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Energy Harvesting in Electromagnetic Nanonetworks

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Energy Harvesting in Electromagnetic Nanonetworks 1 Energy Harvesting in Electromagnetic Nanonetworks Shahram Mohrehkesh1, Michele C. Weigle2, and Sajal K. Das3 1 Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 2Department of Computer Science, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 3Department of Computer Science, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract—This paper reviews the processes, issues, and chal- lenges in energy harvesting in an electromagnetic nanonetwork, composed of nanonodes that are nanometers to micrometers in size. Each nanonode harvests the energy required for its oper- ations, such as processing and communication through ambient energy sources such as fuel or vibration. To create a nanonetwork, unique characteristics of nanonodes such as nanoscale size and communication technology should be considered along the energy harvesting process. We introduce energy harvesting issues and challenges in nanonetwork related to the design and performance evaluation of a nanonetwork in terms of throughput, delay and the utilization of harvested energy. Finally, we discuss open issues in the realization of energy harvesting nanonetworks. I. INTRODUCTION Fig. 1: Structure of an Electromagnetic (EM) Nanonode Recent advancements in nanotechnology have provided (adapted from [1]) significant growth in small scale communication. Wireless nanonetworks [1] are an emerging generation of networks at nanoscale. A nanonode, illustrated in Figure 1, is composed of of each other. Because communication is such a significant nano-sensors, nano-actuators, nano-antennas, nano-memory, a function of a nanonetwork, nanonodes require energy to fa- nano-transreceiver, nanoscale energy storage, nano-processors, cilitate this communication [2]. The required energy can be and energy harvesters. Each nanonode is on the order of renewed through harvesting from ambient energy sources, such nanometers to micrometers in size. The nanoscale property as vibration, heat, and light. of nanonodes creates the opportunity to develop intriguing new applications in the medical, biological, military, chemi- cal, industrial, and environmental domains [1]. For example, II. SOURCES OF ENERGY FOR NANONODES nanonodes could recognize the presence of various chemical In recent years, energy harvesting has attracted attention molecules or different infectious harmful bacteria or viruses due to the availability of devices that can harvest energy [1]. These type of nanonodes can be deployed in various from light, ambient vibrations or heat. However, some energy environments or inside the human body to implement drug sources such as light or heat energy are limited to specific delivery systems, for example [1]. Similarly, nanonodes could locations and times. The limited size of nanonodes as well be attached to daily objects (e.g., pens, papers, clothes, etc.), as some of their applications in environments with no light facilitating the realization of the Internet of Things (IoT). (e.g. inside body or in liquids) necessitates the investigation Communication plays the main role in the realization of a of other energy sources in nanonetworks. Mechanical energy nanonodes functionality. Nanonodes collect useful information (from vibration and motion) and chemical energy are the and may need to transfer this information outside of the two main sources of energy for nanonodes, especially in nanonetwork for additional processing. Before sending data biological environments. Thermal energy is not efficient and to another network, nanonodes may need to communicate has downsizing limitations. The following discusses state-of- with each other as well. Nanonodes can communicate in a art energy harvesting mechanisms for nanonodes. centralized or distributed fashion. In a centralized topology, nanonodes will communicate with a central node, called nano-controller, which provides communication with other A. Mechanical Energy Harvesting networks, such as a body area network or a local area Mechanical energy from vibration and motion is typically network. In a distributed topology, nanonodes communicate available in many environments. Energy harvested from home with each other. Neighbor nanonodes will forward packets appliances (e.g., refrigerator, washing machine, etc.) to human between nanonodes that are not in the communication range body movements (e.g., walking, running, beating of the heart, 2 muscle stretching) [3] makes mechanical energy a considerable process because it will handle instability in the temporal and source of energy in many biomedical and industrial applica- spatial availability of energy sources at nanoscale. tions of nanonetworks. Mechanical vibrations exist in a wide In the biological environment, muscle stretching, body mo- range of frequencies, from a few hertz to several kilohertz, tion and metabolic processes provide significant sources of which result in power densities ranging from a few microwatts mechanical and biochemical energy. Therefore, hybrid solu- to milliwatts per cubic centimeter [3]. tions of these two energy sources are emerging as a new The applicability of conventional materials such as lead zir- approach for energy supply in biological environments. A conate titanate (PZT) is limited because of durability, reliabil- hybrid energy scavenger [7] was developed recently that is ity, and safety issues. Recently, piezoelectric nanowires, which composed of a piezoelectric nanogenerator and an enzymatic are used to develop nano-generators, have been proposed as BFC. Mechanical energy is harvested from sources such as the main approach in the harvesting of mechanical energy blood flow in the vessels, while the biochemical energy is har- for nanonodes [2]. Fabrication of nano-generators on various vested from the oxygen and glucose available in biofluids. This substrates, including semiconductors, polymers, metals and integrated device enables energy harvesting from both sources fibers [4], allow the possibility of potential applications such simultaneously. Studies [7] have demonstrated the feasibility as smart clothes. Fiber nano-generators have been developed of applying these energy harvesters in the biomedical domain to harvest energy from even low-frequency vibrations induced to power nanosensors. by air or human exhalation [5]. Alternative Sources of Energy More advancement in energy B. Biofuel Cells (BFCs) for Harvesting Chemical and Bio- harvesting downscaling is required to integrate the harvesters from chemical Energy various sources such as light, solar, and thermal into nanonodes. For example, new photovolatic energy harvesting based on graphene is A typical fuel cell operates by converting the chemical emerging [1]. energy of a fuel, such as methanol or hydrogen, into electricity Currently, energy harvesting from mechanical or biochemical [6]. A chemical reaction between the fuel and an oxidizing sources are the main approaches to supply energy for nanodevices. agent, such as oxygen or air, results in producing electricity. These are also applicable for in vivo medical applications. New While in batteries chemical materials store electrical energy, sources of energy for biochemical energy harvesting are emerging in fuel cells the electricity is generated directly through the every day. For example, energy harvesting from blood sugar by biofuel cells [2] or from electrical differences in the inner ear [3] chemical energy extracted from reactants. Fuel cell technology are new sources of energy. is a known method with extensive applications at macro Moreover, advancements in nanodevices can be helpful in the scale. However, the conventional technology has limitations in production of nanoscale radio frequency (RF) energy harvesters. fabrication cost, materials used, and size. Therefore, it is not Currently, RF energy harvesters are widely used for wireless sensor possible to use traditional fuel cells in micro and nanoscale or RFID networks. With the help of nanotechnology, this could be applications, such as intrabody medical sensors. To overcome a significant source of energy, which is also controllable. Moreover, these limitation, a biofuel cell (BFC) has been introduced that inductive charging, which is currently deployed for many medical substitutes metals with biological enzymes as the chemical applications in body area networks, could be investigated. Again, cathode and/or anode [6]. the size limitation is likely the main barrier for its usage at nanoscale. BFCs can be categorized as (i) enzymatic BFCs, where [1] C.-T. Chien, P. Hiralal, D.-Y. Wang, I.-S. Huang, C.-C. Chen, the catalytic enzymes exist outside of living cells; and (ii) C.-W. Chen, and G. A. J. Amaratunga, Graphene-based integrated microbial fuel cells (MFCs), where the catalytic enzymes exist photovoltaic energy harvesting/storage device, Small, vol. 11, no. 24, inside of living cells [6]. Although MFCs have high fuel effi- pp. 29292937, 2015. [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ ciency and long-term stability, their power densities are usually smll.201403383 lower than enzymatic BFCs [6]. Thus, the application of MFCs at the micro and nanoscale is limited. Enzymatic BFCs are [2] K. MacVittie, J. Halamek, L. Halamkova, M. Southcott, W. biocompatible and can provide efficient power on order of sub- D. Jemison, R. Lobel, and E. Katz, From cyborg lobsters to a mWcm−2. These properties make them a desirable choice in pacemaker powered by implantable biofuel cells, Energy Environ. intrabody biomedical applications,
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