Encyclopedia of Astrobiology

Muriel Gargaud • William M. Irvine Editors-in-Chief

Ricardo Amils • Henderson James (Jim) Cleaves II • Daniele L. Pinti Jose´ Cernicharo Quintanilla Daniel Rouan • Tilman Spohn Ste´phane Tirard • Michel Viso Editors

Encyclopedia of Astrobiology

Second Edition

With 703 Figures and 99 Tables Editors-in-Chief Muriel Gargaud William M. Irvine CNRS-Universite de Bordeaux University of Massachusetts Laboratoire d’Astrophysique Amherst, MA, USA de Bordeaux Floirac, France

Editors Ricardo Amils Henderson James (Jim) Cleaves II Departamento de Biologia Molecular Earth–Life Science Institute (ELSI) Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid Tokyo Institute of Technology Madrid, Spain Meguro–ku, Tokyo, Japan

Daniele L. Pinti Jose´ Cernicharo Quintanilla GEOTOP Research Center for Department of Astrophysics Geochemistry and Geodynamics Laboratory of Molecular Astrophysics Universite´ du Que´bec à Montre´al Iorrejo´n de Ardoz Montre´al, QC, Canada Madrid, Spain

Daniel Rouan Tilman Spohn LESIA, Observatoire Paris-Site Deutsches Zentrum fur€ Luft- und de Meudon Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut fur€ Meudon, France Planetenforschung Berlin, Germany Ste´phane Tirard Centre Franc¸ois Vie´te d’Histoire Michel Viso des Sciences et des Techniques EA 1161 CNES/DSP/SME, Ve´te´rinaire/DVM Faculte´ des Sciences et des Astro/Exobiology Techniques de Nantes Paris Cedex 1, France Nantes, France

ISBN 978-3-662-44184-8 ISBN 978-3-662-44185-5 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-662-44186-2 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-44185-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015947250

Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011, 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword to the First Edition

Are we alone? Long an object of speculation or fiction, if not heresy, this question entered the field of science on November 1, 1961, at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, Virginia, where a number of scientists, including Melvin Calvin, who had just been awarded the Nobel prize in chemistry for his work on photosynthesis, and the charismatic Carl Sagan, gathered at the invitation of a young astronomer, Frank Drake, to launch the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) project. Since then, batteries of increasingly powerful radiotelescopes have been scanning space for messages sent out by some extraterrestrial civilization, so far in vain. At the same time, in the wake of widening space exploration, a new discipline was born that has the distinctive peculiarity of having three names – exobiology, astrobiology, and bioastronomy – and no as-yet-known object. The purpose of this new discipline is more modest than that of the SETI project: to detect signs of extraterrestrial life, not necessarily intelligent. To guide this quest, we have available vast knowledge that has been gained in the last few decades concerning the basic mechanisms of life. This knowl- edge, in turn, has illuminated our concept of the origin of life. Even though we do not know how or under what conditions this phenomenon took place, we may safely affirm that if life arose naturally, which is the only scientifically acceptable assumption, its origin must have depended on “chemistry.” By its very nature, chemistry deals with highly deterministic, reproducible events that are bound to take place under prevailing physical–chemical conditions. If even a very slight element of chance affected chemical reactions, there would be no chemical laboratories, no chemical factories. We could not afford the risk. A conclusion that emerges from this consideration is that life, as a product of environmentally enforced chemistry, was bound to arise under the physical–chemical conditions that prevailed at the site of its birth. This statement, at least, holds true for the early steps in the origin of life, until the appearance of the first replicable substance, most likely RNA. Once this happened, “selection” became added to chemistry, introducing an ele- ment of chance in the development of life. Contrary to what has often been claimed in the past, this fact does not necessarily imply that the process was ruled by contingency. There are reasons to believe that, in many instances,

v vi Foreword to the First Edition chance provided enough opportunities for selection to be optimizing and, therefore, likewise obligatory under prevailing conditions. Thus, in so far as chemistry and optimizing selection played a dominant role in the process, the development of life appears as the obligatory outcome of prevailing conditions. Hence the assumption that the probability of the appearance elsewhere in the universe of forms of life resembling Earth life in their basic properties is approximately equal to the probability of the occur- rence elsewhere in the universe of the physical conditions obtained at the site where Earth life arose. In the eyes of many astronomers, this probability is very high. It is estimated that some 30 billion sun-like stars exist in our galaxy alone and that the total number of galaxies in the universe is on the order of 100 billion. This means, to the extent that our galaxy may be taken as a representative sample of galaxies in general, there may be some 3,000 billion sun-like stars in the universe. Unless our solar system should be the product of extremely unlikely events, the probability of there being planets similar to Earth (or to whatever celestial object served as the cradle of Earth life) seems very strong. Recent findings are most encouraging in this respect, by revealing that planet formation is not a rare event, with more than 400 planets already identified around a number of nearby stars. Although no habitable Earthlike extrasolar planet has yet been found, this may be partly due to technical limitations. The prospects that, with improved technologies, such a planet may be discovered some time in the future are far from negligible. Signs of life on such a planet, although more difficult to detect, may likewise yield technological progress. As by now, the enormous research effort expended within the framework of the new discipline of exobiology-cum-bioastronomy-cum-astrobiology has already produced a wealth of new findings, in fields ranging from physics and cosmology to chemistry, biochemistry, and molecular biology. These findings have provided rich material for this Encyclopedia. Its editors and authors are to be commended for making this material widely available in easily accessible form.

14 January 2011 Christian de Duve

References

1. de Duve C (2005) Singularities landmarks on the pathways of life. Cambridge Univer- sity Press, New York Preface to the First Edition

Where do we come from? Are we alone in the Universe? Where are we going? These are the questions addressed by astrobiology – the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and the future of life in the Universe. Encyclopedias are unusual works. A quote from the prologue of one of the more famous early encyclopedias is instructive: “...the purpose of an encyclopedia is to collect knowledge disseminated around the globe; to set forth its general system to the men with whom we live, and transmit it to those who will come after us, so that the work of preceding centuries will not become useless to the centuries to come; and so that our offspring, becoming better instructed, will at the same time become more virtuous and happy, and that we should not die without having rendered a service to the human race in the future years to come”. Diderot and d’Alembert, Encyclope´die (1751).1 Diderot and d’Alembert’s eighteenth century Encyclope´die was indeed ground-breaking, but perhaps more remarkable is the degree to which their description resembles the modern concept of genetic inheritance and natural selection: a civilization’s accumulated knowledge being analogous to the traits encoded in an organism’s time-tested DNA genome. In many ways, the Encyclope´die addressed the goals of astrobiology; between the lines, we find aspects of what makes biology biology. Encyclopedias have now existed for approximately 2,000 years, the first being Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia, which was a compendium of the knowledge available to a citizen of the Roman Empire as documented by the first century AD.2 It contained ~ 20,000 facts from 2,000 sources written by 200 authors. The present volume contains an unknown number of “facts” (indeed, some of the content will likely be proven false, as science is a living, breathing accumulation of presently accepted knowledge, all subject to future revision), but it does include more than 1,700 contributions, references uncounted thousands of prior publications, and is written by 385 authors. Modern encyclopedias are derived from the dictionaries of the eighteenth century. The two are similar in that both are arranged alphabetically and generally are the work of a team of expert contributors. They differ in that encyclopedias contain a deeper level of analysis of the included terms and attempt to cross-reference and place the assembled contents in a useful context. The first encyclopedias attempted to cover all human knowledge. This is now impossible for a printed work because the body of human knowledge is

vii viii Preface to the First Edition presently growing exponentially, with no end in sight. Encyclopedias now exist for almost every definable field of study. A field requires a certain degree of maturity to have an encyclopedia, and conversely, the publication of an encyclopedia commonly records the birth of a definable field of study. Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary field, spanning geology, chemistry, phys- ics, astronomy, biology, engineering, and computer science, to name only the core fields of study. While some of these fields of research are fairly well mapped, many others are in rapid flux, and still others remain perennially enigmatic, awaiting future breakthroughs by the scientists of tomorrow. To this end, the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology is primarily aimed at younger scientists or scientists new to the field who wish to understand how their expertise coincides with current knowledge in other areas of study. It is hoped that the encyclopedia will serve to orient researchers to the current state of the art. A more in-depth discussion of many of the topic areas can be obtained by referring to college or graduate level texts or to the articles cited at the end of many of the entries. Encyclopedias are snapshots of the state of knowledge at a particular time. In 1844, the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation was published anonymously (it was later found to have been written by Scottish publisher William Chambers) and created a public sensation.3 It offered a sweeping and very secular view of the development of the Solar System, stretching from the nebular hypothesis to the development of man. While primitive by modern standards (it was, after all, based on state-of-the-art early nineteenth century science), it was in many ways remarkably similar to modern cosmology. In broad brushstrokes, it is the precursor to the worldview developed in Carl Sagan’s Cosmos4 and the grand view of myriads of habitable planets implicit in the Drake equation. The implication of Vestiges was simply this: the Universe operates everywhere and at all times according to physical princi- ples, and the evolution of matter is largely predictable and often progressive, proceeding from the simple to the complex. Science has advanced dramatically since Chambers’ book was published. It is truly a long way from Sir William Hershel’s 40-ft telescope to the Herschel Space Telescope,5 and from a Universe with seven known planets orbiting the Sun to one with more than 500 planets orbiting other stars. It is also a long way from the work of Black, Priestly, and Lavoisier6 to SELEX technology and high-throughput automated chemical screening and analysis, and from Lyell’s Principles of Geology7 to plate tectonics and isotope geo- chemistry. Nonetheless, certain questions permeate the sciences across time and discipline. Woese’s three domains of life8 are direct descendents of Linnaeus’ early classification scheme, and both are attempts to unify and classify terrestrial organisms. Darwinism has offered an underlying mecha- nism for doing so that has allowed for unification of the assorted observations of the living world. However, the question of whether terrestrial life is unique in the universe has fascinated mankind for millennia. It was not until 1959, when NASA began funding the search for life in the Universe in its Exobiology program, that we at last achieved the technological prowess to try to answer this question.9 The paleontologist George Gaylord Preface to the First Edition ix

Simpson famously noted shortly thereafter that Exobiology was a science “that has yet to demonstrate that its subject matter exists.” NASA’s first exobiology grant was awarded to Wolf Vishniac for the construction of the Wolf Trap, a device for detecting bacteria on Mars. Due to size limitations, the device never flew, but various descendants have made the trip to Mars and returned various negative or tantalizingly ambiguous results. These results are, amusingly, either disappointingly or encouragingly ambiguous, depending on one’s point of view. Despite remarkable progress in the sciences, humanity still has no answer to the question, “Are we alone?,” though the question is in principle answerable. The search continues enthusiastically. Why should we think there might be life elsewhere in the Universe? In 1960, the radio-astronomer Frank Drake developed his now-famous equation for estimating the number of communicating civilizations in the Galaxy:

à N ¼ R  fp  ne  fe  fi  fc  L;

where N is the number of civilizations in our galaxy for which communica- Ã tion might be possible, R is the average rate of star formation per year, fp is the fraction of stars that have planets, ne is the average number of planets that can support life per star with planets, f‘ is the fraction of the planets that can

support life on which life actually develops, fi is the fraction of those on which intelligent life develops, fc is the fraction of those on which civilizations communicate using detectable signals, and L is the length of time these civilizations communicate.

When Drake unveiled his equation in 1960 and estimated that there were maybe ten communicating civilizations in the Galaxy, few of the parameters were known with any certainty; the rate of star formation was perhaps the only solid measurable value. Fifty years later, the flourishing search for exoplanets has placed the focus on the second value (notably, it now appears to be close to what Drake estimated, ~50 %). Hundreds of exoplanets have been found around other stars, and current technology allows the observation of even small planets. Theory suggests that the fraction of stars with Earthlike planets is somewhere near 10 % (again, surprisingly, and a tribute to back-of- the-envelope calculations, not far from Drake’s initial estimate). The least well-known value is the question of how difficult is it for life to begin (one of the “perennially enigmatic” facts mentioned above). Based on present knowledge, the fraction of planets on which life actually emerges (fl) could be anywhere from very, very close to 0 or far closer to 1. We simply do not know. On the ends of the spectrum, the scientific community is divided into two equally “hunch-”based camps: first, life is inevitable and is a cosmic imperative (where conditions are appropriate) and, second, the origin of life requires such a concatenation of improbable events that it is the scientific equivalent of a miracle. On the one planet we know of with life, our own, putative evidence in the form of isotopically light carbon appears in the earliest known sedimentary x Preface to the First Edition rocks, suggesting life emerged relatively early in the history of the planet, although we do not know whether this took place 100 years or 700 million years after the planet formed. This implies that either something extraordi- nary happened on Earth, or that the origin of life is a mundane phenomenon on young planets, given appropriate chemistry, environmental conditions, and enough time. Radioastronomy has provided a glimpse of the chemical inventory of the cosmos which does appear to be universal. Spectral signa- tures of a veritable zoo of organic compounds suggest that the Universe is strewn with the potential precursors of life. Organic carbon (in the form of carbon monoxide) has now been observed as far back as 13 billion years ago, only some 700 million years after the birth of the Universe in the Big Bang. The picture emerging, reminiscent of Chambers’ universe, is that physics and chemistry are the same everywhere in the Universe, and that the Earth, although remarkable in many respects, may not be unique. As in any factorial equation, the most important values are the ones with the largest uncertainty. Two approaches could shed light on the “fl problem”: the duplication of the process in the laboratory or the discovery of life on another planet. It is difficult to say whether the first approach will ever succeed to anyone’s complete satisfaction, given that the origin of life on Earth was a historical event that happened when no one was around to witness it. The second approach, while fraught with technological difficulties, is perhaps more promising. To that end, numerous instruments and space mis- sions have been designed and launched to explore the Solar System and beyond. The spectral signatures of planets around nearby stars are being monitored for the characteristic signs of life such as the signature of disequi- librium chemistry in the form of the presence in their atmospheres of both oxidized and reduced gases. While the answers to the vast questions that define astrobiology as a field of study are unclear, it is evident that answering them will require an interdisciplinary effort, stretching across international borders. One is hesi- tant to speculate what the answer to the question, “Are we alone?” will ultimately be. As good scientists, we should probably withhold judgment until the data are in. As better scientists, we must join hands and find the data. The editors of the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology hope that this volume will contribute to this effort.

The Editors

Notes

1. A complete English and French version of the Encyclope´die can be found at http://quod. lib.umich.edu/d/did/ 2. For a complete English translation of Pliny the Elder’s The Natural History by John Bostock see http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+toc&redirect= true. A complete Latin version can be found at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0138:toc&redirect=true 3. Chambers R (1994) Vestiges of the natural history of creation and other evolutionary writings. University of Chicago Press Preface to the First Edition xi

4. Cosmos was a remarkable 13-part popular science series narrated by Carl Sagan which aired in 1980. Most if not all of the episodes can be viewed on line, and a book was spun off: Sagan C (1985) Cosmos. Ballantine Books 5. For a survey of the early developments in astronomy, see Lankford J (ed) (1996) History of astronomy: an encyclopedia, 1st edn. Routledge 6. For an excellent discussion of the early history of chemistry (including the work of Black, Priestly and Lavoisier) see Partington JR (1989) A short history of chemistry, 3rd revised edn. Dover Publications 7. Lyell C (2010) Principles of geology: being an inquiry how far the former changes of the earth’s surface are referable to causes now in operation. Nabu Press (March 1, 2010). Originally published in three volumes between 1830–1833 8. Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M (1990) Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 87(12): 4576–4579 9. For an insightful recounting of the early history of NASA’s early efforts in exo- and astrobiology (including discussion of the roles of Wolf Vishniac and Frank Drake) see Dick SJ, Strick JE (2005) The living universe: NASA and the development of astrobi- ology. Rutgers University Press

Preface to the Second Edition

The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology serves as the key to a common under- standing of the astrobiology field among astronomers and astrophysicists, biologists and biochemists, chemists, geologists and geochemists, space scientists, historians of science, and others working in this interdisciplinary and rapidly expanding field. In the past few years, the pace of advancement in astrobiology has become so rapid that we have felt it necessary to update and expand many of the earlier entries and to augment the original edition of this Encyclopedia, published in 2011, with some 300 new entries. Exciting results include the discovery of some 1,200 planets (as of early 2015) orbiting stars other than the Sun, some with masses close to that of Earth; the continuing exploration of the conditions possibly relevant to life on Solar System bodies such as Mars, Saturn’s satellites Titan and Enceladus, and comets; the in vitro evolution of increasingly capable and diverse ribozymes; the progress toward synthetic cellular systems that can undergo Darwinian evolution; the discov- ery of increasingly complex organic molecules in interstellar space; and the recently launched and newly planned space missions and telescopes that will further our knowledge of the universe and make significant contributions to the goals of astrobiology. All of this research is relevant to our increasingly detailed understanding concerning the origin of life on our own planet and the possible occurrence of life elsewhere in the universe. Finally, the History of Science section is expanded to include speculation on topics such as the origin of species and the possibility of inhabited planets beyond the Earth by classical and medieval scholars, the latter from both Europe and the Islamic world. We believe that both new and experienced researchers as well as graduate students – either in the adjacent fields of astrobiology or those new to the subject – will appreciate this reference work during their quest to understand the whole picture. To aid this process, we introduce in this edition a Table of Contents, broken down by research area, which nicely illustrates the breadth and the depth of the field of astrobiology. Although members of the different disciplines commonly employ their own terminology and technical language, here we have made a special effort to eliminate specialized jargon and overtechnical terms from the Encyclopedia. Synonyms and keywords from

xiii xiv Preface to the Second Edition the 1st edition have been carefully revisited, with many newly added and redundant terms deleted. Both the carefully selected group of active researchers contributing to this work as well as the expert field editors hope that this new edition will be valuable to the scientific community and accelerate the interdisciplinary advance of astrobiology.

The Editors Acknowledgement to the Second Edition

A brief note is warranted about how we constructed the Encyclopedia. A glossary of terms was first compiled by a team of experts in each field. It was then cross-referenced between fields to check for conceptual overlap and was then both expanded and pared down to produce a consensus entry list. Authors with peer-recognized contributions to their fields of study were then invited to contribute entries appropriate to their expertise. After a final draft was submitted, entries were proofread and vetted for scientific accuracy and readability by a team of field editors, then edited and modified to be accessible by a reader with general knowledge of college-level science. Finally, the entries were cross-referenced and edited for stylistic consistency and ease of reading. The editors would like to sincerely thank all the authors of the content of the Encyclopedia for their efforts and understanding throughout the long and at times difficult triple review process. We are particularly grateful to those who also accepted to act as nonspecialist reviewers for fields other than their own. We would also like to thank several people who, although not authors, served as external reviewers for a significant number of entries: Maxence Claeys (Ecole Centrale Paris, France), Carlos Garcia-Ferris (Universitat de Vale`ncia, Spain), David Hochberg (CAB, Madrid, Spain), Pierre Le´na (Acade´mie des Sciences, Paris, France), Susan Leschine (University of Mas- sachusetts Amherst, USA), and Jean Vandenhaute (University of Namur, Belgium). We express our gratitude to our respective institutions, especially those who facilitated and aided in the organization and funding of editorial meet- ings: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS, France), Centre National d’E´ tudes Spatiales (CNES, France), Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux (France), Universite´ Bordeaux 1 (France), GEOTOP Research Center for Geochemistry and Geodynamics (Universite´ de Que´bec à Mon- tre´al, Canada), Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Can- ada, European Science Foundation (Archean Environment Research Networking Program), Centro de Astrobiologı´a (CAB, INTA-CSIC, Madrid, Spain), Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Cooperative Agreement NNX09AH33A with the University of Mas- sachusetts. This work was also supported by the European COST Action TD

xv xvi Acknowledgement to the Second Edition

1308 “Origins and evolution of life on Earth and in the Universe” and the Erasmus + European Astrobiology Campus. Last, but certainly not least, we express our sincere appreciation to the editorial staff of Springer, in particular Saskia Ellis and Daniela Graf, who lent technical and administrative support throughout the entire process.

The Editors Editors-in-Chief

Muriel Gargaud CNRS-Universite de Bordeaux, Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, Floirac, France

William M. Irvine University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA

xvii

Field Editors

Ricardo Amils Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Field: Life Sciences Henderson James (Jim) Cleaves II Earth–Life Science Institute (ELSI), Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro–ku, Tokyo, Japan Field: Chemical Sciences Daniele L. Pinti GEOTOP Research Center for Geochemistry and Geodynamics, Universite´ du Que´bec à Montre´al, Montre´al, QC, Canada Field: Earth Sciences Jose´ Cernicharo Quintanilla Department of Astrophysics, Laboratory of Molecular Astrophysics, Iorrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Field: Astrophysics and Astrochemistry Daniel Rouan LESIA, Observatoire Paris-Site de Meudon, Meudon, France Field: Astrophysics and Astrochemistry Tilman Spohn Deutsches Zentrum fur€ Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany Field: Planetary Sciences and Exoplanets Ste´phane Tirard Centre Franc¸ois Vie´te d’Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques EA 1161, Faculte´ des Sciences et des Techniques de Nantes, Nantes, France Field: History and Philosophy of Science Michel Viso CNES/DSP/SME, Ve´te´rinaire/DVM, Astro/Exobiology, Paris Cedex 1, France Field: Space Missions, Ground Facilities and Planetary Protection and Institutions and Organizations

xix

Section Editors

Alessandro Airo Institut fur€ Geologische Wissenschaften Tektonik und Sedimenta¨re Geologie, Freie Universita¨t Berlin, Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Berlin, Germany Section: Inner Solar System

Francis Albare`de Ecole Normale Supe´rieure de Lyon, Lyon, France Section: Early Earth Geochemistry

Yann Alibert Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Swiss Section: Planetary Formation and Dynamics

Philippe Andre´ Laboratoire AIM, IRFU/Service d’Astrophysique, CEA Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France Section: Stars – Formation and Evolution

Kristin Bartik Universite´ libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium Section: Chemistry – General Definitions

Hugues Bersini IRIDIA, Universite´ Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium Section: Artificial Life

Carlos Briones Centro de Astrobiologı´a (CSIC/INTA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Torrejon de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Section: Genetics and Evolution

Therese Encrenaz LESIA, Observatoire de Paris - Section de Meudon, France Section: Outer Solar System

Fernando B. Figueiredo CITEUC, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Section: History and Philosophy of Science

xxi xxii Section Editors

Felipe Gomez Centro de Astrobiologı´a (CSIC/INTA), Instituto Nacional de Te´cnica Aeroespacial, Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Section: Biology – General Definitions John Lee Grenfell German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany Section: Planetary and Exoplanetary Atmospheres Nader Haghighipour Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii- Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, HI, USA Section: Exoplanetary Systems Ravit Helled Geophysical, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Raymond and Beverly Sackler Faculty of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv, Israel Section: Planetary Formation and Dynamics Christoph Heubeck Institut fur€ Geowissenschaften, Friedrich-Schiller- Universita¨t Jena, Jena, Germany Section: Archean Geology Gerda Horneck DLR German Aerospace Center, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology, Ko¨ln, Germany Section: Microbiology in Space Emmanuelle J. Javaux Palaeobiogeology-Palaeobotany-Palaeopalynology, Geology Department, Universite´ de Lie`ge, Lie`ge, Belgium Section: Traces of Life Kensei Kobayashi Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama, Japan Section: Chemistry – General Definitions Juli Pereto´ Institut Cavanilles de Biodiversitat i Biologia Evolutiva, Universitat de Vale`ncia, Vale`ncia, Spain Section: Biochemistry Andrew Pohorille NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA Section: Prebiotic Chemistry and Origins of Life Nikos Prantzos Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, Paris, France Section: Nucleosynthesis Barbara Stracke Deutsches Zentrum fur€ Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany Section: Inner Solar System Contributors

Jose´ Pascual Abad Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biologı´a Molec- ular, Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain Farah Abdul-Rahman University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA Delphine Acolat Centre Franc¸ois Vie`te, Universite´ de Bretagne Occidentale, Quimper, France Angeles Aguilera Laboratorio de Extremo´filos, Centro de Astrobiologı´a (INTA-CSIC), Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Marcelino Agundez Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Alessandro Airo Institut fur€ Geologische Wissenschaften Tektonik und Sedimenta¨re Geologie, Freie Universita¨t Berlin, Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Berlin, Germany Francis Albare`de Ecole Normale Supe´rieure de Lyon, Lyon, France Conel Michael O’Donel Alexander Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, NW Washington, DC, USA Yann Alibert Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Swiss Abigail Allwood Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, USA Concepcio´n Alonso Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Wladyslaw Altermann Department of Geology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Linda Amaral-Zettler Marine Biological Laboratory, Josephine Bay Paul Center for Comparative Molecular Biology and Evolution, Woods Hole, MA, USA Ricardo Amils Departamento de Biologia Molecular, Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Ariel D. Anbar School of Earth & Space Exploration and Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

xxiii xxiv Contributors

Luc Andre´ Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium Philippe Andre´ Laboratoire AIM, IRFU/Service d’Astrophysique, CEA Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France Ralf H. Anken German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Cologne, Germany Josefa Anton Department of Physiology, Genetics and Microbiology, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain Nicholas Arndt ISTerre, Universite´ Grenoble Alpes, France Andrew Aubrey NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, USA Jeffrey Bada Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA Juan P. G. Ballesta Genome Dynamics and Function, Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain Nadia Balucani Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy Rory Barnes Astronomy Department, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Maria Antonietta Barucci Observatoire de Paris, LESIA, Meudon Princi- pal, Cedex, France Gibor Basri Astronomy Department, MC 3411, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Ugo Bastolla Unidad de Bioinformática, Centro de Biologı´a Molecular “Severo Ochoa,” CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain Fabia Ursula Battistuzzi Oakland University, Rochester, MI, USA Christa Baumstark-Khan German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Cologne, Germany Andrey Bekker Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA G. Fritz Benedict McDonald Observatory, The University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA Stefan Bengtson Department of Palaeozoology, The Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden Karim Benzerara Institut de Mine´ralogie et de Physique des Milieux Condense´s, UMR 7590, CNRS, Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie & Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Paris, France Jose Berenguer Centro de Biologı´a Molecular Severo Ochoa, UAM-CSIC, Madrid, Spain Contributors xxv

Sylvain Bernard Laboratoire de Mine´ralogie et de Cosmochimie du Muse´um (LMCM), Paris, France

Hugues Bersini IRIDIA, Universite´ Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium

Bruno Be´zard LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France

Jean-Pierre Bibring Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, Universite´ Paris Sud, Orsay, France

John H. Black Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Chalmers Univer- sity of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, Onsala, Sweden

Donna Blackmond The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA

Jeffrey Blanchard Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA

Laurent Boiteau Institut des Biomole´cules Max Mousseron, UMR5247 CNRS, University Montpellier-2, Montepellier Cedex, France

Tyler Bourke Square Kilometre Array Organisation, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK

Jessica C. Bowman School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Insti- tute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Samuel A. Bowring Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Building 54-1126, Cambridge, MA, USA

Maud Boyet Universite´ Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France

Andre´ Brack Centre de Biophysique Mole´culaire CNRS, Orle´ans Cedex 2, France

Robert Braun Square Kilometre Array Organisation, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK

Doris Breuer German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany

Carlos Briones Centro de Astrobiologı´a (CSIC/INTA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Madrid, Spain

Gilles Bruylants Engineering of Molecular NanoSystems, Universte´ Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium

Sergey Bulat NRC ‘Kurchatov institute’, Petersburg Nuclear Physics Insti- tute, Leningrad Region, Gatchina, Russia

Vincent Busigny Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Paris, France

Gary R. Byerly Department of Geology & Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA xxvi Contributors

Michel Cabane LATMOS/IPSL B102/T45-46, Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie UPMC-Paris 6, Paris, France Jean Cadet Laboratoire Le´sions des Acides Nucle´iques, Institute Nanosciences et Cryoge´nie/CEA, Grenoble, France Michael P. Callahan Astrochemistry Laboratory, Code 691, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Jan Cami Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada SETI Institute, 189 Bernardo Avenue, Suite 100, Mountain View, CA, USA Ian Campbell Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia Tammy Campbell Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Donald E. Canfield Institute of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark Marı´a Luz Cárdenas Unite´ de Bioe´nerge´tique et Inge´nierie des Prote´ines, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille Universite´, Marseille Cedex 20, France Damien Cardinal LOCEAN, Universite´ Pierre & Marie Curie, Paris, France Leticia Carigi Instituto de Astronomı´a, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico, Me´xico, DF, Mexico P. Brandon Carroll California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Piergiorgio Casavecchia Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy Claude Catala 1LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France Franco Cataldo Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Catania, Italy Actinium Chemical Research, Rome, Italy David C. Catling Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Cecilia Ceccarelli Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Grenoble (LAOG/ IPAG), Universite´ J.Fourier de Grenoble, CNRS, Grenoble, France Gilles Chabrier Centre de Recherche Astrophysiue de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supe´rieure de Lyon, Lyon, France John H. Chalmers Scripps Institute of Oceanography Geosciences Research Division, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA Contributors xxvii

Gregory Chambon Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Nantes, Brest Cedex 3, France Steven B. Charnley Solar System Exploration Division, Code 691, Astrochemistry Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Marc Chaussidon Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP), Paris, France Glenn E. Ciolek New York Center for Astrobiology, Rensselaer Polytech- nic Institute, Troy, NY, USA Philippe Claeys Earth System Science, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium Henderson James (Jim) Cleaves II Earth–Life Science Institute (ELSI), Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro–ku, Tokyo, Japan Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, USA Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Washington, DC, USA Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA Alain Coc Centre de Sciences Nucle´aires et de Sciences de la Matie`re (CSNSM) CNRS/IN2P3, Universite´ Paris Sud 11, UMR 8609, Orsay, France Charles S. Cockell Geomicrobiology Research Group, PSSRI, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Catharine A. Conley NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC, USA Joanna F. Corby University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA Martin A. Cordiner The Goddard Center for Astrobiology, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Athel Cornish-Bowden Unite´ de Bioe´nerge´tique et Inge´nierie des Prote´ines, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille Universite´, Marseille Cedex 20, France Herve´ Cottin Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Syste`mes Atmosphe´riques, Universite´ Paris Est-Cre´teil, Cre´teil, France Athena Coustenis Laboratoire d’ Etudes Spatiales et d’ Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, Univ. Paris-Diderot, Meudon Cedex, France Vanessa Cox Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA Jacques Crovisier LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France Alfonso F. Davila SETI Institute – NASA Ames Research Center MS 245-3, Moffett Field, CA, USA Thijs de Grauuw ALMA, Vitacura, Santiago, Chile xxviii Contributors

Bradley De Gregorio Materials Science and Technology Division, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA Andre´s de la Escosura Nanoscience and Molecular Materials Research Group, Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Rafael R. de la Haba Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Jean-Pierre de Vera DLR, Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany David Deamer Department of Chemistry, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Luis Delaye Departamento de Ingenierı´a Gene´tica, CINVESTAV-Irapuato, Irapuato, Gto, Mexico Rene´ Demets ESTEC (HSF-USL), Noordwijk, The Netherlands Didier Despois Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, CNRS- Universite de Bordeaux, France Louis d’Hendecourt Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, Universite´ Paris-Sud 11, Orsay Cedex, France Phil Diamond Square Kilometre Array Organisation, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK Mark A. Ditzler NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA Mark Do¨rr University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark Thierry Douki Laboratoire Le´sions des Acides Nucle´iques, Institute Nanosciences et Cryoge´nie/CEA, Grenoble, France Nadja Drabon Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Line Drube DLR Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin-Adlershof, Germany Jean Duprat Centre de Sciences Nucle´aires et de Sciences de la Matie`re (CSNSM), Orsay, France Claude D’Uston Ge´ophysique Plane´taire & Plasmas Spatiaux, Institut de Recherche Astrophysique et Plane´tologique, Toulouse, France Jason P. Dworkin NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Astrochemistry Laboratory, Greenbelt, MD, USA Patrick Eggenberger Geneva Observatory, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland Pascale Ehrenfreund Space Policy Institute, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA Jennifer Eigenbrode NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Contributors xxix

Sylvia Ekstro¨m Observatoire Astronomique de l’Universite´ de Gene`ve, Faculte´ des Sciences, Universite´ de Gene`ve, Versoix, Switzerland J. Cynan Ellis-Evans UK Arctic Office, Strategic Coordination Group, British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK Josef Elster Faculty of Science, Centre for Polar Ecology, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Trebon, Czech Republic Therese Encrenaz LESIA, Observatoire de Paris - Section de Meudon, Meudon, France Cecile Engrand Centre de Sciences Nucle´aires et de Sciences de la Matie`re (CSNSM), Orsay, France Go¨zen Ertem National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Alberto G. Faire´n NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA James Farquhar Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Victor M. Fernández Institute of Catalysis, CSIC, Madrid, Spain David C. Fernández-Remolar Centro de Astrobiologı´a (INTA-CSIC), INTA, Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Spain Fernando B. Figueiredo CITEUC, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Ricardo Flores Instituto de Biologı´a Molecular y Celular de Plantas (UPV- CSIC), Universidad Polite´cnica de Valencia – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Valencia, Spain Franc¸ois Forget Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Laboratoire de Me´te´orologie Dynamique, UMR 8539, Universite´ Paris 6, Paris, France Yves Fouquet Institut Franc¸ais de Recherche pour l’Exploitation de la mer (IFREMER), Issy-les-Moulineaux, France Dionysis Foustoukos Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC, USA Stephen Freeland Astrobiology Institute, University of Hawaii NASA, Honolulu, HI, USA Malcolm Fridlund Max-Planck-Institut fur€ Astronomie, Heidelberg, Germany Muriel Gargaud CNRS-Universite de Bordeaux, Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, Floirac, France William Garnier Square Kilometre Array Organisation, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK xxx Contributors

Jose´ Carlos Gaspar Institute of Geosciences, University of Brası´lia, Brası´lia, DF, Brazil Marı´a Gasset Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Instituto Quı´mica-Fı´sica Rocasolano, Madrid, Spain Philipp Gast Asteroids and Comets, Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany Eric Gaucher School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA B. Scott Gaudi Department of Astronomy, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA Carlos Gershenson Instituto de Investigaciones en Matemáticas Aplicadas y en Sistemas, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico, DF, Mexico Rosario Gil Institut Cavanilles de Biodiversitat i Biologia Evolutiva, Universitat de Vale`ncia, Paterna (Vale`ncia), Spain Felipe Gomez Centro de Astrobiologı´a (CSIC/INTA), Instituto Nacional de Te´cnica Aeroespacial, Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Aldo González Centro de Biologı´a Molecular, CBMSO Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Elena González-Toril Laboratorio de Extremo´filos, Centro de Astrobiologı´a (INTA-CSIC), Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Andrew Gould Department of Astronomy, Ohio State University, Colum- bus, OH, USA Matthieu Gounelle Laboratoire de Mine´ralogie et Cosmochimie du Muse´um (LMCM) MNHN USM 0205 - CNRS UMR 7202, Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France Pierre-Henri Gouyon De´partement Syste´matique et Evolution, UMR 7138 CNRS-MNHN-UPMC-IRD, Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris Cedex 05, France Felix M. Gradstein University of Oslo, Blindem, Oslo, Norway Olivier Grasset University of Nantes, Nantes, France Jimi Green Square Kilometre Array Organisation, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK John Lee Grenfell German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany Richard A. F. Grieve University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada Elizabeth C. Griffith University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA Roderich Groß Department of Automatic Control & Systems Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK Contributors xxxi

Manuel Gudel€ Department of Astrophysics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Stephane Guillot LGCA, Universite de Grenoble, St Martin d’He`res, France Tristan Guillot Observatoire de la Coˆte d’Azur, Universite´ de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, CNRS, Nice, France Weifu Guo Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC, USA Nader Haghighipour Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii- Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, HI, USA Gerhard Hahn Asteroids and Comets, DLR, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany Salman Hameed Hampshire College, Amherst, MA, USA Alan W. Harris DLR, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany Emma Hart School of Computing, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK Thomas H. P. Harvey Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Ko Hashizume Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan Ernst Hauber Deutsches Zentrum fur€ Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) e.V., Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany Rasmus Nielsen Haugaard Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Robert Hazen Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC, USA Jo¨rn Helbert DLR, Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany Ravit Helled Geophysical, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Raymond and Beverly Sackler Faculty of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv, Israel Ruth Hemmersbach German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Cologne, Germany Patrick Hennebelle Service d’Astrophysique, CEA, Saclay, Gif-sur Yvette, France Judith Herzfeld Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA Christoph Heubeck Institut fur€ Geowissenschaften, Friedrich-Schiller- Universita¨t Jena, Jena, Germany Ake Hjalmarson Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden xxxii Contributors

Pentti Ho¨ltta¨ Department of Geosciences and Geography, University of Helsinki, Finland and Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo, Finland Tori M. Hoehler Exobiology Branch, NASA Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, USA Paul Hoffman Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences, Harvard Univer- sity, Cambridge, MA, USA Harald Hoffmann DLR, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany Axel Hofmann Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, South Africa Michiel R. Hogerheijde Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands Martin Homann Institut fur€ Geologische Wissenschaften, Freie Universita¨t Berlin, Berlin, Germany Gerda Horneck DLR German Aerospace Center, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology, Ko¨ln, Germany David P. Horning Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Nicholas V. Hud School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA Elizabeth Humphreys ESO European Southern Observatory, Garching, Germany Susana Iglesias-Groth Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Heshan Grasshopper Illangkoon Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA Eiichi Imai Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan William M. Irvine University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA Akizumi Ishida Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Mathieu Isidro Square Kilometre Array Organisation, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK Ralf Jaumann German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany Emmanuelle J. Javaux Palaeobiogeology-Palaeobotany-Palaeopalynology, Geology Department, Universite´ de Lie`ge, Lie`ge, Belgium Michel Je´brak De´partement des Sciences de la Terre et de l’Atmosphe`re, Universite´ du Que´bec à Montre´al, Montreal, QC, Canada Contributors xxxiii

Anders Johansen Lund University, Lund, Sweden Natasha M. Johnson NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Takeshi Kakegawa Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan Paul Kalas Astronomy Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Lisa Kaltenegger Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Balz Samuel Kamber Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland Inge Loes ten Kate Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Michael J. Kaufman Department of Physics and Astronomy, San Jose´ State University, San Jose, CA, USA Kunio Kawamura Department of Human Environmental Studies, Hiroshima Shudo University, Hiroshima, Japan Yoko Kebukawa Department of Natural History Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan Laura Kelly Ecogenomics of Interactions Lab, Nancy, France Pierre Kervella LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France Martin F. Kessler European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC), Madrid, Spain Daisuke Kiga Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan Eun-Kyong Kim Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Adrienne Kish Institut de Ge´ne´tique et Microbiologie, Universite Paris-Sud 11, Orsay Cedex, France Daniel Kitzmann University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland David Klaus University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA Thorsten Kleine Institut fur€ Planetologie, Westfa¨lische Wilhelms- Universita¨tMunster,€ Munster,€ Germany Kateryna Klochko Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC, USA Jo¨rg Knollenberg Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany Kensei Kobayashi Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama, Japan xxxiv Contributors

Kurt O. Konhauser Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

Akira Kouchi Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan

Ramanarayanan Krishnamurthy Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA

Edwin C. Krupp Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Marc Kuchner NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Exoplanets and Stellar Astrophysics Laboratory, Greenbelt, MD, USA

Ekkehard Kuhrt€ Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany

Jana Kvı´derová Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Trebon, Czech Republic

Sun Kwok Faculty of Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Jean-Franc¸ois Lambert Laboratoire de Re´activite´ de Surface, Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France

Doron Lancet Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel

David W. Latham Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA

Amparo Latorre Institute Cavanilles for Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Ester Lázaro Molecular Evolution Laboratory, Centro de Astrobiologı´a (CSIC-INTA), Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain

Antonio Lazcano Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM, Mexico, DF, Mexico

Ste´phane Le Gars Centre Franc¸ois Vie`te, Universite´ de Nantes, Nantes, France

Michael Lebert Biology Department, Plant Ecophysiology, Friedrich- Alexander-University Erlangen/Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany

Laura M. Lechuga Nanobiosensors and Bioanalytical Applications Group, Institut Català de Nanocie`ncia i Nanotecnologia (ICN2) CSIC and CIBER-BBN, Barcelona, Spain

Guillaume Lecointre De´partement Syste´matique et Evolution, UMR 7138 CNRS-MNHN-UPMC-IRD, Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris Cedex 05, France

Emmanuel Lellouch Laboratoire d’Etudes Spatiales et d’Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France Contributors xxxv

Tom Lenaerts De´partement d’Informatique, Universite´ Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium

Kevin Lepot Laboratoire d’Oce´anologie et de Ge´osciences, Universite´ de Lille, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France

Hugues Leroux Unite´ Mate´riaux et Transformations (UMET), University Lille 1, Ronchin, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, France

Anny-Chantal Levasseur-Regourd UPMC University of Paris 6/LATMOS-IPSL, Paris, France

Richard Le´veille´ Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, St. Anne de Bellevue, Que´bec, Canada

Matthew Levy Michael F. Price Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA

Purificacio´nLo´pez-Garcı´a Unite´ d’Ecologie, Syste´matique et Evolution, CNRS UMR8079 Universite´ Paris-Sud 11, Paris, Orsay Cedex, France

Christophe Malaterre Institut d’Histoire et Philosophie des Sciences et Techniques (IHPST), Universite´ Paris 1-Panthe´on Sorbonne, Paris, France

Physicalism Malaterre Institut d’Histoire et Philosophie des Sciences et Techniques (IHPST), Universite´ Paris 1-Panthe´on Sorbonne, Paris, France

Irena Mamajanov School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Insti- tute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Rocco Mancinelli Bay Area Environmental Research Institute, NASA Ames Research Institute, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA

Avi M. Mandell NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA

Susanna Manrubia Systems Biology Program, Centro Nacional de Biotecnologı´a (CSIC), Madrid, Spain

Irma Marı´n Departamento de Biologı´a Molecular, Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Lori Marino Emory Centre for Ethics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Olivier La Marle Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales DSP/EU, Paris, France

Mark S. Marley NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA

Jean-Emmanuel Martelat LST UMR5570, Universite´ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, St Martin d’He`res, Grenoble, France

Herve´ Martin Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, Universite´ Blaise Pascal, OPGC, CNRS, IRD, Clermont-Ferrand, France xxxvi Contributors

Bernard Marty Institut Universitaire de France, Ecole Nationale Supe´rieure de Ge´ologie, Centre de Recherches Pe´trographiques et Ge´ochimiques (CRPG), CNRS, Vandoeuvre les Nancy Cedex, France Koichiro Matsuno Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan Thomas McCollom Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA Francis McCubbin Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA Brett A. McGuire California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Christopher P. McKay NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA Nicola McLoughlin Department of Earth Science and Centre for Geobiology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway Uwe J. Meierhenrich Institut de Chimie de Nice (ICN), University Nice- Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France H. Jay Melosh Departments of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Physics and Aerospace Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Francesca Merlin CNRS UMR 8690 IHPST & Universite´ Paris 1, Paris, France Allyssa Metzger Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA Franc¸ois Mignard CNRS, Observatoire de la Coˆte d’Azur, University of Nice Sophia-Antipolis, Nice, France Stefanie N. Milam Astrochemistry Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Thomas J. Millar Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Antrim, UK Vincent Minier CEA, Saclay, France Shin Miyakawa Ribomic Inc., Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan A. M. Mloszewska Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Robert Mochkovitch Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, Paris, France Ralf Moeller German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Cologne, Germany Stephen Mojzsis University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA Pierre-Alain Monnard FLinT center, Institute for Physics and Chemistry, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark Contributors xxxvii

Francisco Montero Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Facultad de Ciencias Quı´micas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Thierry Montmerle Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, CNRS/Universite´ Paris 6, Paris, France Michel Morange Centre Cavaille`s, USR 3308 CIRPHLES, Ecole normale supe´rieure, Paris Cedex 05, France Alessandro Morbidelli Observatoire de la Cote d’Azur, Nice, France David Moreira Unite´ d’Ecologie, Syste´matique et Evolution CNRS UMR8079, Universite´ Paris-Sud 11, Paris, Orsay Cedex, France Alvaro Moreno Departamento de Lo´gica y Filosofı´a de la Ciencia, Universidad del Paı´s Vasco, San Sebastián, Spain Miguel Moreno Centro de Astrobiologı´a, CSIC, Madrid, Spain Harold Morowitz George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA Stefano Mottola German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany Denis J. P. Moura Ambassade de France en Italie, Ambascia di Francia, Rome, Italy Jean-Franc¸ois Moyen LMV-TL, Universite´ Jean-Monnet, Saint-Etienne, France Armen Y. Mulkidjanian School of Physics, University of Osnabrueck, Osnabrueck, Germany Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia Holger S. P. Muller€ I. Physikalisches Institut, Universita¨tzuKo¨ln, Ko¨ln, Germany Sami Nabhan Institute of Geological Sciences, Freie Universita¨t Berlin, Berlin, Germany Kazumichi Nakagawa Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe, Japan Hiroshi Naraoka Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan Gopal Narayanan Five College Radio Astronomy Observatory, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA Alicia Negro´nk-Mendoza Instituto de Ciencias Nucleares, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico, Me´xico, Coyoacán, DF, Mexico Gerhard Neukum Planetary Sciences and Remote Sensing, Institute of Geological Sciences, Freie Universita¨t Berlin, Berlin, Germany xxxviii Contributors

Wayne L. Nicholson Space Life Sciences Laboratory, University of Florida, Merritt Island, FL, USA Space Life Sciences Laboratory, Kennedy Space Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA Peter E. Nielsen The Panum Institute, ICMM, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Nora Noffke Department of Ocean, Earth & Atmospheric Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA Ann Nowe´ Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium Joseph Andrew Nuth III Solar System Exploration Division, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA Karin I. O¨ berg Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Shohei Ohara Carnegie Institution of Washington, Geophysical Labora- tory, Washington, DC, USA Hiroshi Ohmoto NASA Astrobiology Institute and Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA Jose´ Olivares Esztacio´n Experimental del Zaidı´n. CSIC, Granada, Spain Marc Ollivier Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, CNRS, Universite´ de Paris-Sud, Orsay, France Hans Olofsson Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Chalmers Univer- sity of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden Jonathan O’Neil Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada Silvano Onofri Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, Univer- sity of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy Tullis C. Onstott Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA Sijbren Otto Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Corinna Panitz German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Cologne, Germany Vı´ctor Parro Molecular Evolution Department, Centro de Astrobiologı´a (INTA-CSIC), Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Camille Partin Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada Robert Pascal Institut des Biomole´cules Max Mousseron CC1706, Universite´ de Montpellier II, Montpellier, France Contributors xxxix

Matthew A. Pasek University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA Mercedes Moreno Paz Molecular Evolution Department, Centro de Astrobiologı´a (INTA-CSIC), Torrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Ernesto Pecoits Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Els Peeters Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada SETI Institute, 189 Bernardo Avenue, Suite 100, Mountain View, CA, USA Ivanka Pelivan Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany Juli Pereto´ Institut Cavanilles de Biodiversitat i Biologia Evolutiva, Universitat de Vale`ncia, Vale`ncia, Spain Je´roˆme Perez Applied Mathematics Laboratory, ENSTA ParisTech, Paris Cedex 15, France Jean-Robert Petit CNRS-UJF, Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Ge´ophysique de l’Environnement (LGGE), St Martin D’Heres, France Pascal Philippot Equipe Ge´obiosphe`re Actuelle et Primitive, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP), Paris, France Ray Pierrehumbert Department of the Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Go¨ran L. Pilbratt ESA/ESTEC/SRE-S, European Space Agency (ESA), Science Support Office, Noordwijk, The Netherlands Samanta Pino Department of Biology and Biotechnologies “Charles Darwin”, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Rome, Italy Daniele L. Pinti GEOTOP Research Center for Geochemistry and Geodynamics, Universite´ du Que´bec à Montre´al, Montre´al, QC, Canada Sandra Pizzarello Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Noah Planavsky Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA Raphae¨l Plasson Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA Ana-Catalina Plesa German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany Franck Poitrasson Geosciences Environnement Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France Nikos Prantzos Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, Paris, France Lawrence Pratt Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA xl Contributors

Daniel Prieur Universite´ de Bretagne Occidentale (University of Western Britanny), Brest, France Institut Universitaire Europe´en de la Mer (IUEM), Technopoˆle Brest–Iroise, Plouzane´, France Jose´ Cernicharo Quintanilla Department of Astrophysics, Laboratory of Molecular Astrophysics, Iorrejo´n de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain Ahmed Ragab Harvard Divinity School, Cambridge, MA, USA Heike Rauer German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany Franc¸ois Raulin Faculte´ des Sciences et Technologie, Universite´ Paris Est Cre´teil et Paris Diderot, LISA – UMR CNRS 7583, Creteil, France Florence Raulin-Cerceau Maıˆtre de Confe´rences, Centre Alexandre Koyre´ (UMR 8560-CNRS/EHESS/MNHN/CSI) Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Brunoy, France Sean N. Raymond Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, CNRS, Universite de Bordeaux, France Jacques Reisse Universite´ Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium Anthony J. Remijan NRAO, Charlottesville, VA, USA Petra Rettberg German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Cologne, Germany Alonso Ricardo Ra Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, MA, USA Antonio J. Ricco NASA Ames Research Center, on Assignment from Stanford University, Moffett Field, CA, USA Wayne G. Roberge New York Center for Astrobiology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA Franc¸ois Robert Laboratoire de Mine´ralogie et Cosmochimie du Muse´um (LMCM), Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, UMR 7202 CNRS, Paris Cedex 05, France Michael P. Robertson Department of Molecular Biology MB42, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Bernd Michael Rode Institute for General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Leopold-Franzens University, Universita¨t Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria Francisco Rodriguez-Valera Microbiologia, Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Campus San Juan, San Juan, Alicante, Spain Franc¸oise Roques Laboratoire d’Etudes Spatiales et d’Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire de Paris, Meudon, France Minik T. Rosing Nordic Center for Earth’s Evolution, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark Contributors xli

Ramon Rossello´-Mo´ra IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain

Daniel Rouan LESIA, Observatoire Paris-Site de Meudon, Meudon, France

Kepa Ruiz-Mirazo Department of Logic and Philosophy of Science, FICE, UPV-EHU, Biophysics Research Unit (CSIC – UPV/EHU), Donostia, San Sebastián, Spain

Jan W. Sadownik Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

Nita Sahai Department of Polymer Science, University of Akron, Akron, OH, USA

Cristina Sanchez-Porro Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain

Leopoldo G. Sancho Facultad de Farmacia Departamento de Biologia Vegetal II, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Jose´ Luis Sanz Departamento de Biologı´a Molecular, Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Pierre Savaton Universite´ de Caen Basse-Normandie, Caen, France

Kevin Schindler Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

Karel Schulmann Ecole et Observatoire de Science de la Terre, Institute de Physique de Globe, Universite´ de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France

Peter Schuster Institut fur€ Theoretische Chemie der Universita¨t Wien, Wien, Austria

Alan W. Schwartz Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

William G. Scott Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Center for the Molecular Biology of RNA, University of California at Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

Burckhard Seelig Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics & BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA

Antigona Segura Instituto de Ciencias Nucleares, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico, Mexico, DF, Mexico

Franck Selsis Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, Universite de Bordeaux, Floirac, France CNRS, LAB, Floirac, France

Dmitry Semenov Max Planck Institute of Astronomy, Heidelberg, Germany xlii Contributors

Silke Severmann Institute of Marine & Coastal Sciences and Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

M. A. Shea Air Force Research Laboratory (Emeritus), Bedford, MA, USA

Don F. Smart Air Force Research Laboratory (Emeritus), Bedford, MA, USA

Alexander Smirnov Department of Earth and Marine Science, Dowling College, Oakdale, NY, USA

Ian W. M. Smith Chemistry Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Ronald L. Snell Department of Astronomy, 517 K Lederle Graduate Research Center, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA

Frank Sohl Deutsches Zentrum fur€ Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany

Alessandro Sozzetti Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Pino Torinese, Italy

Pietro Speroni di Fenizio CISUC, Department of Informatics Engineering, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Tilman Spohn Deutsches Zentrum fur€ Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany

Greg Springsteen Furman University, Greenville, SC, USA

Steven W. Stahler Department of Astronomy, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

Lucas J. Stal Department of Marine Microbiology, Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research (NIOZ), Yerseke, The Netherlands

Vlada Stamenkovic´ Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachu- setts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA

Kenneth Mark Stedman Department of Biology, Center for Life in Extreme Environments, Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA

Jennifer C. Stern Planetary Environments Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA

Barbara Stracke Deutsches Zentrum fur€ Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut fur€ Planetenforschung, Berlin, Germany

Harald Strauss Institut fur€ Geologie und Pala¨ontologie, Westfa¨lische Wilhelms-Universita¨tMunster,€ Munster,€ Germany

Kenichiro Sugitani Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan Contributors xliii

Jun-Ichi Takahashi NTT Microsystem Integration Laboratories, Atsugi, Japan

Olga Taran Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA

Christophe Thomazo UMR CNRS 6282 Bioge´osciences, Universite´ de Bourgogne, Dijon, France

Phil Thurston Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON, Canada

Simon Tillier De´partement Syste´matique et Evolution, UMR 7138 CNRS- MNHN-UPMC-IRD, Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France

Ste´phane Tirard Centre Franc¸ois Vie`te d’Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques EA 1161, Faculte´ des Sciences et des Techniques de Nantes, Nantes, France

Daniela Tirsch German Aerospace Center DLR, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany

Dmitri Titov European Space Agency, Noordwijk, The Netherlands

Marco Tomassini Information Systems Department, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

Carmen Tornow Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany

Melissa G. Trainer NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Code 699, Greenbelt, MD, USA

Pascal Tremblin CEA, Saclay, France

Jorge L. Vago European Space Agency – ESA/ESTEC (SRE-SM), Noordwijk, The Netherlands

Veronica Vaida University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA

Stephan van Gasselt Planetary Sciences and Remote Sensing, Institute of Geological Sciences, Freie Universita¨t Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Martin J. Van Kranendonk School of Biological, Earth and Environmen- tal Sciences, University of New South Wales, Australia

Antonio Ventosa Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain

Enrique Viguera Genetics Department, Sciences Faculty, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain

Michel Viso CNES/DSP/SME, Ve´te´rinaire/DVM, Astro/Exobiology, Paris Cedex 1, France xliv Contributors

Gunter€ von Kiedrowski Lehrstuhl fur€ Organische Chemie I, Ruhr- Universita¨t Bochum, Bochum, NRW, Germany Philip von Paris Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, Universite de Bordeaux, Floirac, France CNRS, LAB, Floirac, France Jeff Wagg Square Kilometre Array Organisation, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK Roland J. Wagner German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany Sara Imari Walker School of Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Frances Westall Centre de Biophysique Mole´culaire, CNRS, Orle´ans Cedex 2, France Hubert Whitechurch Ecole et Observatoire de Science de la Terre, Institute de Physique de Globe, Universite´ de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France Douglas Whittet New York Center for Astrobiology, Rensselaer Polytech- nic Institute, Troy, NY, USA Simon Wilde Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia Ian S. Williams Research School of Earth Sciences, ANU College of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia Loren Dean Williams School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA Charles T. Wolfe Unit for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Mark G. Wolfire Astronomy Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Alexander Wolszczan Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics and Center for Exoplanets & Habitable Worlds, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA Paul M. Woods Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Antrim, UK Kosei E. Yamaguchi Geochemical Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan Masamichi Yamashita Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS)/JAXA, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan Bruce Yardley School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK Contributors xlv

Reika Yokochi Department of Geophysical Sciences, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

Philippe Zarka LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, UPMC, Universite´ Paris Diderot, Meudon, France

Annie Zavagno CNRS, LAM (Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Marseille) UMR 7326, Aix Marseille Universite´, Marseille, France

Tanja Elsa Zegers Paleomagnetic Laboratory, Institute of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, CD, The Netherlands