and observations. The study of the application of technical rules was based on interviews and observations. The study of the effects of practices on vegetation was based on inventories, observations of stocked wood and qualitative assessment by villagers. A. Interviews For each study, two series of semi-directive interviews was made. The first one was intended to the officers of forest administration at local and national scale. The second series was intended to villagers. In Ñinpelima, about 50 interviews were made with villagers. In Tientiergou, about 30 interviews were made.