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University Micnsilms International 300 N INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1.The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is “Missing Page(s)”. If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image of the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photographed, a definite method of “sectioning” the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again—beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Customer Services Department. 5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available ccpy has been filmed. University MicnSilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of theof the copyright copyright owner. owner. Further Further reproduction reproduction prohibited prohibited without permission.without permission. 8222909 Waselkov, Gregory Alan SHELLFISH GATHERING AND SHELL MIDDEN ARCHAEOLOGY The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill PH.D. 1982 University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Aibor, M I 48106 Copyright 1982 by Waselkov, Gregory Alan All Rights Reserved Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of theof the copyright copyright owner. owner. Further Further reproduction reproduction prohibited prohibited without permission.without permission. PLEASE NOTE: in all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V . 1. Glossy photographs or pages ^ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print _____ 3. Photographs with dark background ^ 4. Illustrations are poor copy _____ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy _ 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page _____ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages _____ 8. Print exceeds margin requirements ____ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine _____ 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print _____ 11. Page(s) ___________lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s) ___________seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages numbered ___________. Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled pages _____ 15. Other _______________________________________________________________ University Microfilms International Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with with permission permission of theof the copyright copyright owner. owner. Further Further reproduction reproduction prohibited prohibited without permission.without permission. SHELLFISH GATHERING AND SHELL MIDDEN ARCHAEOLOGY by Gregory A. Waselkov A. Dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology Chapel H ill 1982 Approved by: X' C - w Adv17V ^ Reader Reader Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT GREGORY A. WASELKOV. Shellfish Gathering and Shell Midden Archaeology (Under the direction of JOFFRE L. COE). The development of shell midden archaeology has long been based on an erroneous presupposition; namely, that a single exploitative strategy involving shellfish gathering was adopted in many areas of the world, and i t produced a homogeneous class of archaeological sites referred to as shell middens. Some archaeologists have rejected this claim and have explored the possibility that shell middens constitute a heterogeneous class. These are sites of diverse origins associated prim arily by reason of superficial visual resemblances and practical considerations arising during their excavation. To pursue this line of inquiry, the extensive lite ra tu re on shell midden archaeology was reviewed and critiqued, and selected techniques and analytic methods were systematically integrated to form a unified structural and zooarchaeological approach to the archaeology of shell middens. The ethnographic lite ra tu re was also reviewed and corresponding patterned archaeological correlates of observed behavior were proposed. The origins and subsequent variation of molluscan exploitative strategies and the relationship between shellfish gathering and the origins of agriculture were also discussed. A deeply s tra tifie d shell midden in the lower Potomac River Valley Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. was excavated in order to test the u t ilit y of the structural approach A detailed consideration of feature characterisites and fauna! remains led to several specific conclusions regarding the changing role of shellfish gathering in the subsistence-settlement strategies of the region's inhabitants between 2000 B.C. and A.D. 1650. Specifically, the site was repeatedly occupied during the spring by small groups of shellfish gatherers throughout this period, with the goal of obtaining additional protein during the lowest annual period of te rre s tria l resource a v a ila b ility . Modifications in shellfish roasting.procedures and a probable increase in shellfish drying for storage and trade accompanied the intensification of agriculture and the development of chiefdoms. Thus, the role of shellfish gathering changed as overall subsistence-settlement strategy was altered, although this was only discernible upon detailed component analysis. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................... ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................... x INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... x ii Part 1 - ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS OF SHELL MIDDENS .... 1 Chapter I - A QUESTION OF ORIGINS Evolution or Spontaneous Generation? .................................... 2 A rtifacts of Nature or Culture? ................................................ 11 So Many Variations on a Theme ................................................... 13 Chapter I I - SHELLFISH GATHERING IN PRACTICE AND THEORY The Multifarious Mollusc ........................................................... 18 Procurement Methods ....................................................................... 19 Food Preparation Methods ........................................................... 25 Storage Methods and Trade ............................................................ 32 Seasonality and Scheduling ........................................................ 36 Spatial Considerations of Shellfish Gathering ...................... 44 Chapter I I I - ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISSECTION AND INTERPRETATION OF SHELL MIDDEN ANATOMY Introduction ................................................................................... 51 Midden Formation Processes ........................................................ 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iv Page Intra-Site Activity Areas ............................................................ 55 Post-depositional Changes in Midden Content and S t r u c t u r e ........................................................................................ 57 Midden Sampling ................................................................................ 62 Chapter IV - THE ZOOARCHAEOLOGY OF SHELL MIDDENS Introduction .................................................................................... 67 On Mixing Apples and Oranges: The Effects of D ifferential Preservation on Subsistence
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