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Black Identity, Masculinity, and Authenticity Through the Body of T

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Black Identity, Masculinity, and Authenticity Through the Body of T BUILDING MULTIRACIAL FORTUNES: BLACK IDENTITY, MASCULINITY, AND AUTHENTICITY THROUGH THE BODY OF T. THOMAS FORTUNE, 1883-1907 _______________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of San Diego State University _______________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in History _______________ by Guy Mount Fall 2011 iii Copyright © 2011 by Guy Mount All Rights Reserved iv ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS Building Multiracial Fortunes: Black Identity, Masculinity, and Authenticity Through the Body of T. Thomas Fortune, 1883-1907 by Guy Mount Master of Arts in History San Diego State University, 2011 This thesis examines the post-emancipation formation of African American identity, masculinity, and authenticity through the white skinned, multiracial body of T. Thomas Fortune, the premier African American newspaper editor of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. It argues that multiracial African American men like Fortune were central to the collective construction of an authentic black male identity between 1883 and 1907. Often functioning as foil characters in elaborate racial performances which characterized them as less authentic, less masculine, and more subject to racial disloyalty, Fortune and others who visually presented a racially ambiguous body challenged this narrowly drawn and internally imposed paradigm of orthodox black male authenticity while resisting its implications. Emerging from chattel slavery in Florida and surviving a particularly violent strand of Reconstruction in Marianna County, Fortune relocated to New York City where he harnessed the power of the press to fight white racism and eventually enter the debates over a rapidly crystallizing image of black masculinity. In doing so he attempted to inscribe an alternative political meaning to interracial sexuality, the bodies of white skinned African Americans, and indeed, the very notion of authentic black manhood itself. All of these projects were informed by Fortune’s deeply rooted anxiety regarding his own white skinned body and what it signified within the black community. Ultimately this formulation and the ongoing struggle over the meaning of blackness, was acted out by Fortune and others at the expense of black women. This process of defining black authenticity and black manhood effectively established a firm patriarchal order within elite African American discourse as it attempted to assert black manhood by controlling the sexualized bodies of black women while silencing their voices in the public sphere. In this way, white skinned African American male bodies can serve as a useful example of the complex problematic of what it means to be a gendered black subject in early Jim Crow America. What emerges, in the end, are complicated, dynamically engaged subjects trying to grasp at an authentic, stable identity that was always shifting, transforming, and at times, vanishing from sight. The four chapters found here cover topics such as the emerging black nationalist movement, segregated insane asylums, the interracial marriage of Frederick Douglass to Helen Pitts in 1884, and the internal debates over the use of the terms ‘Negro,’ ‘colored,’ or ‘Afro-American’ to self-identify African Americans. Methodologically this thesis draws inspiration from Lacanian psychoanalysis, the linguistic work of Jacques Derrida, and the conception of the body, sexuality, and decentralized power networks as envisioned by Michel v Foucault. The author can be reached for questions, comments, or criticisms at [email protected] or www.twitter.com/guyemersonmount. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1 THE INSANITY OF SEGREGATION AND THE SEGREGATION OF INSANITY.....................................................................................................................5 BODIES OF THE BLACK POLITICAL: MULTIRACIAL IDENTITIES, BLACK NATIONALISM, AND THE THREAT OF INTEGRATION.....................12 A Contested Black Nationhood .............................................................................13 The Limits of Fighting Jim Crow ..........................................................................20 WHAT’S IN A NAME: COMMUNITY, SELF-IDENTITY, AND FORTUNE’S FIGHT FOR THE ‘AFRO-AMERICAN’ ...................................................................27 “HIS QUEER CHOICE”: INTERRACIAL SEXUALITY AND THE PROBLEM OF THE MULTIRACIAL BODY...............................................................................40 There is No Sexual Relationship............................................................................41 “His Queer Choice” ...............................................................................................49 CONCLUSION: BREAKS IN FORTUNE .......................................................................55 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................57 vii LIST OF FIGURES PAGE Figure 1. T. Thomas Fortune .....................................................................................................2 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project has been a collaborative venture in more ways than one. My family and friends have inspired me with their love, encouragement, and support allowing my spirit to endure in moments of doubt. My mentors and colleagues have challenged me intellectually, nourishing my mind and setting it off in exciting new directions. My students at San Diego State University have moved my heart and reminded me every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday how far I still have to go. Without these influences, I undoubtedly would have fallen off the path and lost the courage to continue. William and Aimlee Cheek patiently believed in me through all my career diversions. They not only taught me how to think, read and write but also how to live a life filled with love and devotion to the world of humanity. Their passion for teaching and unwavering commitment to their students can only be matched by Elizabeth Colwill whose ideas about the body have festered in my mind for over a decade and will undoubtedly shape my scholarship for decades to come. My gratitude, admiration, and respect for these three precious souls can never sufficiently repay them for all they have done, as they have truly changed my life and the trajectory of my family forever. Edward Blum thankfully agreed to serve as my thesis chair while welcoming me into his American Religious History seminar. While his hand only appears in the shadows of this work, he has successfully converted me into one of his faithful apostles and as I move onward I will be joining his crusade to reassert the centrality of religion in American history. I would also like to thank the many other brilliant professors at San Diego State who impacted me so long ago and who have remained supportive of my work over the years. These include Ross Dunn, Howard Kushner, and Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman, all of whom have given generously of their time with letters of recommendation, advice, and administrative fixes to help expedite my return to the life of the mind. I also would like to thank Lawrence Barron whose dedicated work as the department’s graduate advisor helped navigate me through all the bureaucratic red tape with his trademark wit, skill, and charm. The administrative team at SDSU’s history department including Adriana Putko and Jan ix LeBlanc exemplified the department’s positive ‘vibe’ and showed my children such love and generosity that the frequent trips with Daddy to campus became a joyous adventure rather than a laborious chore. To the SDSU professors who showed me how to teach and gave me the opportunity to practice my crazy ideas on their students I send my humble thanks: Frank Nobiletti, Andrew Wiese, Eve Kornfeld, and Stephen Colston. Further aiding my professionalization on the teaching front, I would also like to thank Stephen Barnes and Kendra Jeffcoat from San Diego State’s Innerworks Institute whose courses in post-secondary educational theory and curriculum design helped me develop the intellectual foundation to purse my teaching passionately. My fellow teaching assistants at San Diego State including Max Rieger, Galit Stam, Dan Driskill, Ryan Wingerd, Mekila Martin, Vivian Valdvia, Joe Bickley, Rob Palermo, and Mike Brickey, served as a constant soundboard for all ideas germane and tangential as we stumbled to balance teaching, learning, writing, and, of course, labor organizing and student activism. Revolution is now upon us and I hope we carry it onward in the name of our fallen sister Jen Lindel who just months after gaining admission to the University of Pennsylvania was tragically taken from us due to complications of cystic fibrosis. She will be sorely missed and we will proceed in her name and carry on her work. To the brothers at the San Diego Black Men’s Gathering, too many to name, who surrounded me with a love, confidence, and community that I never imagined possible I want to send thanks. Joe Walker, John Myers, Dale Bivens, Russ Moxley, Hennin
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