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Home , Amy Eilberg, Deborah Waxman, Jewish Renewal, Jewish seminary, Lila Kagedan, Oral Torah

SPECIAL TOPIC 8.4 JEWISH MOVEMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES: INSTITUTIONS, SIZE, AND KEY BELIEFS

Movements Orthodox Reform Conservative Reconstructionist Humanistic Renewal

Institutions 1886: Jewish Theological Seminary 1873: Union of American Hebrew 1901: Rabbinical Assembly (RA) 1922: Society for the Advancement of 1967: Association of Humanistic Rabbis 1962: B’nai Or Religious Fellowship (JTS) Congregations (UAHC); now called 1902: Founded in 1886, only at this Judaism 1969: Society for Humanistic Judaism 1993: Alliance for Jewish Renewal (ALEPH) 1898: Union of Orthodox Jewish Union for Reform Judaism (URJ) time did the Jewish Theological 1955: Jewish Reconstructionist Federation 1985: International Institute for Secular 1997: ALEPH rabbinical program § Congregations of America (OU) 1875: Hebrew Union College (HUC) Seminary (JTS) begin an explicit (synagogue arm of movement); now part Humanistic Judaism (IISHJ) 1998: Ohalah (Association of Rabbis for 1902: Agudat ha-Rabbanim (Union 1889: Central Conference of transformation from Orthodoxy of RRC 1992: IISHJ rabbinical school Jewish Renewal) of Orthodox Rabbis of the United American Rabbis (CCAR) to what eventually became called 1968: Reconstructionist Rabbinical States and Canada) Conservative Judaism College (RRC) 1928: Yeshiva College 1913: United Synagogue of America; 1935: Rabbinical Council of America now called United Synagogue of 1937: Ramaz School Conservative Judaism

What 1800: 100%* 1800: 0%* 1880: 0%† 1950: 0%† 1950: 0%† 1950: 0%† percentage of 1880: 6% of all U.S. synagogues‡ 1880: 94% of U.S. synagogues‡ 1950: 60% 1971: <1% 1971: <1% 1971: <1%† American Jews 1950: 10% 1950: 25% 1971: 42% 1990: 1.3% 1990: <1% 1990: <1%† affiliate with 1971: 11% 1971: 33% 1990: 35% 2000: 2% 2000: <1% 2000: <1% you? 1990: 6% 1990: 38% 2000: 27% 2013: 2–3% 2013: <1% 2013: 2–3% 2000: 10% 2000: 35% 2013: 18% 2013: 10% 2013: 35%

What is your Someone born to a halakhically Someone who has at least one Someone born to a halakhically Jewish No offcial position. Since 1968, this “A Jew is a person of Jewish descent or No offcial position. definition of a Jewish woman or who converts to parent who is Jewish (i.e., both woman or who converts to Judaism movement has accepted both patrilineal any person who declares himself or Jew? (And can Judaism according to an Orthodox patrilineal and matrilineal descent according to a Conservative (or and matrilineal descent. As for those herself to be a Jew and who identifes one convert to (or perhaps Conservative) are recognized) or converts to Orthodox) understanding of halakhah. choosing to become Jewish, unoffcially with the history, ethical values, culture, Judaism?) understanding of halakhah. Judaism according to Reform a ritual conversion is encouraged but not civilization, community, and fate of the standards. required. Jewish people. . . . [As for becoming part of the Jewish community,] Humanistic Jews use the term ‘adopted’ rather than ‘converted’ because we believe that the person wishing to be Jewish is adopting both Judaism and our community and that the community adopts those desiring to be part of the Jewish people.” Further, “we welcome into the Jewish people all men and women who sincerely desire to share the Jewish experience regardless of their ancestry. We challenge the assumption that the Jews are primarily or exclusively a religious community and that religious convictions or behavior are essential to full membership in the Jewish people.”

What is the The Written Torah is the word of The Written Torah embodies the Some believe the Written Torah comes “We consider our sacred texts to be the “Each Jew has the right to create a No offcial position. Considers the Torah to be Torah’s God, letter for letter. The Oral Torah relationship between the Jewish directly from God; others believe it was product of inspired experience in the meaningful Jewish lifestyle free from the Jewish community’s core sacred text. authority? is also the word of God, though people and God. There is a range of written by humans. Most contend that human search for God and holiness in supernatural authority and imposed some believe it is the rabbinic offcial beliefs regarding whether the Oral Torah is a manifestation of our world. To us, they are neither literal tradition. Humanistic philosophy affrms interpretation of the Written Torah, the Written Torah was given by human interpretation. transcriptions from a supernatural that knowledge and power come from which the Talmudic rabbis had God to humans or was written by being nor anachronisms that are mere people and from the natural world in the authority to dictate and which humans. Unoffcially, most in this constructs and fctions.” which they live. Jewish continuity needs continues to have a divine status. movement believe the latter. As for reconciliation between science, personal the Oral Torah, it was not divinely autonomy, and Jewish loyalty…. Judaism given by God but is the rabbinic is an ethnic culture. It did not fall from interpretation of the Written Torah heaven. It was not invented by a divine through the ages. spokesperson. It was created by the Jewish people. It was molded by Jewish experience.” (continued)

* Not all Jews at this time identifed as “Orthodox” or attended synagogue. But for those who did, Orthodoxy was the only denomination around, § Although the Renewal movement did not have a formalized rabbinical school until 1997, between 1974 and 2007, “112 Renewal spiritual leaders even though it was not yet called Orthodoxy nor did any American synagogue identify as such. [were] ordained—98 rabbis, three cantors and 11 rabbinic pastors,” 60 of whom graduated from the ALEPH rabbinical program. † Did not yet exist as a formalized movement. ‡ Not all Jews at this time identifed as “Reform” or attended synagogue. But for those who did, Orthodoxy did not yet have a signifcant synagogue presence. Immediately thereafter, between 1880 and 1910, one million–plus Ashkenazi European Jews arrived in the United States from Russia and East- ern Europe, most of whom would have identifed as Orthodox in terms of today’s denominational terms.

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What should a Jews are obligated to observe Jews should make decisions that Refected in the Conservative motto— Halakhah has a “vote not veto,” and is Halakhah is not obligatory; this movement “Jewish Renewal is a transdenominational Jew’s halakhah. take halakhah into account, but “Tradition and Change”— Jews to be relied upon as a “guide” regarding believes in personal autonomy. They approach to revitalizing Judaism. . . . We relationship to ultimately each Jew has autonomy are obligated to observe halakhah, religious practice. It is not obligatory. Each also formally maintain that many Jewish shape halacha (Jewish law) into a living way halakhah be? regarding whether or not to follow though from an Orthodox perspective community and individual decides what rituals, especially related to Jewish of walking in the world. . . . Renewal is an halakhah. In other words, it is not Conservative Judaism is much more the norms are, using halakhah as a guide. holidays and life cycle events, have great attitude, not a denomination, and offers tools an obligation. liberal in its interpretation of halakhah meaning. This movement “create[s] and to all branches of Judaism.” than is Orthodox Judaism. use[s] non-theistic Jewish rituals, services, The Union for Reform Judaism “Jewish Renewal is neither ‘halakhic’ nor and celebrations that invoke the ethical states that a common thread Another perspective is that ‘anti-halakhic’ but ‘neo-halakhic.’ Just as core of Jewish history, literature, and between Reform Jews is that they Conservative halakhic authorities Rabbinic Judaism involved transcending culture. [Its] aim is to foster a positive all “share the assertion of the look directly to biblical and Talmudic the halakhah of Temple sacrifce, so Jewish Jewish identity, intellectual integrity, and legitimacy of change in Judaism passages to interpret halakhah, whereas Renewal seeks to go beyond the limitations of ethical behavior among celebrants.” and the denial of eternal validity Orthodox authorities look to more traditional Rabbinic Judaism to forge a new to any given formulation of Jewish recent responsa from other Orthodox halakhah in which Judaism is conscious of its belief or codifcation of Jewish rabbis. place in an interconnected world. This new law. Apart from that, there is little halakhah, for instance, includes expansion of unanimity among Reform Jews the practice of kashrut to include ecological either in matters of belief or in and ethical criteria, a new exploration of practical observance. Conservative the concept of work as it applies to both and radical positions coexist and the personal and societal Shabbat, and enjoy mutual respect.” reexamination of intimacy and intimate relationships.”

What is your Prohibited. Permitted. The German Reform Permitted. JTS began admitting women Permitted. RRC has always accepted Permitted. The IISHJ has always accepted Permitted. ALEPH has always accepted women position on movement ordained its frst female to its rabbinical school in 1984; one women, ordaining its frst female rabbi, women into their rabbinical school. into its rabbinical program. “Jewish Renewal This said, Yeshivat Maharat, women rabbi, Regina Jonas, in 1935. The year later, Amy Eilberg graduated as its Sandy Eisenberg Sasso, in 1974. On has long been committed to a fully egalitarian established in New York City in becoming American Reform movement frst ordained rabbi. January 1, 2014, Rabbi Deborah Waxman, approach to Jewish life and welcomes the 2009, is the frst Modern Orthodox rabbis? ordained its frst female rabbi, Sally Ph.D., became the new president of this public and creative input of those who were institution in the contemporary Priesand, in 1972. movement (i.e., of their seminary and traditionally excluded from the process of world to formally ordain women to congregational affliate institution), the forming the Jewish tradition.” be “spiritual leaders and halakhic frst woman to serve as president of any authorities,” who are sometimes Jewish denomination. referred to as “rabbinic leaders.” One’s offcial ordination title is “Maharat,” not “Rabbi.” (Female graduates of this ordination program have also been called “Rabba.”) A handful of other Orthodox seminaries have created similar programs since that time, but none, as of yet, are using the titled “Rabbi.” Note: In January 2016, Lila Kagedan became the frst ordained graduate of Yeshivat Maharat to use the title “rabbi” in a professional setting. As of 2013, if not earlier, some in the Orthodox American community, in particular those who are socially accepting of women as halakhic authorities, began referring to themselves as part of “Open Orthodoxy.”

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What is your Prohibited. Permitted. The American Reform Permitted. JTS began accepting openly Permitted. RRC began accepting openly Permitted. The IISHJ has always accepted Permitted. Queer Jews have always been position on movement began accepting openly gay and lesbian rabbinical students in gay and lesbian applicants in 1984. queer Jews into their rabbinical school. accepted into ALEPH and into Jewish Renewal Openly queer (see special topic 0.2) queer- gay and lesbian rabbinical students 2007. In 2012, it sanctioned same-sex Likewise, they formally accept queer Jews communities. Jews may be accepted as members “The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College identified Jews to its seminaries in 1990, and marriage. into all Humanistic Jewish communities. in some liberal Modern Orthodox was the frst Jewish seminary to accept becoming openly bisexual and transgender In October 2004, the movement communities. However, aside from openly gay and lesbian students. We retain rabbis? students in 2003. In 2000, rabbis offcially resolved: “We support the legal exceptions such as Rabbi Steven an unwavering commitment to forming were permitted to offciate in the recognition of marriage and divorce Greenberg, an openly gay man inclusive communities, welcoming to weddings of gays and lesbians. between adults of the same sex [and] we ordained through an Orthodox gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgendered affrm the value of marriage between rabbinical school (he came out Jews as well as multicultural families, Jews any two committed adults with the many years after receiving rabbinic of color, and other groups traditionally sense of obligations, responsibilities, and ordination), the normative excluded from full participation in Jewish consequences thereof.” Orthodox interpretation of communal life. Material about gay and halakhah does not permit same-sex lesbian families is included in religious sexual relations and thus does not school curricula. Our rabbis are free permit openly queer students to to perform same-sex commitment or study to become rabbis. marriage ceremonies if it is their practice to do so.” Similar to positions regarding female rabbis, in 2013, if not earlier, some in the Orthodox community who are socially accepting of queer Jews, though not in terms of halakhically sanctioning same- sex relations, began referring to themselves as part of “Open Orthodoxy.”

What is your Prohibited. Non-Jews interested Permitted. Historically, in 1909, the Prohibited. If rabbis ordained by Permitted. Since 1968 this movement Permitted. “Intermarriage is the positive No offcial position. position on in converting to Judaism may CCAR passed a resolution rejecting JTS perform an intermarriage, has accepted intermarried couples into consequence of a free and open society. Jews marrying be welcomed by Orthodox intermarriage, later changing their rabbinical ordination may be their communities. Although they don’t If the Jewish community is open, non-Jews? communities. However, couples its offcial position to embrace revoked (though no institution in this encourage intermarriage, each rabbi welcoming, embracing, and pluralistic, made up of one Jew and one non- families with one Jewish parent movement has ever offcially taken this decides individually whether or not to we will encourage more people to identify Jew are often shunned altogether. and one non-Jewish parent. Today, action). Halakhic considerations aside, perform an intermarriage ceremony. with the Jewish people rather than fewer. Reform rabbis are allowed to decide generally it has been assumed that It is unclear whether this movement Intermarriage could contribute to the individually whether to perform children born to intermarried couples offcially allows rabbis to perform an continuity of the Jewish people.” intermarriages, even though will not be raised as Jews. In 2010, intermarriage with non-Jewish clergy (See also the movement’s statement, found the movement has not passed a JTS began having public workshops (i.e., it is not uncommon for clergy from above under “What is your defnition of resolution formally permitting this on intermarriage, leading some to different religions to be co-offciating a Jew?”) practice. As for welcoming non- speculate that their offcial position on at an intermarriage ceremony). Note: In Jews into the community, as this welcoming intermarried couples into September 2015, RRC offcially changed movement approves patrilineal Conservative synagogues may change. its policy to accept rabbinical school and matrilineal descent, it is not applicants who have a non-Jewish partner. uncommon for Jewish congregants This decision will no doubt shape other to have non-Jews in their families. movement policies.

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Movements Orthodox Reform Conservative Reconstructionist Humanistic Renewal

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80% Orthodox Reform

60% Conservative

Reconstructionist

40% Humanistic

Renewal 20%

1800 1880 1950 1971 1990 2000 2013

FIGURE 8.7. Percentage of American Jews who affliate with each movement as listed in special topic 8.4.

In addition to those Jewish Americans under forty today’s denominational categories, the early founders who, according to the Pew Research Center’s 2013 study, of Reform and Conservative Judaism were all Orthodox. describe themselves as unaffliated, a small percent- For much of the twentieth century, faculty at JTS would age identify as nondenominational or trans-denomi- not have necessarily even identifed as Conservative, national, which sometimes refects a commitment to which has led some to quip that JTS is best described as a attending synagogue but not one of a specifc move- school where Orthodox faculty train Conservative rabbis ment. This study also notes that roughly one in three to work with Reform Jews. At the same time, those early Jewish Americans doesn’t identify with a denomination, founders affliated with the more liberal wing of Ameri- and the same number consider their Jewish identity not can Reform Judaism knew what ritual practices they were a statement of their “religion” but rather of their culture choosing to no longer observe. This is quite different or ethnicity. (Anecdotally, a number of rabbis ordained from today, when most Reform and Conservative Jews, via the Conservative and Reconstructionist movements for instance, would be unable to tell you what ritual laws don’t identify with a denomination either.) they are ignoring. The 2013 Pew study also raises the issue of genera- For Orthodox Jews immigrating to the United States tional shifts. Jews between the ages of twenty and forty between 1880 and 1910, as scholar Hasia Diner explains, have different dominant narratives than Jews over forty, “Labels did not mean much. Members of Orthodox con- a consequence of overall American generational pat- gregations violated the Sabbath and consumed unko- terns, among other factors. Indeed, to understand how sher food outside their kosher homes.” This was mainly all of the denominations discussed here developed, one because immigrants needed to earn wages in order to must also look to patterns of thought and behavior in the support themselves and their families. According to a larger non-Jewish communities in which Jews fnd them- 1913 study of New York City Jewish businesses on the selves (but that is beyond the scope of this book). Lower East Side, approximately 60 percent were open on Shabbat. This did not mean that such individuals identifed as anything other than Orthodox. Rather, it serves Problems with Categorization as a vivid example of the difference between denomina- vis-à-vis Movements tional doctrine and practice for Jews of all stripes. Clearly, categorizing twenty-frst-century Jews in terms Most of this chapter has focused on the role move- of denominational affliation (special topic 8.4) is inher- ments play in shaping American Jewish identities. Jews ently problematic. As this chapter has shown, none of in other countries don’t have as many denominational the founders of the major Jewish movements of the last options as do Jews in the United States. Israel is the only few centuries began with the intention of creating a new country that comes close in this way, and even there, movement, nor have the lines separating one denomina- aside from in a few major cities, more than 90 percent of tion from the next always been clear. In terms of using all synagogues are Orthodox.

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UC-HahnTapper_text.indd 166 4/8/16 4:59 PM According to a synagogue administrator (email to author, SPECIAL TOPIC 8.4 Institutions: Renewal: Regarding the October 21, 2015), Sinai Temple does not keep records regard- ALEPH rabbinical program, see Jewish Telegraphic Agency, ing members’ Jewish subidentities (e.g., Ashkenazi, Persian, “Renewal Wants to Keep Same Spirit While Standardiz- etc.), nor do they track the number of attendees who are also ing Rabbis’ Training,” January 16, 2007, www .jta .org /2007 dues-paying members of the synagogue. Thus this estimate /01 /16 /archive /renewal -wants -to -keep -same -spirit -while is based on anecdotal evidence provided by a scholar of the -standardizing -rabbis -training . Regarding Ohalah, see Sho- Persian Jewish community who has also been a member of lom Groesberg, Jewish Renewal: A Journey, The Movement’s His- Sinai for more than three decades (Saba Soomekh, email to tory, Ideology, and Future (New York: iUniverse, 2009), 69. See author, October 21, 2015). More to the point, even historically also Cohen, “Jewish Renewal.” Ashkenazi-identifed synagogues are not necessarily homog- What percentage of American Jews affliate with you? Jon- enously Ashkenazi any more, such as Sinai Temple. athon Ament, “National Jewish Population Survey, 2000– 01: Nevertheless, synagogue afﬁliation As early as 1916 only American Jewish Religious Denominations,” United Jewish 56 percent of American synagogues had a rabbi because there Communities, New York, February 2005; Hasia Diner, Jews of was a lack of institutional fnances; see A. W. Rosenthal, “Cul- the United States, 1654– 2000 (Berkeley: University of Califor- tural Changes in American Jewish Life in the Twentieth Cen- nia Press, 2004), 122; Goldstein and Goldstein, “Conserva- tury,” Proceedings of the National Conference of Jewish Social tive Jewry,” 295– 316; Abraham J. Karp, “A Century of Con- Service, June 1930, 7. In a survey of frst-generation Jewish servative Judaism in the United States,” American Jewish Year Americans (the children of immigrants) conducted in 1935 in Book (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, New York City, 72 percent of ffteen- to twenty-fve-year-old 1986), 3– 61; Barry A. Kosmin, Sidney Goldstein, Joseph Waks- men and 78 percent of ffteen- to twenty-fve-year-old women berg, Nava Lerer, Ariela Keysar, and Jeffrey Scheckner, High- said they had not attended synagogue even once the previ- lights of the CJF 1990 National Jewish Population Survey (New ous year (Glazer, American Judaism, 85). York: Council of Jewish Federations, 1991); Bernard Lazer- witz, J. Alan Winter, Arnold Dashefsky, and Ephraim Tabory, By the late 1950s Quote: Lawrence Hoffman, “From “A Study of Jewish Denominational Preferences: Summary Common Cold to Uncommon Healing,” CCAR Journal 41 Findings,” American Jewish Year Book (New York: American (Spring 1994): 10, quoted in Jack Wertheimer, “The American Jewish Committee, 1997), 115– 137; Pew Research Center, “Por- Synagogue: Recent Issues and Trends,” American Jewish Year trait of Jewish Americans.” Book, ed. Lawrence Grossman and David Singer (New York: What is your defnition of a Jew? Reform: CCAR, “38. American Jewish Committee, 2005), 7. Patrilineal and Matrilineal Descent.” Reconstructionist: Synagogue affliation in early twenty-frst century: Wert- Based on conversations the author had with both pulpit rab- heimer, “The American Synagogue: Recent Issues and bis and RRC administrators and rabbis. According to the Trends,” 7– 19. See also Pew Research Center, “Portrait of Jew- following article, however, the Reconstructionist move- ish Americans,” 15. ment has a required conversion process: Lena Romanoff, Some, of course, choose not to become members of a syna- “Cross-Denominational Differences Regarding Conver- gogue largely because of the costs involved. sion,” Your People, My People: Finding Acceptance and Fulfll- Some attribute changes S teven M. Cohen and Arnold ment as a Jew by Choice, available at www .myjewishlearning M. Eisen, The Jew Within: Self, Family, and Community in the .com /article /cross -denominational -differences -regarding United States (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000). -conversion /# . Humanistic: “Becoming a Humanistic Jew,” Other criteria that sociologists commonly cite to illustrate a Society for Humanistic Judaism, www .shj .org /humanistic commitment to Jewish identities are matriculation in Jewish -jewish -life /life -cycles /becoming -a -humanistic -jew ; “Soci- parochial schools and summer overnight camps (see chapter ety for Humanistic Supports IFSHJ Statement: Who Is a Jew?,” 12). However, the proportion of American Jews either attend- Society for Humanistic Judaism, www .shj .org /humanistic ing full-time Jewish parochial schools or summer overnight -jewish -life /issues -and -resolutions /who -is. Renewal: see, e.g., camp has never exceeded 10 percent; by some accounts, dur- how one Renewal synagogue in Berkeley, CA, Beyt Tikkun, ing the 1990s it was less than 5 percent (Werthheimer, “Jew- responds to the notion of conversion, in “Conversion,” www ish Education in the United States,” 3– 115). .beyttikkun .org /article .php /conversation . Scholars Ari Y. Kelman and Tobin Belzer argue that What is the Torah’s authority? Reform: “What Is Reform younger Jews aren’t overly focused on their individual selves. Judaism?,” Union for Reform Judaism, www .urj .org /what Rather, their Jewish identities are quite “social,” intercon- -we -believe /what -reform -judaism . Conservative: Emet nected with other Jews of their generation, an identity that ve’Emunah, 19. Reconstructionist: “FAQs on Reconstructionist might best be explained not as the “Sovereign Self” but the Approaches to Jewish Ideas and Practices,” Jewish Reconstruc- “Social Self” (Ari Y. Kelman, “Traditional Jews: ‘Nones’ on tionist Communities, http: //jewishrecon .org /resource /faqs Religion,” and Tobin Belzer, “Under Construction: The Social -reconstructionist -approaches -jewish -ideas -and -practices. Life of Jewish Identity,” Papers presented as part of the “Inter- Humanistic: Society for Humanistic Judaism, “What Is rogating Identity: New Approaches to the Study of Jewish Humanistic Judaism?,” www .shj .org /humanistic -judaism Adults” panel, Annual Conference of the Association for Jew- /what -is -humanistic -judaism . Renewal: “Whether considered ish Studies, Boston, December 14, 2015).

108 HAHN TAPPER, JUDAISMS / NOTES TO PAGES 159–166 the literal Word of God or the words of God-inspired human Clearly, categorizing twenty-ﬁrst-century Jews Quip beings, The Torah’s words possess unsurpassed authority” regarding JTS: Gillman, Conservative Judaism, 119. (Groesberg, Jewish Renewal, 77; see also 77– 79). For Orthodox Jews immigrating Diner, Jews of the United What should a Jew’s relationship to halakhah be? Reform: States, 131– 132 (quote and 1913 study). Mark Washofsky, “Reform Judaism and Halakhah,” www Chapter 12 will touch on Nondenomionationaism and .myjewishlearning .com /article /reform -judaism -halakhah . transdenominationalism: There are at least three rabbini- Reconstructionist: “FAQs on Reconstructionist Approaches.” cal schools in the United States that do not affliate with Humanistic: “Society for Humanistic Mission Statement,” a denomination: the Academy for Jewish Religion in New www .shj .org /humanistic -jewish -life /issues -and -resolutions York, founded in 1956 (http://ajrsem.org/about/); the Acad- /core -principles . Renewal: ALEPH, “What Is Jewish Renewal?,” emy for Jewish Religion in California, founded in 2000 http://aleph.org/what-is-jewish-renewal; Marcia Prager, “KOL (http://ajrca.edu/history/); and the Hebrew College Rabbini- ALEPH: The Voice of ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal,” cal School, founded in 2003 and located just outside Boston http://kolaleph.org/about/what-is-jewish-renewal/. (www .hebrewcollege .edu /history) . In the literature of these What is your position on women becoming rabbis? Ortho- three schools one fnds terms such as pluralistic, non-denomi- dox: Ben Harris, “For Graduates of Avi Weiss’ Academy, national, post-denominational, trans-denominational, and unaf- Ordination Comes with Controversy,” Jewish Telegraphic fliated. Each school has its own requirements regarding who Agency, June 18, 2013, www .jta .org /2013 /06 /18 /life -religion is eligible to apply. /for -graduates -of -avi -weiss -academy -ordination -comes -with -controversy; Batya Ungar-Sargon, “Orthodox Yeshiva Set to Ordain Three Women. Just Don’t Call Them ‘Rabbi,’ ” Tablet Chapter 9. Genocides Magazine, June 10, 2013, www .tabletmag .com /jewish -life -and -religion /134369 /orthodox -women -ordained . Reform: “What That said, I cannot overstate The centrality of the Shoah Is Reform Judaism?” Renewal: Prager, “KOL ALEPH.” is often inversely related to the age of a given Jew, it being What is your position on queer-identifed Jews becoming much more signifcant to an average Jew in her eighties and rabbis? Regarding term queer, see special topic 0.2. Reform: much less so to one in her twenties. This is touched on fur- “Judaism and Sexual Orientation”; “What Is Reform Juda- ther in chapters 10 and 12. ism?” Conservative: “Judaism and Sexual Orientation”; The term genocide Dan Stone, “Raphael Lemkin on the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, “Conservative Rabbis Approve Holocaust,” Journal of Genocide Research 7, no. 4 (2005): 539– Same-Sex Marriage.” Reconstructionist: “FAQs on Recon- 550. Lemkin began his professional research on genocide structionist Approaches.” Humanistic: “Society for Human- in 1933, prior to World War II. But the frst time he used the istic Judaism Supports Rights of Same-Sex Couples,” www .shj word in print was in 1944, in one of his most famous books, .org /humanistic -jewish -life /issues -and -resolutions /marriage Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Analysis, Proposals for Redress -equality . (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International What is your position on Jews marrying non-Jews: Reform: Peace, 1944). “A Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism,” Central Largely thanks to Lemkin’s tireless efforts Offce of the Conference of American Rabbis, May 1999, http: //ccarnet UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, “Analysis .org /rabbis -speak /platforms /statement -principles -reform Framework,” www .un .org /en /preventgenocide /adviser /pdf -judaism. See also Central Conference of American Rab- /osapg_analysis_framework .pdf . bis, Contemporary American Reform Responsa, “149. Rabbi Offciating at a Mixed Marriage,” 1982, http: //ccarnet .org The genocide of Jews during World War II Two web- /response /arr -467 -470. Humanistic: Society for Humanistic sites offering excellent online educational resources on the Judaism, “13 Tough Questions.” Shoah are the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM; www .ushmm .org) and Yad Vashem: The Holo- In addition to those Jewish Americans S teven M. Cohen, caust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Remembrance Authority (www “Non-denominational and Post-denominational: Two Ten- .yadvashem .org) . dencies in American Jewry,” Contact 7, no. 4 (Summer 2005): Term Holocaust: Some don’t use the term Holocaust because 7– 8; Pew Research Center, “Portrait of Jewish Americans,” of its theological insinuation (i.e., those who were exter- 7, 10. minated in World War II were a sacrifce to God— based on The 2013 Pew study Pew Research Center, “Portrait of the word’s Greek etymology). Others avoid the word Shoah Jewish Americans,” 7– 16. because it refers only to the Jewish genocide of WWII and Patterns of thought and behavior in larger non-Jewish does not include the other communities the Nazis tar- communities: See, e.g., Arnold M. Eisen, “The Rhetoric of geted and murdered. See, e.g., Bob Brecher, “Holocaust,” Chosenness and the Fabrication of American Jewish Iden- in The International Encyclopedia of Ethics, ed. Hugh LaFol- tity,” in American Pluralism and the Jewish Community, ed. Sey- lette (New York: Blackwell, 2013), 2431– 2434; “History and mour Martin Lipset (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Pub- Meaning of the Word ‘Holocaust’: Are We Still Comfortable lishers, 1990), 53– 69. with This Term?,” Huffngton Post, January 27, 2012, www

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