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Stainless Steel Information Series STAINLESS STEEL INFORMATION SERIES COLD FORMING OF STAINLESS 1400 STEEL 1050 40 Cold forming stainless steel is generally different to processing low-alloy and % ELONG plain carbon (mild) steels, primarily 700 30 because stainless steels are stronger, MPa harder and more ductile, work harden more rapidly and must maintain their 350 15 inherent corrosion resistance. These characteristics necessitate greater power requirements, an allowance for a greater 0 0 wear rate of processing equipment and 10 20 30 40 the application of working procedures GRADE 430 % COLD WORK that will avoid surface damage and GRADE 301 contamination or impairment of FIGURE 1 Effect of cold work on mechanical properties corrosion resistance. The grade of stainless steel being processed will FORMABILITY OF 200 series. The higher nickel grades generally dictate the type of process to STAINLESS STEEL such as 304DDQ and 305 (10-13% Ni) be used. AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL work harden the least of the austenitic Specific grades of stainless steel are These are the chromium nickel (Cr/Ni) grades. The lower work hardening rate usually chosen on the basis of specific and chromium, nickel manganese (Cr/ is characteristic of a more pronounced inherent properties such as corrosion Ni/Mn) stainless steels the 300 and 200 convergence of the ultimate tensile or heat resistance, strength, ductility series respectively. stress and yield stress curves with cold etc. The response of the steel to work Nickel (Ni) and manganese are the work. This convergence means that hardening and the subsequent effect alloying elements which promote the total deformation prior to fracture on the mechanical properties will play the formation of, and stabilise, the would be less than for a work-hardening a significant part in selecting a steel for austenitic crystal structure. The higher grade such as grade 301. A reduction formability. The formability of a steel the Ni:Cr ratio the more stable the in thickness is hence not so effectively is largely determined by the rate at austenite, and hence a difference in countered by a higher developed which the yield strength approaches the mechanical properties and response to strength in the location of the thinning. ultimate tensile strength as the material work hardening both of which in turn A lower yield stress, as with grade 305, is cold worked. affect the formability. means that much less force is required to Figure 1. shows a narrowing of the Grade 301 has the lowest nickel initiate deformation. band between the yield strength and (6.5%Ni) content of the austenitic stain- The cold forming operations used the ultimate tensile strength curves as less steels and has thus the highest rate for austenitic stainless steels are the the material is cold worked indicates of work hardening. Although having a same as those used for ferritic stainless that the formability is limited for grades fully austenitic microstructure in the steels. However, the forming conditions such as 430. The narrowing shows annealed condition the lower nickel differ. The austenitic stainless steels are that most of the available yielding is content results in a greater proportion of capable of greater deformation due to expended and any further deformation martensite being formed during plastic their high ductility and thus a greater will result in rupture. On the other deformation which helps the metal resist amount of reduction in a single given hand, for steels that do not show a necking and assists in a more uniform operation can be tolerated. Among the great convergence such as grade 301, deformation. An advantage of the high austenitic stainless steels, the greatest a tendency for greater work hardening work-hardening rate is that appreciable deformation in a single operation can is indicated and, together with a higher increases in strength and stiffness can be withstood by the more rapidly work- ductility for the same degree of cold be achieved which are useful for cold- hardening grades such as 301 or 304. The work, will permit severe deformation formed structural sections. Similar formability of cold-worked austenitic during forming. properties are seen in many of the stainless steels is adequate to permit information series 6.indd 1 20-Feb-17 10:58:14 AM cold forming operations without prior and the lower elongation means less to stress corrosion cracking. They have annealing. However, during a sequence plastic deformation can be tolerated a two-phase (duplex) microstructure of operations, the extent of cold work prior to fracture. Although higher consisting of about equal proportions of achieved may necessitate intermediate initial deformation forces are required, austenite and ferrite. annealing, to return the steel to its the force/load does not need to be Duplex stainless steels can be readily original ductility increased as deformation progresses, cold formed by the same methods used The better formability of the austenitic because ferritic stainless steels do not for austenite stainless steels. stainless steels is particularly apparent work harden to the same extent as the Duplex stainless steels have higher in such processes as stretch bending austenitic stainless steels. The poor proof strengths than the conventional where a greater tensile deformation will notch ductility of the ferrite stainless austenitic stainless steels and therefore be sustained, and in severe drawing steels in heavy sections requires that more power is required to initiate operations where a high ductility is the speed at which the load is applied forming. When forming grades such as required. will have to be slower than for low alloy 2101, 2304 and 2205, the capacity of a However, because of the higher or plain carbon (mild) steels. Ferritic press brake will be reduced by 50% when annealed strengths and response to work stainless steels will tend to fracture compared to austenitic stainless steels, hardening, greater forces are required under shock loads at low temperatures. although once the yield stress has been for austenitic stainless steels compared As can be seen in Figure 1, the yield attained, the duplex stainless steels flow to ferritic stainless steels. Not only are strength for grade 430 converges as easily as the austenitic stainless steels. higher deformation forces necessary, rapidly to the ultimate tensile strength Because of the higher proof stress but the initial force must be increased as as the cold work progresses. Since of the duplex stainless steels, greater the metal deforms to accommodate the the yield point must be exceeded for springback can be expected. Over- effects of work hardening. plastic deformation (and hence for cold bending by approximately 10% on a In general, the austenitic stainless forming) to occur the close convergence 90° bend should compensate for this. steels are more difficult to form as the of the yield and ultimate tensile stresses Hydraulically operated presses are nickel (Ni) content decreases, as in is conducive to rupture. This response is preferred. grade 301 (approximately 6.5% Ni). The typical of the ferritic stainless steels. This Duplex stainless steels such as 2101, presence of stabilising elements such as effect, plus the rapid drop in ductility 2304 and 2205 require larger inner titanium (Ti), niobium (Nb) and tantalum with increasing cold work, necessitates bend radii — typically 3 to 4 times (Ta) as well as higher carbon (C) contents the use of fully annealed sheet together plate thickness. Severe bending should have an adverse effect on the forming with intermediate annealing, where always be carried out transverse to the characteristics of the stabilised grades. necessary, during processing. rolling direction due to directionality of This is due to the formation of second Severe bending should always be the as-rolled microstructure. phase particles in the microstructure carried out transverse to the rolling Where heavy cold forming has been such as titanium carbides, carbo-nitrides direction due to directionality of the as- done, consideration should be given to etc. Forming of grades 321 and 347 is rolled microstructure. heat treatment — particularly if severely thus less favourable than grades 302, 304 The decreasing ductility with corrosive service conditions are to be and 305. increasing work of the ferritic stainless expected. The 200 series austenitic stainless steels requires more inter-annealing steels (i.e. those in which nickel (Ni) is steps than is necessary for plain carbon POWER REQUIREMENTS partially replaced by manganese (Mn) (mild) steels when spinning or roll Power requirements for forming require more power due to their greater forming. Nevertheless, grades such stainless steels, mainly because of the initial strength and a high response as 409, 441 and 430 are often used for high yield strength, are greater than for to work hardening. They also suffer a applications that require forming by equivalent thicknesses of low alloy and greater degree of springback than the blanking, bending, drawing or spinning. plain carbon (mild) steel. equivalent 300 series. As a general rule, approximately twice MARTENSITIC STAINLESS as much power is required for forming FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS STEELS stainless steels. Not only is more power These are plain chromium stainless These are plain chromium stainless required initially, but because the steels which have low carbon (C) steels which have relatively high carbon austenitic and duplex stainless steels contents (< 0.1% C). They are contained (C) contents (0.15-1.2% C). They are also work harden rapidly, increasingly more in the 400 Series. contained in the 400 Series. power is required as forming proceeds. The mechanical properties of the The forming characteristics of grades Most of the ferritic grades behave in a ferritic stainless steels compared with 403, 410 and 414 (the lower carbon similar manner to the carbon steels with the plain carbon (mild) steels indicate grades) in the fully annealed condition regard to work hardening, although that different cold forming methods are may very similar to those of the ferritic more power is required to initiate the required for these materials.
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