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Deformation Characteristics of Stainless Steels

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Deformation Characteristics of Stainless Steels : DOCTORAL T H E SI S Deformation Characteristics of Stainless Steels Roger Andersson Luleå University of Technology Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering Division of Manufacturing Systems Engineering :|: -|: - -- ⁄ -- $EFORMATION#HARACTERISTICS OF3TAINLESS3TEELS 2OGER!NDERSSON $OCTORAL4HESIS $IVISIONOF-ANUFACTURING3YSTEMS%NGINEERING $EPARTMENTOF!PPLIED0HYSICSAND-ECHANICAL%NGINEERING ,ULEË5NIVERSITYOF4ECHNOLOGY 3% ,ULEË 3WEDEN ,ULEË I ii Scientific questions bring scientists together, The results drive them apart. iii iv ABSTRACT This thesis is divided into five papers, each of which deals with a different aspect of the deformation behaviour of stainless steels (from formability to crash-impact testing). The subject matter of each of the five papers is briefly outlined below. The exceptional sheet metal formability of meta-stable stainless grades is often explained by their ability to undergo a microstructural transformation from austenite to martensite during plastic deformation. The most common method of estimating sheet metal formability is through the Nakazima test for the creation of forming limit curves. These forming limit curves are often used to compare and index formability properties, but for materials that undergo microstructural transformations these curves often underestimate forming behaviour. Paper 1 demonstrates this underestimation from an experimental and theoretical point of view and suggests an alternative graphical approach for meta-stable stainless steels; The Forming Limit Length-change Diagram (FLLD). This new approach is considerably more accurate when rating the formability of materials that undergo microstructural transformation during plastic deformation. The microstructural transformation from austenite to martensite during plastic deformation has been investigated in Paper 2. The fraction of transformed martensite has been measured by saturation magnetization after deformation. The results showed an increase in transformed martensite with decreasing thickness for any specific grade of meta-stable austenitic stainless steel. An empirical sigmoid relationship between true thickness strain and the amount of martensite has been evaluated which could easily be installed in commercial FEM software. This proposed equation is independent of strain path during plastic deformation. Paper 3 is concerned with FEM analysis of the forming process and impact behaviour of a stainless steel bumper. Experimental measurements are compared with simulated results. A non-conventional FEM element model with a damage criterion was used too accurately predict the plastic hinge for the impact situation. Paper 4 experimentally evaluates the dynamic response of four types of stainless steel sheet at different strain rates from 10-2 up to 103 s-1. The results from the tensile tests were used to evaluate the parameters in three different multiplicative strain rate equations of the type used in crashworthiness v calculations. It was necessary to develop a new type of sigmoid constitutive equation for one of the grades of high strength stainless steel. In the future many different materials will be joined together to create a multi- material automotive structure and this will open up opportunities for materials like stainless steels. Paper 5 shows the results of laser welding as a joining method between high strength carbon steels and stainless grades. Process parameters have been evaluated for Nd:YAG laser welding of carbon to stainless steel sheets with a thickness of 1.5 mm. The properties of the welds have been characterized through optical microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with attached Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX) and mechanical testing. The results show that it is possible to create acceptable welds that will not initiate fracture during plastic deformation. Keywords: Stainless steels, forming behaviour, formability, microstructural transformation, crash/impact properties, FEM-simulations vi PREFACE I can hardly believe that I am writing this sentence because it means that I really coming to the end of my Ph.D. studies. Of course this thesis could not have come true without the help of a number of passionate and inspiring people who have helped me through the years. I would first like to say thanks to those people who have believed in me and helped me financially and technically. These are: • Professor Claes Magnusson of Volvo Cars Body Component division, Olofström, Sweden • Professor Hans Nordberg of the former Avesta-Sheffield Research Foundation, Stockholm, Sweden • Professor John Powell of Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden and Laser Expertise, Nottingham, England • Professor Alexander Kaplan of Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden Thanks to you all for technical and financial support and fruitful discussions. Without your help this thesis would never had been completed. Obviously there have been many more people that have been involved in my work in one way or another. Some of them I would like to thank for all the help are: • Trevor Bell, Frank Lesha and Mike Swain at CSIRO, Lindfield, Sydney, Australia, who helped me to understand that applied research could be both fun and inspiring. • The late Ulla Öhman at former division of Materials Processing, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden for all her positivism, encouragement and inspiring discussions • The personnel at Luleå University of Technology, Division of Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Luleå, Sweden for all the help and good times • All graduates that former Avesta-Sheffield Research Foundation supported for the good times during our annually meetings. • The personnel at Corus, Welsh Technological Centre, Port Talbot, Wales for all the help and good times during my stay at your place. • The personnel at former Avesta-Sheffield R&D, Avesta, Sweden for all the help and good times during my visits at your place. • David Dulieu at the U.K. division of former Avesta-Sheffield Research Foundation, Sheffield, England for practical help during my visits in England. vii • Johnny Ocklund and Arne Persson at Volvo Cars Body Component Division, Olofström, Sweden for the technical assistance. • Per Thilderqvist at Industrial Development Centre, Olofström, Sweden for the technical assistance. • Erik Schedin, Outokumpu Stainless, Avesta Research Centre, Sweden for the technical assistance. • Tero Taulavuori and Pasi Aspegren at Outokumpu Stainless, Torneå Research Centre for the technical assistance. • Wim Both, Mark Vrolijk, Mark Lambriks, Paul Groenenboom and Monique von Hoist at ESI-Group, Krimpen a/d IJssel, Holland as well as Dave Ling and Damien Dry, ESI-Group, Oxford, England for all help concerning FEM simulations and numerical algorithms. • My parents who did not always understand what I was doing during my postgraduate studies but still supported me in all kinds of ways. • My Eva who is even more pleased then me that I am finished with this work viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... V PREFACE .......................................................................................................VII INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................11 1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THIS THESIS .......................................................................11 1.2 THE ORGANISATION OF THIS THESIS...........................................................11 1.3 BACKGROUND TO THIS THESIS ...................................................................12 1.4 METHODS USED IN THIS THESIS ..................................................................16 1.5 A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE FINDINGS OF THIS THESIS.....................................16 1.6 GENERAL NOTES.........................................................................................19 1.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK..............................................................19 1.8 AN INTRODUCTION TO STAINLESS STEELS..................................................20 1.9 INTRODUCTION TO FORMABILITY AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION.................24 1.10 REFERENCES.............................................................................................35 PAPER 1: A NEW TYPE OF FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM FOR USE WITH META-STABLE STAINLESS STEELS ...........................................39 PAPER 2: A NEW EQUATION TO DESCRIBE THE MICROSTRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION OF META-STABLE AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS DURING PLASTIC DEFORMATION .............................................................................................57 PAPER 3: FEM-SIMULATION OF THE FORMING AND IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF STAINLESS STEEL AUTOMOBILE COMPONENTS ............................................................................................................................75 PAPER 4: THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH STRAIN RATE EQUATIONS FOR STAINLESS STEELS ...................................................95 PAPER 5: THE METALLURGY AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LASER WELDS BETWEEN STAINLESS AND CARBON STEELS ..........................................................................................................................115 ix x R.Andersson – Introduction INTRODUCTION 1.1 Objectives of this thesis The subject matter of this thesis is of interest both to industry and to materials scientists. The industrial interest is demonstrated by the fact that Avesta Sheffield Research Foundation and Volvo Cars Body Components
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