A New Archaeology W Iny the New Deal

A NEWW ARCHAEOLOGYY IN THE NEWW DEAL THE RISE OF HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGYY IN THE 1930S

Benjamin C. Pykles

Benjamin C. Pykles is ann Assistantt Professorr inn thee Departmentt off Anthropologyy att the State University off New York att Potsdam.

istorical archaeology—the archaeologyy off the Mod- only standing architectural ern World (approximately the last 500 years off remains from the seven- Hhuman history)—has its disciplinaryy roots in the teenth century. It was not historic preservation movementt off the United States during until 1934, however, when the late nineteenth and earlyy twentieth centuries (Pykles the National Park Service 2008). Historical archaeology’s true institutional beginnings, (NPS) secured possession of however, are tied to the federally sponsored archaeologyy proj- the main portion of ects conducted under the auspices off the Neww Deal pro- Jamestown Island, that a grams off the 1930s. Chieff among those projects in terms of large-scale archaeological the developmentt off historical archaeology in the United program at the site was insti- States were the 1934–1941 excavations at Jamestown, Vir- tuted, relying on the labor of ginia, directed byy J. C. Harrington (Figure 1). During this young African-American critical time in the historyy off the field, Harrington estab- men enrolled in the Civilian lished some off the fundamental methods and practices used Conservation Corps (CCC). Figuree 1. Jeann Carll Harrington by historical archaeologists todayy and did much to promote Because there were few, iff any, (1901-1998), the “founding and legitimize the emerging discipline. As a resultt off these professionally trained archae- ffather”” off historicall archaeology efforts, Harrington is widely recognized as the “founding ologists with any experience, in the Unitedd States. Courtesy of father” off historical archaeologyy in the United States (Miller let alone interest, in excavat- the Archives off The Church of 1998:5). ing historic sites at this time, Jesus Christ off Latter-dayy Saints. the NPS looked to Henry C. There are numerous isolated examples off excavations att U.S. Forman, an architectural his- historic sites from the seventeenth through early twentieth torian, to direct the neww Jamestown archaeologyy program. centuries, some even at the site off Jamestown (Hosmer 1981; From the beginning, the NPS initiated a peculiarr division off Linebaugh 2005; Schuyler 2001). However, itt was not until labor between Forman’s crew and that off the other bona-fide the passage off the Historic Sites Actt off 1935, which clearly archaeologists hired to assist in the project. Essentially, For- outlined the National Parkk Service’s preservation mandate, man and his creww were to excavate the foundations scattered coupled with the generously funded New Deal workk pro- throughout the townsite, while the trained archaeologists grams, that the preservation movementt in the United States and their men were assigned to dig in the “non-architectur- reached a level off coherentt organization and professional- al” parts off the site, searching for things like colonial-period ism, under which historical archaeology gained an institu- ditches and fence rows thatt would help delineate historic tional foothold (Hosmer 1981). propertyy boundaries. Highlighting this bizarre division off labor was an alleged “three-foott rule” thatt forbade the archae- The preservation efforts at Jamestown were central to this ologists from coming closer than three feett to a foundation development. Leading the way earlyy on was The Association in their excavations (Harrington 1984:35). for the Preservation off Virginia Antiquities (APVA), which acquired a portion off the original Jamestown town site in Over the next two years this bifurcated program off excava- 1893 and eightt years later (1901–1902) sponsored explorato- tion led to jealousy, mistrust, and in-fighting, which ulti- ryy excavations off the ruins behind the old church tower, the matelyy resulted in the resignation, dismissal, or reassign-

38 The SAA Archaeological Record • May 2011 NEW DEAL ARCHAEOLOGY

mentt off the entire supervisory stafff in the summer off 1936 with absolutely no context. To his credit, during the five years (Harrington 1984:36, 1994:4; Hosmer 1981:612). Into this (1936–1941) in which he presided over the Jamestown dig, void stepped J. C. Harrington (Figure 1), who att the time was Harrington reversed this practice and began to record the completing graduate workk in archaeologyy at the Universityy off provenience off recovered artifacts and store them by excava- Chicago. Harrington, in many ways, was seen as the ideal tion units, rather than by type. candidate for the Jamestown job. Prior to enrolling in graduate school to study archaeology, he had earned a bachelor’s Harrington’s contributions to the formalization off historical degree in Architectural Engineering at the Universityy off archaeology in the United States, however, go far beyond his Michigan and worked as an architect in both Neww Mexico methods in the field and lab. Indeed, his greatest contribu- and Indiana. Significantly, as part off his undergraduate edu- tions, and perhaps the principal reason he is considered the cation he spentt the summer off 1923 working with the School “founding father” off historical archaeology, were his efforts for American Research in Santa Fe, making measured draw- to make this new kind off archaeology at Jamestown publicly ings off nine earlyy Spanish Mission churches and visiting visible and legitimate. To appreciate this fully it is important prominent archaeologists, including Edgar L. Hewettt and to understand the cultural and intellectual climate in which Alfred V. Kidder, att their excavations. It was during this time Harrington’s archaeological work at Jamestown took place. Harrington developed more than a passing interest in As the nation struggled with the economic woes off the Great archaeology. When the Great Depression seized the U.S. Depression, political and intellectual leaders began to pro- economy, however, in the early 1930s, Harrington lostt his mote a usable past, one that soughtt to inspire the public with architectural job in Indiana and was faced with one off three a neww sense off nationalism and provide a remedy for the choices: “either working for the Government, selling apples, depressed morale off the citizenry at large. The passage off the or going back to school and doing graduate work” (Harring- 1935 Historic Sites Act and the historical work assigned to ton and Harrington 1971:2). Although he chose the latter, manyy off the New Deal work programs, including the CCC enrolling at the University off Chicago in 1932, itt was only excavations at Jamestown, can be understood as part off this four years later when the NPS offered him the job at overall history-making agenda (Hosmer 1981; Pykles 2008; Jamestown (Harrington 1994; Miller 1998; Pykles 2010). Schuyler 1976). Indeed, all off the historians, archaeologists, architects, and otherr researchers involved in the historical The NPS saw Harrington’s background in architecture and programs off the Neww Deal served as “missionaries who gave his graduate training in archaeology as the ideal suite off American history a new dimension” (Hosmer 1981:6). skills for the Jamestown archaeology project. Like other historical archaeological projects at the time, the digs at In addition to participating in the nationalistic proselytizing Jamestown were architecturallyy oriented. Emerging as they program of the time, Harrington viewed his work att did from an interest in preserving and interpreting the his- Jamestown as an effortt “to spread the gospel off historical toric builtt environment, the goals off these early excavations archaeology” (Harrington 1984:41). One off the first things he were “to uncover foundations and secure architectural infor- did upon arriving att Jamestown in 1936 was take down the mation aboutt the original buildings...forr the purpose off bet- high board fence erected by his predecessors to keep “the ter on-site interpretation for the visiting public.” (Harrington curious and bothersome tourists awayy from the excavations.” 1984:31–32). Artifacts, when collected, were “viewed as sec- Not only did Harrington recognize that “such an atti- ondary items appended to architecture and serving the goals tude...was quite inconsistentt with the policies off and philos- off restoration” with the result thatt “the museum case rather ophyy off both the APVA and the National Parkk Service,” butt than the scholarlyy monograph is the benefactor” (Schuyler he also realized thatt “the CCC (and the Depression) would 1975:3–4). This emphasis on historic site restoration domi- nott lastt forever.” Thus, sensing thatt “the public understand- nated the neww field in its earlyy years. Indeed, the majorityy off ing and acceptance off historical archaeologyy was essential,” archaeologists involved early on with this kind off work used and thatt “The Jamestown project presented a golden oppor- the term coined byy Harrington himselff to describe their tunityy to promote this cause,” Harrington and his colleagues activities—”historic site archaeology” (Harrington 1952). tookk various measures to showcase and interprett historical This is perhaps bestt illustrated byy the way the Jamestown archaeology to the visiting public, providing one off the earli- artifacts were treated during the two years off excavation pre- est examples off public archaeology in the United States (Har- ceding Harrington’s arrival. Referring to the situation as “the rington 1984:38; see also Harrington and Harrington 1970, great tragedyy off Jamestown,” Harrington noted that “Instead and Pykles 2006). One off the mostt impressive efforts in this off keeping artifacts together for each feature or grid unitt forr regard was a program developed by Harrington’s future wife, later comparative study, each class off object was stored Virginia Sutton (one off the firstt woman rangers employed by together—glass bottles, iron hinges, clay pipes, etc.” (Har- the NPS), called “This Week at the Excavations,” which rington 1984:35). This resulted in an amazing assemblage off involved a weekly exhibitt off the archaeology work being per- seventeenth-century material culture, but, unfortunately, formed and daily, guided tours off the excavations (Figure 2).

May 2011 • The SAA Archaeological Record 39 NEW DEAL ARCHAEOLOGY

painstaking archeological research, no matterr howw recentt thee site” (emphasis mine). This was, indeed, a “neww approach to the studyy off historic sites,” and Harrington was at its fore- front (Harrington 1940).

Significantly, the Jamestown excavations figured prominent- lyy in the continuing development off historical archaeology even after Harrington leftt Jamestown to become the Eastern Regional Archeologist for the NPS. In thatt capacity Harring- ton witnessed the growing numbers off excavations att historic sites across the country, “for the impact of the Jamestown digging had really been felt, particularly in the National Park Service” (Harrington 1984:40). Furthermore, many off Harrington’s early influential publications relied on examples from his work at Jamestown to illustrate the importance off the emerging field (see Harrington 1952, Figure 2. J. C. Harringtonn andd his future wife Virginia Sutton interpret- 1955, 1965). ingg the excavations at Jamestownn to visitors inn 1938. Courtesy off the Nationall Park Service, Coloniall Nationall Historicc Park. By the 1960s, when historical archaeology emerged as a truly professional discipline, highlighted byy the establishment off Anotherr importantt partt off this effortt involved the construc- the Societyy for Historical Archaeology in 1967, many off the tion off a laboratoryy facility with a public corridor and large discipline’s leaders at thatt time, including Harrington him- glass windows through which visitors to Jamestown could self, had been active participants in one off the various observe the CCC men reconstructing the artifacts coming archaeologyy projects at Jamestown since the 1930s (Harring- out off the excavations (Figure 3) (Harrington 1984; Harring- ton 1984). John L. Cotter, the SHA’s first president, for exam- ton and Harrington 1971). ple, directed additional excavations att Jamestown from 1954 to 1956, and did much to further promote and establish his- In addition to exposing the public visitors att Jamestown to torical archaeology as a legitimate scholarly discipline historical archaeology, Harrington also used the spoken and (Schuyler 2003). Given the role his excavations att Jamestown printed word to promote the neww field among his archaeo- played in the formation and developmentt off the discipline, itt logical, historical, and like-minded peers. One notable exam- is not surprising that, fifteen years afterr its founding, the ple comes from earlyy in his archaeological career when he Society for Historical Archaeologyy created the J. C. Harring- gave a speech att the American Association off Museums, ton Medal to honor those who, like Harrington, have made which was later published as an article in Thee Regionall life-long contributions to the discipline (Figure 4). Review (a monthlyy periodical off the NPS), in which he extolled the virtues off the new kind off archaeology taking place at Jamestown. The main purpose off the article was to “illustrate the mannerr in which archeological and documen- tary research work together, each supplementing, interpreting, and verifying the facts brought to lightt byy the other.” In making this claim, Harrington was well aware off other kinds off archaeology thatt similarly utilized the written record (e.g., Classical archaeology). But, whereas history and archaeology were often relegated to separate spheres and time periods in other parts off the world, Harrington argued thatt he and his colleagues were doing things differently at Jamestown. “Here,” he declared, “historical research and archeological research are working hand in hand,” creating “an ever- expanding bodyy off knowledge made possible by the com- bined activities off several fields off specialization.” Perhaps the most important pointt made in the article, however, was what Harrington identified as “the mostt significantt contri- Figure 3. CCCC enrollees reconstructingg potteryy in a fieldd laboratoryy at bution off the work at Jamestown,” namely “that a great quan- Jamestown. Courtesy off the Nationall Park Service, Historicc Photograph tity of historical knowledge can be obtained by careful, Collection.

40 The SAA Archaeological Record • May 2011 NEW DEAL ARCHAEOLOGY

Linebaugh, Donald W. 2005 The Man Who Found Thoreau: Rolandd W. Robbins andd the Rise off Historicall Archaeologyy in America. University of Neww Hampshire Press, Durham. Miller, George L. 1998 Memorial: J. C. Harrington, 1901-1998. Historicall Archae- ology 32(4):1–7. Pykles, Benjamin C. 2006 An Early Example off Public Archaeologyy in the United States: Nauvoo, Illinois. Northh American Archaeologist 27(4):311–349. 2008 A Brieff Historyy off Historical Archaeologyy in the United States. Thee SAAA Archaeologicall Record 8(3):32–34. 2010 Excavatingg Nauvoo: The Mormonss andd thee Rise off Historical Figure 4: Thee J. C. Harringtonn Medall off the Society forr Historical Archaeologyy in America. University off Nebraska Press, Lin- Archaeology. Courtesy off Robertt L. Schuyler. coln. Schuyler, Robert L. Through his fieldwork, publications, and public outreach 1975 Parallels in the Rise off the Various Subfields off Historical Harrington did more than anyone else at the time to estab- Archaeology. In The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology lish and promote historical archaeology as a viable field off Papers, edited byy Stanleyy South, pp. 2–10. University of South Carolina, Columbia. inquiry. But, in the end, it is also importantt to remember the 1976 Images off America: The Contribution off Historical critical role off federal supportt and funding in the develop- Archaeologyy to National Identity. Southwestern Lore mentt off the field. Indeed, without the Neww Deal there might 42(4):27–37. have never been this neww kind off archaeology. 2001 Historical Archaeology. In Encyclopedia off Archaeology: His- toryy andd Discoveries, edited by Tim Murray, pp. 623–630. References Cited ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara. 2003 The Second Largestt Cityy in the English-Speaking World: Harrington, J. C. John L. Cotter and the Historical Archaeologyy off Philadel- 1940 Partnership at Jamestown: Archeology and History Work phia, 1960–1999. In Philadelphia andd thee Developmentt of Hand in Hand. Thee Regionall Review 5(2-3):3–6. Americanist Archaeology, edited by Don D. Fowler and 1952 Historic Site Archaeology in the United States. In Archae- David R. Wilcox, pp. 156–164. The University off Alabama ologyy off Eastern Unitedd States, edited by James B. Griffin, Press, Tuscaloosa. pp. 335–344. Universityy off Chicago Press, Chicago. 1955 Archaeologyy as an Auxiliaryy Science to American History. American Anthropologist 57(6):1121–1130. 1965 Archaeologyy andd thee Historicall Society. The American Asso- ciation for State and Local History, Nashville. 1984 Jamestown Archaeology in Retrospect. In Thee Scope off His- torical Archaeology: Essays inn Honorr off Johnn L. Cotter, edited byy David G. Orr and Daniel G. Crozier, pp. 29–51. Occa- sional Publications off the Department off Anthropology, Temple University, Philadelphia. 1994 From Architraves to Artifacts: A Metamorphosis. In Pio- neers in Historical Archaeology: Breakingg New Ground, edited by Stanley South, 1–14. Plenum Press, New York. Free Trial - eHRAF Archaeology Harrington, J. C., and Virginia S. Harrington 1970 Interview by Charles B. Hosmer, Jr. Transcript. May 18. *Online archaeological traditions and sequences Oral Historyy Collection, National Parkk Service, Harpers *Ideal for ethnoarchaeology, research and teaching Ferryy Center, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. *Subject-indexed at the paragraph level 1971 Interview by S. Herbertt Evison. Transcript. March 15. Oral *Full-text books, dissertations, & journal articles History Collection, National Park Service, Harpers Ferry *Online student exercises Center, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Hosmer, Charles B., Jr. Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) 1981 Preservationn Comes off Age: Fromm Williamsburgg to the Nation- e-mail: [email protected]; Web: www.yale.edu/hraf all Trust, 1926–1949. 2 vols. University Press off Virginia, Phone: 203-764-9401 or 800-520-HRAF Charlottesville.

May 2011 • The SAA Archaeological Record 41