DOCSLIB.ORG

Subsistence Agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe: How to Break the Vicious Circle?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Subsistence Agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe: How to Break the Vicious Circle? Studies on the Agricultural and Food Sector in Central and Eastern Europe Subsistence Agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe: How to Break the Vicious Circle? edited by Steffen Abele and Klaus Frohberg Subsistence Agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe: How to Break the Vicious Circle? Studies on the Agricultural and Food Sector in Central and Eastern Europe Edited by Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe IAMO Volume 22 Subsistence Agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe: How to Break the Vicious Circle? Edited by Steffen Abele and Klaus Frohberg IAMO 2003 Bibliografische Information Der Deutschen Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.ddb.de abrufbar. Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists the publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the internet at: http://dnb.ddb.de. © 2003 Institut für Agrarentwicklung in Mittel- und Osteuropa (IAMO) Theodor-Lieser-Straße 2 062120 Halle (Saale) Tel. 49 (345) 2928-0 Fax 49 (345) 2928-199 e-mail: [email protected] http://www.iamo.de ISSN 1436-221X ISBN 3-9809270-2-4 INTRODUCTION STEFFEN ABELE, KLAUS FROHBERG Subsistence agriculture is probably the least understood and the most neglected type of agriculture. In a globalised, market-driven world, it remains at the same time a myth and a marginal phenomenon. Empirically, subsistence agriculture for a long time seemed to be restricted to developing countries, with only a few cases reported in Western Europe (CAILLAVET and NICHELE 1999; THIEDE 1994). Governmental support offered to subsistence agriculture was mainly done through agricultural development policies, the main objective being to have subsistence farmers participate in markets. The strategy was to make farmers produce more by introducing new technologies and consequently bring their output to the market. Failures of such attempts were numerous, yet attempts to understand the failures were few. This lack of understanding led to the change of politics towards already developed and market-oriented systems, hence to the neglect and marginalisation of subsistence-oriented systems. This picture changed when subsistence agriculture started to appear right at the door of the European Union: With the fall of the Iron Curtain, subsistence agriculture in Eastern Europe turned out to be an urgent case. Suddenly, there were and still are a large number of vulnerable small scale farmers, many of which will, at least by the date of EU enlargement, be entitled to receive funds from the CAP and thus compete with western farmers. Moreover, these poor rural people were subject to social discrimination, as no one likes to have a poor house right next to him in his neighbourhood. One of the now quite numerous attempts to address the problem of subsistence agriculture in Eastern Europe was a workshop held at the Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe (IAMO) in May 2001. It gathered scientists from Western and Eastern Europe to discuss problems of subsistence agriculture, ways of analysing such systems and approaches to overcome subsistence agriculture. II Steffen Abele, Klaus Frohberg The workshop's overall objective was to contribute some answers to the main questions regarding subsistence agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe, but also everywhere else on the globe. These questions are: What is the definition of subsistence agriculture, and what are its characteristics? Is there a conclusive theoretical approach research can rely on? Is subsistence agriculture really a problem or is it, as so many other economic phenomena, just another efficient equilibrium? And if it is agreed upon among scientists to be a problem, what are possible solutions? We shall provide a brief overview of these issues and how they are addressed in the following contributions. Let us therefore start with the definition of subsistence agriculture. One of the major problems in dealing with subsistence agriculture is defining the term as such. Many of the authors in this book offer a definition, amongst them HEIDHUES and BRÜNTRUP, VON BRAUN and LOHLEIN, as well as LERMAN. It seems that the preferred definition of subsistence agriculture relates it to the share of marketed produce. The lower this share, the higher is the degree of subsistence orientation. Still, this definition is a relative one, as it can be assumed that there is no longer "one hundred percent" subsistence agriculture, either in Eastern Europe or elsewhere in the world. This assumption should be kept in mind, as it is important for the following theoretical discussion. The assessment of the characteristics of subsistence agriculture based on the above definition provides a link to theoretical aspects and political options to develop this form of agriculture. The first and most prominent characteristic is the high degree of own consumption of produce, mostly more than 50 percent. Subsistence farms are small (although smallness does not necessarily imply subsistence farming, as, for example, suburban horticulture farms may be small but quite market-oriented and efficient), and they have low capital endowment, which often contributes to low competitiveness. They also suffer from remoteness to urban centres and have poor access to markets, be it in physical terms (roads as well as other transportation routes and telecommunication infrastructure), or in terms of accessing factor markets, especially capital markets (which is a prerequisite for starting market-oriented production), and low on- and off-farm income. The latter especially shows an important aspect: Off-farm income opportunities are scarce and of low revenue for subsistence farmers (see especially the macro-economic assessment by VON BRAUN and LOHLEIN). This hints that macro-economic conditions are also important factors driving subsistence agriculture (which will be important for both the theoretical and the political discussion). We will find these characteristics throughout the contributions. KEGEL provides a case study on the problems of defining subsistence agriculture in Georgia. KOVÁCS gives a geographically based index system to categorize farming systems in Romania. Another question is the one whether farming systems in transition countries are really subsistence-oriented, Introduction III and if yes, to what degree. The latter question is especially closely related to the definition of subsistence agriculture, as LERMAN points out. In YEFIMOV's argumentation, we will find that the lack of market attendance found, especially in the former Soviet Union countries, is due to the institutional set-up of former Soviet agriculture, which, in terms of institutional economics, used hierarchies instead of markets to organise production and commodity exchanges. But that means that they do exchange products and factors, so are they really subsistence-oriented in the narrow sense of above, or do they just use other institutions to interact with the outside world? NEDOBOROVSKYY gives an appealing quantitative description of such hierarchy-integrated systems. The next problem is to provide a theoretical framework for subsistence agriculture. In theory, subsistence is seen as just an early stage of development that will perish once Ricardos' comparative advantages are perceived and result in wealth-generating trade (ROSE and SAUERNHEIMER 1995). Newer approaches provide different theoretical models to subsistence agriculture which are somewhat contradictory to each other; a broad scope of them is given by HEIDHUES and BRÜNTRUP. One of the theories described is based on the assumption of inverse supply reaction due to satisfactory behaviour in production which does not go beyond consumption needs, or (assuming that some share of the produce is marketed) liquidity requirements. This behaviour is seen as caused by strong preferences for leisure and has been brought up by authors like Chayanov, cited by HEIDHUES and BRÜNTRUP. Yet, this should be discussed critically, as incorporating leisure implies that people would reject higher incomes for the same labour input for the sake of more leisure and thus act irrationally in the strict sense of the homo oeconomicus model. Nonetheless, backward sloping supply functions have been explained by authors who point out that short-term post-harvest sales may increase with decreasing prices due to liquidity constraints, but that in the longer run, even subsistence farmers will react positively to increasing prices (HENZE 1994; ABELE 2001). Another, argument strengthened by HEIDHUES and BRÜNTRUP is the transaction cost approach, which says that high transaction costs in marketing make selling unattractive, and keep people from buying expensive products, which adds up to self-produced consumption. This may be so, and one could even add mere transportation costs to the list of trade impediments. But, at least as far as transaction costs and the resulting margins are concerned, one could as well assume that, when supply decreases, and farmers turn to their own subsistence production, traders would offer higher prices to producers and lower prices to consumers. This would then cover the transaction costs or reduce the margins, respectively, for consumers. Consequently, transaction costs can only be seen as a temporal explanation for subsistence agriculture. The next issue raised
Load more

Recommended publications
  • How Is Food Produced?
    Supplementary Notes: (PJ Shlachtman): Food Resources How is Food Produced? What Plants and Animals Feed the World? • 15 plant and 8 animal species supply 90% of our food • wheat, rice and corn provide ~50% of the calories people consume; all three are annuals • 2/3 of the world's people live primarily on grains (rice, wheat and corn) The Two Major Types of Food Production • Industrialized agriculture (high-input agriculture) o uses large amts. of fuel energy, water, commercial fertilizers & pesticides • Plantation agriculture (cash crops) • Traditional subsistence agriculture • Traditional intensive agriculture The Green Revolution (1950-1970) Increased yields per unit of area of cropland Involves three steps 1. developing and planting monocultures of key crops 2. lavishing fertilizer, pesticides and water on crops to produce high yields 3. increasing the intensity and frequency of cropping A second green revolution (1967+) began when fast-growing dwarf varieties of rice and wheat were introduced into developing countries Case Study: Food Production in the U.S. • Production doubled since 1940 • Agribusiness – replacing smaller family farms w/ large corporate farms. • Each US farmer feeds about 140 people How Are Livestock Produced? • 10% of the world's land is suitable for producing crops • 20% is used for grazing cattle and sheep • Developed countries consume >50% of the world's grain • Poor developing countries eat mostly grain and live low on the food chain Traditional Agriculture • Interplanting - simultaneously grow several crops on the same plot of land • Common interplanting strategies: 1. Polyvarietal cultivation 2. Intercropping 3. Agroforestry (alley cropping) 4. Polyculture 1 World Food Problems 1950-1990: • amount of food traded in the world market quadrupled • population growth is outstripping food production • Factors leading to the slowdown in the growth of per capita grain production: 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Changes in the Polish Agriculture in the Light of the Cap Implementation
    MAREK WIGIER 10.5604/00441600.1151760 Institute of Agricultural and Food Economics – National Research Institute Warsaw CHANGES IN THE POLISH AGRICULTURE IN THE LIGHT OF THE CAP IMPLEMENTATION Abstract Agricultural policy in Poland supports the functioning of numerous types of agricultural models, including the following models: traditional, industrial, environmental, induced development and sustainable growth. The CAP objectives and mechanisms, as well as individual character- istics of the Polish agriculture indicate that in the long run the devel- opment pattern should be based on a dual model. Certain farms, while maintaining the basic requirements of environmental protection, should implement production methods ensuring high economic viability (indus- trial agriculture); other farms should base their development on more eco-friendly methods, which enable the use of environmental, social and cultural assets at hand (sustainable agriculture). This paper defines the most important development stages of global agriculture, indicates the connection between the necessity of state’s intervention policy and sustainable development, presents selected characteristics of the Polish agriculture with an analysis of the most important effects of implementing the CAP and illustrates the conclusions concerning the shape of the future long-term agricultural policy in Poland. Model of development of world agriculture Over the centuries, the most important task of agriculture was the production of food. This goal marked the development strategies of the whole food economy, which evolved from a peasant to farm-enterprise model (Fig. 1). Agriculture was the primary source of income and the most important work place in the rural areas. Industrialisation, mechanisation of production and the market mechanism trans- formed this situation.
    [Show full text]
  • The Agricultural Sector in Poland and Romania and Its Performance Under the EU-Influence
    Arbeitshefte aus dem Otto-Strammer-Zentrum Nr. 21 Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, 2013 The Agricultural Sector in Poland and Romania and its Performance under the EU-Influence Von Simone Drost März 2013 CONTENT 1INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................... 6 2THE CHARACTER OF THE EU’S CAP: AN EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH....................................7 2.1The early CAP: From preventing food shortage to producing surpluses........................................................7 2.2Failed attempts of reform and years of immobility...............................................................................................8 2.3The MacSharry reform of 1991/92: Introducing fundamental structural changes...................................8 2.4Agenda 2000........................................................................................................................................................................8 2.5The 2003 reform: Fischler II..........................................................................................................................................9 2.62008 CAP Health Check....................................................................................................................................................9 2.72010 to 2013: Europe 2020 and the CAP................................................................................................................10 2.8Conclusion: Developing
    [Show full text]
  • A General Equilibrium Model for Analyzing African Rural Subsistence Economies and an African Green Revolution
    AFRICA GROWTH INITIATIVE WORKING PAPER 12 | JUNE 2013 A GenerAl equilibrium model for AnAlyzinG AfricAn rurAl subsistence economies And An AfricAn Green revolution John W. McArthur and Jeffrey D. Sachs John W. McArthur is a senior fellow with the U.N. Foundation and the Fung Global Institute, and a nonresident senior fellow in Global Economy and Development at the Brookings Institution. Jeffrey D. Sachs is director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University. Abstract: How can foreign aid support economic growth in Africa? This paper presents a geographically indexed general equilibrium model that enables green revolution—focused macroeconomic analysis in low-income African settings. The model is flexible to parameterization and highlights the role of farmers’ constraints to self-financing of inputs alongside minimum subsistence consumption requirements. It includes particular attention to the challenge of soil productivity and to the effects of official development assistance (ODA) for agricultural inputs and road building. Uganda is used as an illustrative case. The economy’s labor force is predominantly still located in rural areas and remains overwhelmingly focused on staple food production. Under plausible economy-wide parameters, a foreign- financed green revolution package shows a clear anti-Dutch disease result, in which the temporary boost in tar- geted ODA yields permanent productivity and welfare effects at relatively low cost. Acknowledgements: The corresponding author is John W. McArthur who can be reached at [email protected]. The authors thank Christopher Adam, Mwangi Kimenyi, Oliver Morrissey, John Page, Francis Teal, participants in the Brookings Africa Growth Initiative seminar, and participants in the Oxford Centre for the Study of African Economies annual conference for helpful comments and discussions during various stages of this research.
    [Show full text]
  • 11 Food Sovereignty Neither Growing Nor Yielding, but Fighting for Good Food for All!
    11 Food Sovereignty Neither Growing nor Yielding, but Fighting for Good Food for All! By: About the authors and their positions Irmi Salzer and Julianna Fehlinger We see ourselves as part of the movement for food sovereignty and are wri- ting from the perspective of the Österreichische Berg- und Kleinbäuer_in- Translated by: nenvereinigung ÖBV – Via Campesina !ustria" #$rmi %al&er' and the agro- Santiago Killing-Stringer political group !grar !ttac #(ulianna )ehlinger'* We are mainly active in !us- Release date: trian networ+s and participate in the ,y-l-ni movement for food sover- 1 !"1!#"1 eignty* We are also involved in the European ,y-l-ni process and are thus connected to partners throughout Europe* $rmi %al&er is an organic farmer htt$%&'/www!degrowth!de' en/dim' in Burgenland and (ulianna )ehlinger is sometimes a community farmer and sometimes an alpine farmer* 1. What is the key idea of food souvereignty? Food souvereignty: The right of all people to democratically decide how food is produced distributed and consumed )ood sovereignty as a concept was /rst presented in 1996 at the World )ood %ummit of the )ood and !griculture 2rganisation of the United ,ations #)!2' by 4a Via ampesina56 a global organisation of small farmers, rural wor+ers6 /shing communities, and landless and indigenous peoples. %ince then, food sovereignty has evolved into the political leitmotif of a growing number of social actors from the widest possible range of societal groups /ghting for the transformation of a global food and agricultural system do- minated by industrial interests and focused solely on pro/t* !t the beginning of the 1990s6 small farmers’ movements #at /rst mainly in 4atin !merica and Europe6 then in the rest of the world' realised that6 in light of the globalisation of agricultural mar+ets and the increasing political power of institutions such as the W92 in the agriculture sector6 it was ne- cessary to form a globally active alliance of farmers.
    [Show full text]
  • The Integration of 18Th and 19Th Century Subsistence Farming Practices Into the Planning and X-Zoning Laws of the City and County of Baltimore Clayton A
    James Madison University JMU Scholarly Commons Masters Theses The Graduate School Fall 2013 The integration of 18th and 19th century subsistence farming practices into the planning and x-zoning laws of the city and county of Baltimore Clayton A. Hayes James Madison University Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/master201019 Part of the Urban Studies and Planning Commons Recommended Citation Hayes, Clayton A., "The integration of 18th and 19th century subsistence farming practices into the planning and x-zoning laws of the city and county of Baltimore" (2013). Masters Theses. 231. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/master201019/231 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the The Graduate School at JMU Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of JMU Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Integration of 18th and 19th Century Subsistence Farming Practices into the Planning and Zoning Laws of the City and County of Baltimore Clayton Hayes A Thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Science ISAT MALTA December, 2013 Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the University of Malta and James Madison University for providing me the opportunity to earn a collaborative International Master’s Degree in ISAT and SERM. To all of my professors and administrators, thank you for providing me the knowledge applicable to my dissertation/thesis as well as future endeavors.
    [Show full text]
  • Treasures of Culinary Heritage” in Upper Silesia As Described in the Most Recent Cookbooks
    Teresa Smolińska Chair of Culture and Folklore Studies Faculty of Philology University of Opole Researchers of Culture Confronted with the “Treasures of Culinary Heritage” in Upper Silesia as Described in the Most Recent Cookbooks Abstract: Considering that in the last few years culinary matters have become a fashionable topic, the author is making a preliminary attempt at assessing many myths and authoritative opinions related to it. With respect to this aim, she has reviewed utilitarian literature, to which culinary handbooks certainly belong (“Con� cerning the studies of comestibles in culture”). In this context, she has singled out cookery books pertaining to only one region, Upper Silesia. This region has a complicated history, being an ethnic borderland, where after the 2nd World War, the local population of Silesians ��ac���������������������uired new neighbours����������������������� repatriates from the ����ast� ern Borderlands annexed by the Soviet Union, settlers from central and southern Poland, as well as former emigrants coming back from the West (“‘The treasures of culinary heritage’ in cookery books from Upper Silesia”). The author discusses several Silesian cookery books which focus only on the specificity of traditional Silesian cuisine, the Silesians’ curious conservatism and attachment to their regional tastes and culinary customs, their preference for some products and dislike of other ones. From the well�provided shelf of Silesian cookery books, she has singled out two recently published, unusual culinary handbooks by the Rev. Father Prof. Andrzej Hanich (Opolszczyzna w wielu smakach. Skarby dziedzictwa kulinarnego. 2200 wypróbowanych i polecanych przepisów na przysmaki kuchni domowej, Opole 2012; Smaki polskie i opolskie. Skarby dziedzictwa kulinarnego.
    [Show full text]
  • VEGAN FOOD on 800 M2
    S T U D E N T P R O J E K T P Å E K H A G A F Ö R S Ö K S G Å R D • 2 0 0 1 VEGAN FOOD ON 800 m2 Lilja May Otto Centrum för uthålligt lantbruk 1 Studentprojekt på Ekhaga försöksgård • 2001 Vegan food on 800 m2 Centrum för uthålligt lantbruk SLU Box 7047 750 07 Uppsala Student projects at Ekhaga experimental farm • 2001 Centre for Sustainable Agriculture Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences S-750 07 Uppsala 2 Centrum för uthålligt lantbruk (CUL) S T U D E N T P R O J E K T P Å E K H A G A F Ö R S Ö K S G Å R D • 2 0 0 1 VEGAN FOOD ON 800 m2 Lilja May Otto Centrum för uthålligt lantbruk 3 ABSTRACT The sustainable production of foods is the larger topic of a set of projects run at the Ekhaga Experimental Farm at Funbo, Lövsta in Sweden. Two field experiments have been set up to investigate possibilities for self sufficiency based on an adjusted traditional diet and alternatively based on a vegan diet. The project focuses on the respective land requirements, an adapted choice of crops and the appropriate ecological production methods based on human labour. This report analyses the experiences and results from this year's vegan food plot. Space requirements for self-sufficient production based on a vegan diet are considerably lower than for any diet, which consists of a lot of meat.
    [Show full text]
  • Clip-On Architecture: Tropical Deforestation and Potential Solutions to the Climate Crisis
    ‘Landscapes’. This 4-piece series explores the obsession inherent in the romantic landscape of recreating the world and simultaneously being part of it. © COPYRIGHT Levi van Veluw, Courtesy Ronmandos gallery, Unit CMA Agency. Clip-On Architecture: Tropical Deforestation and Potential Solutions to the Climate Crisis Vanessa Keith “One of the primary causes of global environmental change is tropical deforestation...” (Geist & Lambin, 143) “Perhaps the easiest and most beneficial way to reduce emissions would be to stop the destruction of tropical forests...estimates suggest that up to 20 percent of human greenhouse gas emissions come from deforestation in the tropics.” (Lynas, 297) TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL FOREST COVER: PAST AND PRESENT Tropical Original Tropical Current Temperate Original http://staffwww.fullcoll.edu/tmorris/elements_of_ecology/chapter_28.htm Temperate Current Introduction: The Tabula Rasa City Much of the literature related to the role of the built environment in climate change has focused on new technologies and new ideas which might be implemented in new buildings. Tabula rasa eco-cities trumpeting their green credentials and high levels of environmental sustainability are being planned in the U.S., China, and Abu Dhabi, among other places, and green is the word of the day. Treasure Island in San Francisco will be transformed from a military base to become a community of some 6,000 new apartment buildings for 13,500 residents by 2020. Dongtan, a new city planned for Chongming Island on the outskirts of Shanghai, is currently an alluvial wetland and the future site of a 500,000 resident community which will reach full size by 2050.
    [Show full text]
  • Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour”* (1954)
    W.A.Lewis on Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor 1 Space for Notes W.A. Lewis, ↓ “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour”* (1954) 1. This essay is written in the classical tradition, making the classical assumption, and asking the classical question. The classics, from Smith to Marx, all assumed, or argued, that an unlimited supply of labour was available at subsistence wages. They then enquired how production grows through time. They found the answer in capital accumulation, which they explained in terms of their analysis of the distribution of income. Classical systems stems thus determined simultaneously income distribution and income growth, with the relative prices of commodities as a minor bye-product. Interest in prices and in income distribution survived into the neo-classical era, but labour ceased to be unlimited in supply, and the formal model of economic analysis was no longer expected to explain the expansion of the system through time. These changes of assumption and of interest served well enough in the European parts of the world, where labour was indeed limited in supply, and where for the next half century it looked as if economic expansion could indeed be assumed to be automatic. On the other hand over the greater part of Asia labour is unlimited in supply, and economic expansion certainly cannot be taken for granted. Asia’s problems, however, attracted very few economists during the neo-classical era (even the Asian economists themselves absorbed the assumptions and preoccupations of European economics) and hardly any progress has been made for nearly a century with the kind of economics which would throw light upon the problems.
    [Show full text]
  • Directions for Long-Term Research in Traditional Agricultural Systems of Micronesia and the Pacific Islands
    Micronesica 40(1/2): 63-86, 2008 Directions for long-term research in traditional agricultural systems of Micronesia and the Pacific Islands HARLEY I. MANNER College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences, University of Guam, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923 Abstract— Following a review of the major systems of traditional agriculture, this paper briefly considers the role of traditional agriculture in environmental modification, and the related concepts of sustain- ability, agricultural intensification, carrying capacity, biodiversity and agricultural disintensification (abandonment). Research interest in traditional agricultural systems of the Pacific Islands has waned considerably since the 1960s and there are few current studies of these systems in Micronesia. Both species and cultivar diversity of the traditional agricultural systems of the region are high and may contribute significantly to their sustainability. However, there is little ongoing research on the role of biodiversity in these traditional systems. Some reasons for the apparent lack of research in the ecology of traditional agricultural systems are presented. The Pacific-Asia Biodiversity Transect (PABITRA) network emphasizes investigation of the function of biodiversity and the health of ecosystems in the tropical Pacific Islands. Accordingly, PABITRA’s focus should be on long-term monitoring of traditional agricultural systems in order to define their structural and functional characteristics and the relationship between diversity and sustainability. Given the rapid rate of modernization, the documentation of traditional agricultural knowledge and resources is imperative as this knowledge is rapidly being lost. Introduction Traditional agriculture has a profound effect on the biodiversity and landscape ecology of the Pacific Islands. The most viable and sustainable of these traditional systems are those which mimic the structure and function of their corresponding natural ecosystems.
    [Show full text]
  • The Subsistence to Commercial Transition in Agricultural Development
    Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 1969 The ubs sistence to commercial transition in agricultural development Elisha Walter Coward Jr. Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd Part of the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Coward, Elisha Walter Jr., "The ubsis stence to commercial transition in agricultural development" (1969). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 3566. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/3566 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 69-20,632 COWARD, Jr., Elisha Walter, 1937- THE SUBSISTENCE TO COMMERCIAL TRANSITION IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOP­ MENT. Iowa State University, Ph.D., 1969 Sociology, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE SUBSISTENCE TO COMMERCIAL TRANSITION # A i m /\ ; rMr»#rri/> # M r*\ui\iwwi wi>r\b. L/w w lu j.w i I'tw i by Elisha Walter Coward, Jr. A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major Subject: Sociology Approved: Signature was redacted for privacy. In Charge of Major Work Signature
    [Show full text]