6334

RAMIE CULTIVATION

Harvesting Ramie in Japan.

A.I.D. HISTORICAL AUS 2ENICAL REFOhC2 ROM 1656 NS

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ADMINISTRATION Washington, D.C. 0 D

RAMIE CULTIVATION

by

Fumihiko Oshiumi

Tokyo

1951

Translation by Bernice Montgomery assisted by Yori Oda

Printed in Tokyo, Japan 1951 Washington, D. C., 1960 FOREWORD

Farmers all over the world attempting to grow Ramie will find a wealth of information in this booklet. Written originally in Japanese by

Fumihiko Oshiumi and translated by Bernice Montgomery, consultant on-leaf and bast fibers, assisted by Yori Oda, economist, it is being published by the International Cooperation Administration for use in its overseas

Missions.

In publishing this manuscript, the International Cooperation Ad­ ministration extends its thanks to the Toyo Sen-I Company and the author,

Fundhiko Oshiumi, fox permission to print. Acknowledgment also is made to the Plant Fibers Producers Association, Inc., Tokyo, and to.the U.S.

Department of Agriculture under wh6se auspices the translation was ef­ fected.

International Cooperation Administration Washington, D. C0. April, 1960 INFORMATION FOR RAMIE CULTIVATORS

Table of Contents Page Number

I. Preface ...... 1-2 1. Nomenclature and Geographic Distribution ...... 1 2. History of Ramie Cultivation in Japan ...... 1 II. Utilization ...... 2-3 III. Varieties of Ramie Cultivated in Japan ...... 3-5 1. Introduction ...... 3 2. Characteristics of Principal Varieties ...... 3 IV. Climat e, Soil and Topography ...... 6-7 1. Climate ...... 6 2. Soil ...... 0...... 0....0...... 0...... 0...... 6 3. Topography ...... 7 V. Propagation ...... 7-13 1. Propagation by Means of Pieces of Rhizomes ...... 8 2. Propagation by Means of Small Pieces of Rhizomes ...... 10 3. Propagation by Means of Cut Pieces of Stalks ...... 11 4. Propagation by Layering ...... 12 5. Propagation by Division of Rootstock ...... 13 VI. Cultivation ...... 13-15 1. Preparation of Field ...... 13 2. Planting ...... 13 VII. Ferti izer ...... 15-20 1. General ...... 15 2. Quantity of Fertilizer ...... ,...... 16 3. Application of Fertilizer ...... 19 VIII. Management of Plantings ...... 21-25 1. General ...... o...... 21 2. Replacing Missing or Damaged Plants ...... 21 3. Cutting of First Growth ...... 21 4. Adding Soil to the Field and Shallow Ploughing ...... a 5. Weeding ...... o...... o...... a...... *...... 22 6. Fertilization ...... 22 7. Prevention of and Treatment for Pests and Diseases .... 22 8. Protection Against Cold ...... 24 9. Prevention of Damage from Other Adverse Weather

Conditions ...... 24 .... 10. Rejuvenation of Ramie Field ...... 24 IX. Harvesting ...... 25-28 1. Time of Harvesting ...... 25 2. Method of Harvesting ...... * 27 .... 3. Yield of Fiber ...... a... 28

X. Decorticating ...... 29-39

1. General ...... 29

2. Ikeda Decorticator ...... 29 3. Tosen Decorticator and Brushing Machine .... *...... ~ 34 XI. Drying ...... 39-41 1. General ...... 5... 39 ..... 2. Air Drying ...... a... 40 3. Heat Drying ...... a 40 XII. Production of Waste Fiber ...... 5... 41 XIII. Fiber Grading and Packing ...... 41-42 1. Grading ...... 41 2. Packing ...... 42 XIV. Price of Fiber 42-43 XV. labor Required for Production of Fiber ...... 43 INFORMATION FOR RAMIE CULTIVATORS

I. Preface

1. Nomenclature and Gedgraphic Distribution--Ramie fiber is ob­ tained from just under the bark of the stalks of plants of the genus Boehmeria. The plants of this genus are perennials. Fiber occurs in­ varying degrees in the stalks of all species of the genus. There are two principal species cultivated for fiber. One of these, Boehnieria nivea, is generally termed the t'white-leaved'i species because of the presence of fine white hairs on the under-surface of the leaves. The other-, Boehmeria tenacissima, is generally termed the "green-leaved" species because the fine white hairs are not present on the under-surface of the leaves. Some scholars, after considerable research, consider that the "'green-leaved"t species should not be classified as-a separate spe­ cies, holding that it is a variety which has developed from B. nivea. The 'twhite-leaved" species, B. nivea, is the principal one culti­ tated for fiber. It is believed to have originated in the tropical areas of Asia. Now it is to be found growing in both cultivated and wild states in sub-tropical and temperate areas, as well as in tropical areas. Its area of cultivation is widely distributed thr'oughout the world.

China is the principal prodticer of Ramie fiber. Annual production in China, pre-World War II, was estimated-'at 80,000 tons, which repre­ sented approcimately 70 to 80 per cent of total world production. Due' to political-and economic'conditions post-World War II, production de­ creased markedly.' It is estimatid, however, that China still grows a major -poition of total world production.

Ramie is also cultivated in Japan; Formosa, Southeast'Asia, Indone­ sia, India, the Republic of the Philippines, South and North America, and France as well as in some other countries. None of these countries or­ areas presently produces a large quantity in relation to total'world pro­ duction.

2. History of Ramie Cultivation in Japan--A number of species and varieties of Ramie, some of which appear to be native to Japan, have been cultivated in Niigata, Yamagata, and Kigoshima Prefectures since ancient times. Ramie fabrics produced in these ancient times were known as Echigojofu and Satsumajofu.

About 400 years ago, the feudal lotds Uesugi and Shimazu began to encourage the development of Ramie spinning and Whaving industries in these Prefectures. As a result Ramie cultivation increased in' these and neighboring Prefectures. With the- introduction of cotton fiber, however, interest in Ramie fiber began to decline, since the cotton fiber was less costly to prepare and spin. As a result Ramie cultivation decreased con­ siderably. Some interest in Ramie was retained, however, and small quan­ tities continued to be produced and spun and woven.

-1 ­ By the beginning of the Taisho Era improved methods of spinning and weaving Ramie were beginning to be developed. These improvements re­ sulted in an increase in production of Ramie products for a wide range of uses. Most of the crude fiber for these products, however, was im­ ported from China.

Marked improvements in processing and spinning methods for Ramie during the 1930's, greatly stimulated demand for the crude fiber.. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry began urging the Japanese farmers to increase their cultivation of Ramie- that.a larger proportion of crude fiber might be obtained from domestic sources. By 1942, the area devoted to Ramie cultivation had increased to 6,318.6 chobu (15,500 acres) with fiber production at 1,334,110 kan (11,035,000 pounds). Approximately 90 per cent of this production went for military uses.

After 1942, production declined because of the increased need to use the land for food production; this condition continued post-World War II. In 1948, the area of land used for Ramie cultivation was only 1,360.3 chobu (3,300 acres) with fiber production at 346,606 kan (2,90,000 pounds). More recently, however, with the improvement in the total food supply, Japanese farmers have been again encouraged to cultivate .Ramie and production has been increasing.

Minimum annual demand of Japanese mills for Ramie crude fiber is 2,400,000 kan (20,000,000 pounds) of which Japanese farmers have been producing less than 10 per cent. In pre-war years, most of the fiber im­ ported into Japan came from-China. Because of political .conditions pre­ vailing.in China very little fiber, in recent months, ha's been available from this area. This situation, of course, strengthens the demand for the balance of the world supply of fiber from other countries and -has inevitably resulted in an increase in prices, 'thereby increasing the attraction of Ramie cultivation to the Japanese farmer.

II. Utilization

A list of the principal Ramie products is given below:

Fabric s, threads and yarns Jofu (a kind of Japanese Ramie suiting), Suiting, Handker­ chiefs, Shirtings, Tablecloths and napkins, Tailorst interlining canvas, Tarpaulins, Sacks, Canvas, Tents, Fire hose, Mosquito nets, Shoe sewing thread, Machine sewing thread, Sewing thread for 'Japanese mats, and yarns spun from Ramie mixed with other fibers. (silk, flax, cotton, wool, etc'.) for various uses.

Fishing gear Yarns and twines for fishing nets.

RHope - - Cordage and rope for transportation uses..

1/ Translator's note: Taisho Era--A.D. 1912-1925; Showa Era--A.D. 1926 .....

-2­ Footwear Yarns for reinforcing thongs of Japanese geta (wooden clogs)

Other uses Braids for hats and bags, bank-note and wall paper, papers for various special uses, industrial belting, industrial pack­ ing, and gas mantles.

III. Varieties of Ramie Cultivated in Japan

1. Introduction-There are in Japan, as described briefly in Section I, several varieties of Boehmeria nivea which have been cultivated since ancient times and some of which are believed to be native. The fiber from these native varieties is rather fine, of good quality and is most suitable for yarns for lighter weight fabrics. Annual yield of fiber per tan (0.245 acre) is low, however, averaging only about 11 kan (90 pounds) per tan (360 pounds per acre). These varieties are not, therefore, economical for production on a commercial scale.

As a result of research begun during the Taisho Era and continued during the Showa Era, several new varieties have been developed, -with the use of imported plants. Some of these new varieties have both good qual­ ity and high yields of fiber. Most of the plant material used for devel­ oping the new varieties has been imported from Formosa.

The first new variety exhibiting satisfactory qualities was Hakuhi. The next variety developed was named Saikei seishin. This variety is 'now widely cultivated in Japan and also in many other countries. Other var­ ieties which have shown promise are: Koshin, Tochigi No. 16, Kumamoto No. 1, and Miyazaki No. 112. Tochigi No. 16 has excellent propagating qual­ ities, excellent resistance to the effects of cold and of dry weather and poor soil. Kumamoto No. 1, which grows best in warm areas, has rather fine fiber and a good yield of fiber but is not as satisfactory in these respects as Miyazaki No. 112.

2. Characteristics of Principal Varieties--Information concerning the principal varieties of Ramie developed and cultivated in Japan is given in the following paragraphs:

a. Hakuhi--This was the first new variety developed. It was ob­ tained by crossing Formosan Hakuhi with Japanese varieties of Ramie. The leaves of Hakuhi are large and light green in color, with, of course, the white hairs on the under-surfaces as is characteristic of B. nivea. Stalks are medium green in color, with diameters of medium thickness. The number of stalks per square foot is not generally as great as that for some other varieties. Hakuhi has good resistance to wind. Resistance to the effects of cold is moderate to good. Rate of maturing is also good. Yield of fiber is good both in quality and in quantity. This variety is the one most widely grown throughout Japan.

b. Saikei seishin-This variety was developed from Formosan Seishin varieties and Japanese varieties. The upper surfaces of the leaves are darker green in color than those of the Hakuhi variety. Stalks are of a somewhat smaller diameter and of a slightly darker green color than are

-3­ those of Hakuhi. The number of stalks per square foot is greater than that for Hakuhi. Growth of the plant is strong and vigorous. Wind and cold resistance are weak in comparison with Hakuhi. Saikei seishin is, therefore, most 'suitable for areas where the climate is warm to hot, that is, the areas where the winter temperature seldom, if ever, drops. to or below the freezing point. It is quite widely grown in the warm areas in Japan, especially on Kyushu and Shikoku Islands. Fiber yield is excellent. Quality of fiber is good, both from the standpoint of strength as well as fineness of fiber; it. is excellent for use in the spinning of fine yarns.

c. Miyazaki No. 112--This variety was bred from a Formosan Hakuhi variety and Japanese varieties. It is not yet widely cultivated in Japan but has given excellent results at the Governmental Experimental Stations at Miyazaki (southeastern Kyushu), Tochigi (south central Hon­ shu, near Tokyo.) and Ishikawa (central Honshu). Color of stalk and leaves are light green, the leaves, of course, having the fine white hairs on the under-surfaces as is characteristic of B. nivea. Stalks­ are of medium diameter. Growth is even and vigorous. Quality and quan­ tity of fiber is better than that from either the Hakuhi or the Saikei seishin varieties. Resistance to wind and cold are weak in comparison with that of Hakuhi, being rather similar to the resistance'possessed by Saikei seishin.

The results of tests made to compare the growth and fiber producing characteristics of the 3 principal varieties are given in Table 1. These tests were made- at the Agricultural Experimental Station at Miyazaki, Miyazaki Prefecture.' The figures given in the table'are the average of tests made over a period of 3 years, 1939, 1940, and 1941. in 1939 and 1940, 3 harvests were obtained; in 1941 only 2 harvests were obtained.

Table 1.' Comparison of Growth and Fiber Producing Character­ istics of 3 Principal Varieties of B. Nivea

Stalks Fiber - Wt. of Per cent Resistance Variety Density Average Gr&en Yield of to (No.per Length Defol'. per Wt. of Wind tsubo) W (cm.) - Stalks, tan' 'Green per tan ('kg.) Defol. (kg,) Stalks

Hakuhi 72.8 191.7- 4;212.0 205.7 4.8 'Somewhat weak Saikei Seishin "97.6 179.8 3,510.0 196.8 5.6 Veryweak

Mirazaki No. 112 82.9 183.7 - 4,208.0 219.2 5'.2 Weak (1 tsubo = 3.95 sq. yd.; 1 tan = 0.245 acre.)

Comparison of similar data for selected 'arieties are shown in Table 2. These data are from tests made at the Agricultural Experimental Sta­ tion in Tochigi Prefecture. 'The tests are the average of 2 years, 1940

'-4 and 1941. Saikei Seishin variety was not included in these tests be­ cause it,has a very low resistance to the effects of cold weather such as generally prevails in Tochigi Prefecture in the late Fall, Winter and early Spring.

Table 2. Comparison of Growth and Fiber Producing Character­ istics of 4 Selected Varieties of B. Nivea

Stalks Fiber Wt. of Per cent Variety Rate Density Average Average Green Yield of of (No.per Length dia. Defol. per Wt. of Maturing stub) (cm.) (am.) Stalks tan Green per tan (kg.) Defol. (kg.) Stalks

Hakuhi Average 3.2 166.7 1.43 1,242.4 45.4 3.7

Koshin Average 5.1 204.4 1.50 1,618.9 51.7 3.2

Tochigi No. 16 Average 3.1 193.9 1.62 1,716.4 47.4 2.8 Somewhat Miyazaki No. 112 slow 2.3 183.5 1.45 i,388.6 52.5 3.8 (1 tan = 0.245 acres.) Similar data for 4 selected varieties are given in Table,3. These date are from tests conducted over a 3 year period, 1937, 1938, and 1939 at the Agricultural Experimental Station of Tochigi Prefecture. The Saikei Seishin variety was included in these tests; results indicate'un­ suitability of this variety for colder climates. The planting had been established for 2 years before the testing period.

Table 3. Comparison of Growth and Fiber Producing Character­ istics of 4 Selected Varieties of B. Nivea

Stalks Fiber Wt. of Variety Rate Density Average Average Green, Yield Per cent of (No.per Length #dia. Defol. per of Maturing tsubo) (cm.) (cm.) Stalks tan Wt. of per tan (kg.) Green (kg.) Defol. Stalks

Hakuhi Average 71.6 192.5 1.46 2,789.0 106.5 3.82

Koshin Average 106.5 222.3 1.45 3,907.0 131.6 3.37

Tochigi No. 16 Average 83.7 220.5 1.63 4,373.0 128.5 2.94 Somewhat Saikei Seishin slow 66.0 171.6 1.19 1,714.0 67.4 3.93

(1 tsubo = 3.95 sq. yd.; 1 tan = 0.245 acre.)

-5­ IV. Climate, Soil and Topography

Ramie, in comparison with many -other plants, can be grown within a fairly wide range of climates and soils. Obviously, when the climatic, soil, and topographic factors are most favorable better growth and, con­ sequently, greater values of fiber result. To produce the fiber suc­ cessfully on a commercial basis it is wise, therefore, to select an area where these factors are most favorable.

1. Climate--a. Temperature--To avoid damage to the roots of the plants, it is preferable that the area selected be one in which the tem­ perature does not fall below freezing point at any time during the winter season. The plants can be cultivated with some success, however, in areas where the temperature goes as low as 160 F below freezing point. Better results will be obtained in the colder areas, if there is general­ ly an early snowfall with heavy snow covering the ground during the win­ ter, as the snow serves to protect the roots from freezing.

b. Rainfall--Annual rainfall should total not less than 1,000 mm and be fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. If rainfall is less than the stated quantity, stalks will begin to turn brown, and thus require harvesting, before they have grown to their maximum length. Should the area receive unusually heavy rains, growth of the stalks will be weak and they will tend to bend over before they have made their max­ imum development. Low fiber yields result in either case.

c. Snow and frost-While heavy snow serves, as stated, as a pro­ tective covering for the roots, care must be taken to maintain adequate drainage in the spring during the time the snow is melting, to prevent freezing of the roots as a result of excess moisture in and on the ground. In the colder areas, there is also danger of damage to the roots from late frost -and in areas where this may occur, it is wise to place some kind of cover, such as straw or compost, on the ground.

d. Wind-Areas with strong winds should be avoided. Stalks are easily damaged by wind, both by having the bark scraped, with consequent damage to the fiber, as a result of the stalks rubbing against each other and, in the case of very strong winds, by the stalks being flattened or bent over so severely 'that.they will not straighten themselves. If an area with some strong winds must be used, protective windbreaks of trees, bamboo, or, other plants or materials, should be planted around the field.

2. Soil--The most desirable soil is a sandy loam. Next in order of desirability is a moderately heavy loam. Sandy and clay soils are least desirable. A soil that is composed principally of sand, especially one with gravel in it, does not hold moisture, hence plants will be dam­ aged by lack of sufficient moisture even 'ifrainfall is above the rec­ ommended minimum. Also because moisture drains off too rapidly in sandy soil, fertilizer leaches out of it before plants can absorb nutrients from the fertilizer. Clay soil becomes packed and hardened easily. As a result moisture either runs off quickly or stands on the surface and does not penetrate the soil. The hardened clay soil also hinders the development of the 'root system, especially the rhizomes. If it is neces­ sary to use an area with clay soil, the ground must first be deep-plowed

-6­ and then have organic fertilizers, such as well-rotted compost and green manures, thoroughly worked into it to lighten the texture.

3. Topography--a. A field with low-lying areas--A field with low-lying areas where rain water or melted snow collects and remains is not desirable. Standing water will cause the roots to rot and, in the case of melted snow, may result in the roots being damaged or killed by freezing. Should it be necessary to'use an area having low places, great care must be used to provide.adequate drainage facilities for the low spots.

b. Areas on the outside of embankments--Areas on the outside of embankments, or dikes, which have been built for flood control, may be used, providing the area is seldom flooded and, if flooded, the water drains off rapidly, that is with_3 or 4 days at the longest. If a longer time is required for proper drainage, then the area should not be used.

c. Hillsides--Hillsides, that is, sloping areas, may be used, providing the quality of the soil and other factors are suitable. South slopes are preferable; in colder areas, it is not advisable to use north slopes at any time. To prevent soil and/or fertilizer from being washed away, it is recommended that trees be planted at the top of the slope and at intervals on the face and that the Ramie be planted in rows which run at right angles to and follow the contour of the slope.

d. Damage from roots at edges of field--To prevent damage from roots of trees and bushes at the edges of the field, it is recommended that a ditch about 3 feet wide and 5 or 6 feet-deep be dug around the field.

e. Areas with infected soil--Any area in which the soil has been infected by a disease harmful to Ramie must be avoided. The most ser­ ious disease in Japan is a white fungus disease, Rosellinia necatrix (Prill. Berl.), which also damages mulberry and tea plants. Any area where the disease has appeared should be properly sterilized and not used for plantingtRamie, or any other crop which the disease attacks, for 7 or 8 years. During this period it is advisable to use such areas for the cultivation of plants of the Graminaceae family.

f. Replanting old or neglected Ramie fields--It is recommended that extreme caution be exercised in the selection of areas with old or neglected Ramie plants. Such fields may be infected with disease or have developed chara'cteristics which are unfavorable for optimum fiber pro­ duction. The variety originally planted in an old and/or neglected field may have become crossed with other varieties or may be different from the variety with which it is proposed to replant the field. Since it is dif­ ficult to eradicate completely the roots of previously established plants, this will result in probable variations fron the variety being planted in the field and hence variations in the quality of fiber.

V. Propagation

There are two ways of propagating Ramie--by seed and by the vegeta­ tive process.

- 7 ­ Propagation by seed is accomplished by sowing the seeds in a seed­ bed or nursery and transplanting the resulting plants to the field a year later. Usually the seedlings must be transplanted once or twice in the nursery to insure proper development before being transplanted to the field. This method of propagation is not recommended except for use at research centers in the development of new varieties, since seedling plants seldom reproduce the parent plant from which the seed was obtained. Ramie is a monoecious plant; staminate and pistillate flowers do not mature at the same time, hence, pistillate flowers of any one plant are usually fertilized by pollen from another plant. If some of the plants in the field have developed undesirable characteristics or if other vari­ eties of cultivated Ramie or species or vari6ties, of wild Ramie are grow­ ing in areas adjacent to or near the field, this cross-pollenization will result in seed that will produce plants with fiber that is generally lower in quantity and quality than that produced by the plant bearing the seed. The cost of developing strong, healthy plants from seeds is much greater than the cost for developing plants by means of the vegetative method, since more labor is required to care for the plants from the time the seed is sowed until the plants are ready for the field.

Vegetative propagation of Ramie is accomplished by five principal methods: 1. Pieces of rhizomes, often termed "suckers" !/; 2. Small pieces of rhizomes; 3. Cut pieces of stalks; 4. Layering; and 5. Divi­ sion of rootstock. The most widely used method is the first one.

1. Propagation by means of pieces of the rhizomes--This method involves replanting in a new field, pieces of the rhizomes; a rhizome is a kind of an underground stem from which stalks grow. The pieces of the rhizomes are cut from the roots of healthy, well-developed plants. The plants from which the rhizomes are to be obtained should be selected and their location marked during the preceding year. The selection should be made on the basis of fiber production, general growth char­ acteristics, purity of variety, and freedom from disease of the plants in the field. The last point, freedom from disease, is of utmost impor­ tance. Generally the -plants should be 3 or 4 years old. Plants of this age will yield the maximum amount of well-developed rhizomes in relation to the area from which the roots are dug. .Older plants are sometimes used, especially plants in a field where the roots have become matted and hence must be thinned or completely replanted.

The roots of the selected plants should be dug up in the spring of the year just before the new stalks have sprouted or when the tips of the new stalks have just appeared above the surface of the ground. In the warmer areas.in Japan this is usually late March and in the colder areas, early April.. After the roots are dug up, the rhizomes should be out off from the rest of the rootstock and cut into suitable lengths in relation to their diameters. The recommended relationships are: diameters of

1/ Translatorts note: The root system of the Ramie plant consists of a main or tap root, hair-like feeder roots, and rhizomes, sometimes terhed reproductive roots. The rhizomes are sent out from the main or parent root and lie just below the surface of the ground. Stalks sprout from the main or parent root and at intervals from the rhizomes.

-8 ­ about 2/3 inch and larger, length about 2-1/2 inches; diameter about 1/2 inch, length about 3-1/2 inches; diameter about 1/3 inch, length about 5, inches; and diameter about 1/4 inch, length about 7 to 8 inches. A rhizome which has developed in a knot-like form, rather than in the usual form, should not be cat into pieces but be left intact for planting.

Immediately after the rootstock is dug up from the field, it should be placed in a shaded area and the rhizomes cut off;.the remainder of the root system is discarded. Care should be taken not to confuse the other parts of the root system with the rhizomes. Rhizomes have approximately the same diameter throughout their length, though diameters vary, of course, between different rhizomes, have knot-like protuberances, some­ times termed tteyestt, about every half-inch on their upper surface, and have stalks sprouting from many of these knot-like.protuberances. The main or tap root has a comparatively smooth surface and decreases in diameter from base to tip.

If it is necessary to store the rhizomes for a short time before they are cut into pieces and planted, they should be kept moist by sprinkling with water, placed in a shaded area and covered with a straw mat or lightly with earth. Care must be taken to keep moisture at proper quantity as too much moisture will result in mildew and rot and too little will cause the rhizomes to die; the correct amount of moisture leaves the surface of the rhizomes cool and damp, not wet, to the touch.

When the rhizomes are cut into pieces, attention must be given to their viability. The surface of a rhizome selected for cutting should be medium to dark brown and the cut end should be white.. If the surface is black and the cut end brown or black the rhibme is dead or has lost much of its viability and should be discarded. If the surface is a very light brown, the rhizome is not sufficiently mature to result in a strong plant or may not produce any plant; these also should be discarded.

The cutting operation must be done with a sharp knife and care taken to avoid any damage to the cuticle, that is, the surface, and to avoid crushing the rhizome where it is cut. Rhizomes which are damaged in cutting will seldom produce'plants or at best will produce slow­ growing, poor quality plants.

The average number of pieces of rhizomes which can be obtained from one Ranie plant, that is the rootstock of one Ramie plant, assuming proper cultivation and favorable climatic and other related conditions, is shown in Table 4. These data show the average number of pieces and also the range in the number of'pieces of rhizomes which may be obtained fr6m the rootstock of plants grown from pieces of rhizomes and also from the rootstock of plants grown from seed, at ages of two, three, and four years.

- 9 ­ Table 4. Average Number of Pieces of Rhizomes Which May be Obtained from One Ramie Plant

Age after Planting Method of Propagation Two Years Three Years Four Years Number Number Number Avg. :Range :Avg. :Range: Avg. :Range

By pieces of rhizomes 5 3-8 12 7-20 20 15-30 By seeds 3 1-5 8 5-10 13 10-20 2. Propagation by means of small pieces of rhizomes-This method is approximately similar to the one described above, except that smaller pieces of rhizomes are used. These smaller pieces of rhizomes are planted in a nursery or Hseedbed" to develop into plants and then trans­ ferred to the field instead of being planted directly in the field as is the case of the pieces of rhizomes described in "l" above. Propaga­ tion by use of the smaller pieces of rhizomes has the advantage of pro­ ducing a greater number of plants from the same amount of rootstock than is the case in Itl" above. Also, since the plants are well developed be­ fore being transferred to the field, there is little need for replacement of dead plants or uskips" as compared to plants developed from pieces of rhizomes planted directly in the field.

Assuming reasonably good viability of the rhizomes and go6d manage­ ment of cultivation, about 70 to 80 percent of the total number of small pieces of rhizomes planted in-the useedbedn' will produce plants and de­ velop additional rhizomes and plants. A "seedbed" with an area of one­ fourth of an acre will produce not fewer than 60,000 to 70,000 plants; frequently a greater number of plants-are produced.

Selection of the area from which the rootstock is to be dug should be done in the same manner described above in llt. The rootstock may be dug up in the spring, after the temperature becomes moderate, that is, about 600F., or in the summer after the first crop of stalks has been harvested from the field. Care and selection of rhizomes after digging follows procedures outlined for "1"above, except that smaller pieces are cut. Rhizomes with a diameter greater than 1/4 inch should be cut into lengths of about 1-1/2 inches; those with a smaller diameter into lengths of about 2 inches.

The small pieces of rhizomes, after cutting, are inserted, with the fingers, into the earth of the "seedbed" to a depth of about 1/4 to 3/8 inch and in the proportion of one about every 2-1/2 inch square.

The "seedbed", obviously, must be prepared well in advance of the time when the rootstock is dug up and the rhizomes prepared for planting. It has been found that a "seedbed" of a rectangular shape, about 4 or 5 feet wide is most practical. The soil should be prepared by mixing into it to a depth of 4 or 5 inches, well-rotted compost in the proportion of 5 to 8 tons per acre; an alternative method of fertilization is to spread a liquid mixture of night soil over the ground. Just before planting, the surface of the "se6dbed" should be levelled with a small board or some similar device.

- 10 ­ I Under proper conditions, especially with respect to the amount of moisture, young shoots will appear about two weeks after the pieces of rhizomes are planted in the "seedbed." Weeding must be done until the plants are large and dense enough to shade the ground. Care should be taken to guard against attacks of pests. About one or two months after the sprouts appear, ammonium sul hate with nitrogen should be worked into the soil around the plants; as an alternative if amnonium sulphate is not available, a liquid mixture of night soil may be used.

After the stalks of the plants in the "seedbed" are well developed, which in Japan is usually late October in the cooler areas and late November in the warmer areas, the stalks should be cut. If the root­ stock which has developed in the "seedbed" is to be allowed to remain in the "seedbed" during the winter, a covering of straw, leaves, dried grass and similar materials should be placed over the soil to a depth sufficient to prevent damage by cold to the rootstock. An alternative method is to dig up the rootstock, place it in a trench about a foot deep and cover it with soil and straw, leaves and similar materials to a depth sufficient to prevent damage from cold. The place selected for the trench must be located in a well-drained, cool area as the rootstock must be kept relatively dry and cool, not cold, during the winter season.

3. Propagation by means of cut pieces of stalks--With this method, plants are developed by rooting cut pieces of the stalks of Ramie plants. Three types of stalks are used: a. well-developed stalks; b. waste stalks; and c. young stalks. The most satisfactory procedure is to use well-developed stalks. These may be obtained at the time of the first harvest, which in Japan is usually about the end of June or the beginning of July in the warmer areas and late in July in the cooler areas. Only strong, heavy stalks should be selected.

The stalks selected should be cut about one-half to two-thirds of an inch above the ground. Imediately after the stalks are cut in the field, they should be cut into shorter lengths, each length including 3 knots or nodes, with one node at the bottom and one at or near the top end of the piece. Cutting must be done with a sharp knife to avoid damaging the stalk. The cutting should be done at an angle that will result in the cut surface extending diagonally across about 1-1/2 to 2 inches of the length of the stalk.

As soon as they are cut, the pieces should be planted in a "seed­ bed", which has been previously prepared, in the proportion of one every 3 inch square. The cut piece of the stalk should be planted in the ,ground in a vertical or slightly slanting position to a depth that will allow the'node at the upper end of the piece just to show above ground.

The 'seedbed", which should be rectangular in shape and in the open air, should be in an area which has good drainage and friable, preferably sandy loam, soil. Areas located on alluvial plains along or near rivers and at the base of mountains, where showers are frequent, have been found to be most suitable for "seedbed". In such areas, it will be easy, even in midsummer, to prevent the soil from becoming too dry. The cuttings will root most quickly and strongly in "seedbeds" located in this type of area. Under normal conditions, the cut pieces of stalks will take root about 3 weeks after planting. Until the cuttings take root and begin to sprout leaves, however, especial care must be taken to keep the soil moist. The Ilseedbed" should be sprinkled with water as often as is necessary to keep the soil properly moist. To conserve moisture in the soil, shade may be provided by sticking tree branches into the ground around the edges of the 1tseedbed". Proper care during the time that the cuttings are taking root and sprouting leaves is the most essential point in this method of propagation.

After the roots and the leaves are developed, fertilizer of a suitable kind and quantity should be worked into the soil around the plants. When the plants are well established, they are transferred from the "seedbedtr to the field. In Japan, this is usually done during the second year after planting.

The number of plants developing from cut pieces of any given quantity of stalks varies widely even with optimum conditions of climate, soil and management of cultivation. - The percentage of plants obtained in relation to pieces of stalks planted, ranges from 30 to 80 per cent.

Waste stalks used for propagation are those stalks which have not developed properly and hence are unsuitable for fiber extraction. These are usually cut and left lying on the field. Such stalks are generally less than 2 feet tall and are close to complete maturity, the bark have turned brown .and hard for more than three-fourths of the length of the stalk.

When these waste stalks are used for propagation, the stalk is cut about one-half inch below the ground in such a manner that some of the root remains attached. This whole stalk with the piece of root attached is planted, usually in a "seedbed". Because the stalk is so near com­ plete mattirity, however, it is slow in developing more roots and these are generally weaker than is the case when cut pieces of well-developed but greener stalks are planted.

Propagation by means of young stalks is done by cutting the young stalks when they are about 18 inches high and replanting the stalks in a "seedbed". This method is not satisfactory, however, as only a rela­ tively small percentage of these young stalks will develop strong plants.

4. Propagation by layering-To develop new plants by layering, strong, well-developed stalks, 3 feet or more in height, are carefully bent down to an open space on the ground without being detached from the plant on which they are growing.' These stalks are then lightly covered with soil at intervals of 4 or 5 inches. After about 2 weeks, roots will have started to develop from the nodes that have been covered with soil and the uncovered parts will have begun to develop leaves. About a month later, the stalks may be cut apart, each of the root sections form­ ing a plant, and fertilizer worked into the soil around the plants. Shortly, thereafter, the plants may be trahsplanted to another field. This method of propagation is often used to increase density of plant­ ings within a field. That is, the field is established with plants developed by another method of propagation but with the plants at a.

- 1-2­ greater distance apart than is desirable. As soon as these plants have become well established, their stalks are bent down to the ground and plants developed to fill the open spaces in .the field.

5. Propagation by division of rootstock--This method uses the parent rbotstock for establishing new plantings. The parent or central rootstock, after it has been dug up and the rhizomes cut off, is cut in­ to three parts and each part replanted. Two harvests, even in the cooler areas, may be obtained during the first year from plants growing from these pieces of the central rootstock. After a very few harvests, however, the stalks sent up from these plants are short with a decreased amount of fiber . The life span of satisfactory fiber production from plants developed from pieces of old rootstock is, therefore, much short­ er than is the case of plants newly developed by other propagation methods.

VI. Cultivation

1. Preparation of field-Because the rhizomes of the Ramie plant are near the surface of the ground, it is impossible to do even shallow ploughing after two or three years without damaging the root system of the plants. It is important, therefore, that a field be deep ploughed when it is being prepared. Ploughing in light soils should be not less than 7 to 9 inches deep and in heavier, moist soils with a clay composi­ tion, not less than 12 inches deep.

Tree roots, weeds, stones and other foreign materials :should be removed from the field. After ploughing, the soil should be thoroughly worked to break up all lumps or clods. At the beginning of the winter season before the year in which it is planned to plant the field, half­ rotted compost, made from farmyard manure and leaves, grass and straw, should be ploughed into the soil to enrich and to lighten it. Ramie plants become well-established and develop additional rhizomes more quickly in light, friable soil. It is important, therefore, that the soil have the proper texture. The recommended proportion of compost is .about 8 tons per acre.

Just before planting begins, grass and weeds must be removed from the field and the soil well cultivated again.

2. Planting--a. Time of planting--The quality of Ramie plants, and hence of the fiber, is determined to a large extent by the care ex­ pended in the choice of time of planting and the manner in which the planting is done. Since Ramie is a perennial plant, the success of the planting affects the productive quality of the field over a period of several years when the stalks are being harvested for fiber.

The time of planting must, of course, vary somewhat in relation to climate, the weather during any one planting season, the preparation of the field, and labor supply. In Japan, however, planting is generally best done in late April in the cooler areas and from late March to the beginning of April in the warmer areas.

- 13 ­ b. Density of planting-A high density of planting is recommended even though it shortens the total economic life span of the field. A' high initial density means, of course, that the roots become matted and require replacement at an earlier date than when a field is planted sparsely. Experience has shown, however, that the heavier yields of fiber from densely planted fields greatly offset the disadvantage of having to replant the field at an earlier date than would be the case with a sparsely planted field. The heavier yield of fiber is especially noticeable during the first year or two after planting. Another point in favor of the higher initial density of planting, is the lower labor cost for replacement of any damaged or poorly established plants. In a densely plaited field, areas occupied by damaged or poorly developed plants are quickly filled in by neighboring plants. In a sparsely planted field, open areas resulting from damaged or poorly developed plants must be replanted. The more densely planted field also lowers labor costs required to keep the field clean, since the plants more quickly shade the ground, preventing the growth of grass and weeds. The quality of fiber from plants in a densely planted field reaches its optimum more quickly, as plants cannot produce high quality fiber until they spread out sufficiently to send up a stand of stalks sufficiently dense to result in straight, clean stalks of maximum height and with leaves and branches only at or near the top of the stalk.

On the basis of tests and experience, densities of planting shown in Table 5 are recommended for the areas and varieties named in the Table. The recommended number of plants relates to propagation by means of cut pieces of rhizomes planted directly in the field, as discussed in Section V-1. It will be noted from the Table that the most frequently used distance between rows is approximately 2 feet. This distance, in actual practice, varies somewhat in relation to the character of the soil. Obviously, plants develop and spread out more quickly in light, friable soil than in soil with a clay composition, which has a tendency to become hardened easily.

Table 5. Recommended Density of Planting, By Area and Variety

No. of pcs. Area Variety of rhizomes Approximate distance between per acre Rows Pes. of rhizomes

Cold Hakuhi j 28,000 (2.0 ft. 9 in. (1.8 ft. 10 in. or 32,000 (2.0 ft. 8 in. (1.8 ft. 9 in.

Warm Saikei Seishin 36,000 (2.0 ft. 7 in. (1.8 ft. 8 in. or 40,000 (2.0 ft. 6 in. (1.8 ft. 7 in. 1/ If Hakuhi is planted in a warm area, the recommended number of pieces of rhizomes Der acre is the same as that for cold area.

- 14 ­ c. Depth of planting-The depth of planting is usually, about 5 inches. This varies, however, with the texture and composition of the soil. For example, planting should be somewhat more shallow in soil that has a tendency to harden readily. Also, planting may be somewhat more shallow in soils that have a tendency to become dry very quickly.

d. Method of planting-Planting the pieces of rhizomes in the field is customarily done in trexiches. These are dug about 8 inches deep and about 4 inches wide. Well-rotted organic fertilizer together with inorganic fertilizer is spread in the trenches to a depth of about 2 or 3 inches and the fertilizer and soil well mixed. Unless-the organic fertilizer is thoroughly de-composed, however, it should not be used as organic fertilizer that is only partially decomposed will prevent the proper development of the root system of the plant. If well-rotted or­ ganic fertilizer is not available, only the inorganic fertilizer is mixed with the soil that is returned to the bottom of the trench. The organic fertilizer should then be applied to the soil after the plants receive their first cultivation. (For information concerning the quantity of fertilizer as well as the kinds, see Section VII.)

As a precaution against possible development of the white fungus disease (Rosellina necatrix (Prill. Berl.)) it is recommended that the pieces of rhizomes, before planting, be soaked in a mercuric-chloride solution. A solution of Uspulan or Meloron (trade names for mercury compounds) and-water may be used, 1 part of Uspulan or Melcron to 1,000 to 1,500 parts of water; pieces of rhizomes are soaked in this solution for three hours before planting.

The pieces of rhizomes are placed against the sides of the trench in a vertical or slightly slanting position, depending upon the length of the pieces. The trench is then filled with soil. The depth of the soil over the pieces of rhizomes should be sufficient to cover the top ends about 1 to 2 inches.

VII. Fertilizer

1. General-In Japan, Ramie is customarily harvested twice a year in the cooler areas and three times a year in the warmer areas and the total weight of green material (stalks and leaves) removed annually aver­ ages about 40,000 pounds per acre in the 2-harvest areas and about 56,000 pounds per acre in the 3-harvest areas. It is obvious that a large quantity of fertilizer, especially -nitrogen, of which Ramie needs a relatively large amount, must be used to result in the growth of such a large quantity of green material and to restore to the soil the plant nutrients which have been removed.

Ramie, in comparison with other kinds of plants, is able to absorb large quantities of fertilizer, especially nitrogen, without any ill effects such as often damage other plants when heavily fertilized. Generally, with Ramie, the greater the amount of fertilizer, the heavier the yield of green material and usually the heavier the yield of fiber.

The average quantities of the principal plant nutrients which har­ vested Ramie (green stalks and leaves) contains during each of the first three years after planting, are shown in Table 6. These data were ob­ tained from analyses made at the Tochigi Prefecture Agricultural Experi­ ment Station.

- 15 ­ Table 6. Average Quantitiesof Three Principal Plant Nutrients Contained in Harvested Ramie during Each of First Three Years After Planting

Unit = Lbs. per Acre

Weight of Weight of Plant Nutrients Area Green Stalks Nitrogen Phosphoric Potassium and Leaves Acid

First Year (i.e. yr. of plant.) Cold 9,650 36.642 14.474 52.095 Warm 16,870 64.106 25.305 91.098

Second Year Cold 27,700 105.235 41.534 182.196 Warm- 44,540 169.240 66.805 236.855

Third Year Cold 43,390 173.086 68.324 .245.965 Warm 57,830 217.960 86.037 310.033 ( Avg. per cent for both areas combined, i.e., proportion each element is to total nutrients. 35% 14% '51%

From the above data, it will be seen that the harvested green material removes from-the soil 173 pounds of Nitrogen, 68.pounds of Phos­ phoric Acid, and 246 pounds of Potassium per acre in cold areas .and 218 pounds of Nitrogen, 86 pounds of Phosphoric Acid and 310 pounds -of Potas­ sium per acre in warm areas, during the third year after planting. It, is, of course, essential that these elements be returned to the soil, if satisfactory growth is to result for subsequent seasons. It is desirable to apply-even larger quantities of Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid ini ord6r to promote the development of rootstock and a more luxuriant growth of stalks. This is especially true after the last harvesting of the season. The last growth of.stalks is not, of course, harvested. A more luxur­ iant growth after the last harvest, however, results in stronger plants in the succeeding year. An additional quantity of potassium is not sug­ gested, even though the Ramie plant requires a considerable quantity of thi's element, because in Japan, the soil generally has an ample natural supply of,Potassium. Nitrogen is the element that, in Japan, is most deficient in natural supply in the soil and, hence, must be applied in greatest quantity, proportionate to the total quantity needed.

2. Quantity of fertilizer--The data given in Table 6 show that successful Ramie cultivation requires the application of relatively large quantities of fertilizer to replace the amount removed from the soil in the green plant material. The quantity needed may be decreased consider­ ably, however, if the waste of the green plant material remaining after decortication is returned to the soil as organic fertilizer.

On thebasis of research conducted at the Agricultural Experimental Stations in Tochigi and Myazaki.Prefectures, good results have been

- 16 ­ obtained with the application of Nitrogen in the quantities shown in Table 7. These quantities assume that the decorticating wastes will be re­ turned to the soil.

Table 7. Quantity of Nitrogen to be Applied for Successful Ramie Cultivation Unit = Lbs. per Acre Year Area First Year Second Year Third and Sub­ sequent Years

Cold, basis 2 crops beginning with second year 135 169 202

Warm, basis 3 crops beginning with second year 169 236 270

As has been previously mentioned, Potassium, of the three basic elements, is absorbed in greatest quantity by Ramie plants, the-amount absorbed by the green stalks and leaves, beginning with the third year, being 246 pounds per acre for the cold areas and 310 pounds per acre for the warm areas. The natural supply of Potassium in the soil in Japan is relatively high, however, and consequently the amount which needs to be applied is lower than the quantity absorbed by the plants.

To determine the quantity of Potassium required for good results, analyses were made of green materials from an area to which Potassium and Phosphoric Acid but not'Nitrogen were applied (an area known as No. 62), of green materials from an area to which Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid but no Potassium were applied (an area known as No. 73), and of green mater­ ials from an area to which all three basic elements, Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potassium, had been applied (no special designation given this area). The amount of Potassium in the green material was higher in the area where no Potassium had been applied than in the area where no Nitro­ gen had been applied. It was, however, 30 per cent lower than the amount of Potassium in the green material from the areas to which all three basic elements had been applied. This indicates that some quantity of Potas­ sium should be applied, even in a soil that has a relatively high Potas­ sium content. A part of the Potassium may be supplied in the form of Potassiuni Chloride. Vegetable ash is also good. It is recommended, how­ ever, that the major portion of the application be in the form of de­ corticating waste., mixed with other well rotted compost in the proportion of 10,000 pounds per acre. The application of this organic fertilizer will serve not only to enrich the soil but also to conserve moisture and to keep the soil light and friable.

Experiments to determine the quantity of Phosphoric Acid required showed that in areas where this element had not-been applied, the quantity of green material harvested was 84.9 per cent less than in the area where all three basic elements had been applied. It has not been possible, .however, to determine the exact quantity required since the natural supply

- 17 ­ of phosphate in the soil in Japan varies considerably. It has been ob­ served that soil which is poor in phosphate, such as volcanic ash, and soil which is being cultivated for the first time benefit from the ap­ plication of Superphosphate of Lime to an amount equal to 30 to 40 per cent of the amount of nitrogen applied.

Data have not been compiled showing the effect of acid soil on the growth of Ramie. With the application to the soil each year of Ammonium Sulphate, Superphosphate of Lime and night soil, it is obvious that the percentage of acid in the soil is constantly increasing. To overcome this condition, it is recommended that lime in the proportion of approximately 1,000 pounds per acre be applied on the average of once every three years.

Table 8 shows quantities of fertilizers recommended for Japan, these quantities having produced good yields. Data are shown separately for cold and for warm areas, -since the number of harvests per year af­ fects the quantity of fertilizer required.

Table 8. Quantities of Fertilizers Recommended for Cultivation of Ramie in Japan '

Unit = Lbs. per Acre

Cold Area Warm Area 1st Year 2d Year 3d Year 1st year 2d Year 3d Year Kind of Fertilizer (Plant. and (Plant. and Yr.) sub. yr. Yr.) sub. yr. 1-crop 2-crops 2-crops 2-crops 3-crops 3-crops Organic: Compost At time soil is prepared 17,000 -- -- 17,000 - -- At time of planting 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 Decorticating waste 4,800 13,800 21,700 8,400 22,300 28,900 Inorganic: Ammonium Sulphate-lst crop 202 321 371 371 337 371 2d crop 304 219 236 236 236 270 3d crop - - 135 169 Total 506 540 607 607 708 810 Superphosphate of Lime 169 169 202 202 236 270 Potassium Chloride 101 84 67 152 101 135 The recommended quantity of decorticating waste is based on the as­ sumption that approximately fifty per cent of the production of green material will be available for return to the soil; weights refer to waste as it comes from the decorticating machine. The quantity of Ammonium Sulphate, with nitrogen, recommended is based on the assumption that the recommended quantity of decorticating waste will be available; if a lesser quantity of decorticating waste is used, quantity of nitrogen must be pro­ portionately increased.

The recommended quantity of Ammonium Sulphate is based on twenty per cent Nitrogen content; that for Superphosphate of Lime on a sixteen per cent Phosphoric .Acid content; and that for Potassium Chloride on a forty per cent Potassium content.

- 18 ­ If Ammonium Nitrate is used instead otAmmonium Sulphate, it is recommended that the amount of Ammonium Nitrate be 62.5 per cent of the amount recommended for Ammonium Sulphate.

3. Application of Fertilizer--a. Cold Area--When preparing the soil, preferably at the beginning of the winter season before the plant­ ing year, compost made from farmyard manure, straw, leaves and grass, and which has been allowed to become more than half decomposed in pits or heaps, should be ploughed into the sodIl to a depth of about 7 inches in the proportion of about 17,000 pounds per acre.

In the spring, after the planting trenches are dug, well-rotted compost, together with Amnonium Sulphate, Superphosphate of Lime and Potassium Chloride should be mixed with soil and placed in the bottom of the trenches. Recommended proportions per acre are: well-rotted com­ post 10,000 pounds; Ammonium Sulphate 202 pounds, i.e., 40 per cent of quantity recommended for first year; Superphosphate of Lime 169 pounds; Potassium Chloride 101 pounds; soil, sufficient quantity to fill trench to a depth of 2 or 3 inches. Note: Only well-rotted compost should be used; if compost is not thoroughly decomposed, it will hinder the devel­ opment of the roots.

After the young plants appear and have begun to grow, which will. be about one month after planting, half of the remaining quantity of Ammonium Sulphate, that is, about 152 pounds per acre, should be worked into the soil around the young plants. The balance of the Ammonium Sulphate, that is, 152 pounds per acre, should-be worked into the soil around the plants during the summer when growth is strongest. It should be noted that only one crop may be expected during the first year of planting; data in table though shown opposite first and second crops actually refer to application of Ammonium Sulphate, the figures opposite 1st crop being quantity applied when growth of young plants begins and those opposite 2d crop being quantity applied during growing period. Decorticating waste should be spread on the field, in the -quantity rec­ ommended, just as it comes from the decorticator. If necessary to store decorticating waste for a time before applying to the fields, the waste should be kept under cover, away from open air.

During the second year after planting, the .following applications of fertilizers are suggested. In the spring before the new stalks have sprouted, a mixture of well-rotted compost in the proportion of 10,000 pounds per acre, Ammonium Sulphate 130 pounds per acre (40 per cent of cmount recommended for application with the first crop), Superphosphate of Lime 169 pounds per acre and Potassium Chloride- 84 pounds per acre should be spread on the field and worked into the soil around the plants. After the young stalks appear, Ammonium Sulphate should be spread on the field in the proportion of 96 pounds per acre and followed by another application of 95 pounds per acre when the stalks are entering the per­ iod of their most vigorous growth. For the second crop, Ammonium Sul­ phate in the proportion of 110 pounds per acre should be spread on the field just after harvesting the first crop, when the new stalks are be­ ginning to sprout; another application of 109 pounds per acre should be made at the time the stalks are entering their period of most vigorous growth. Decorticating waste should be spread on the field, preferably

- 19 ­ as it comes from the decorticator, after each of the first and second crops, approximately half of the recommended total quantity being used each time.

The method of applying the fertilizers during the third and sub­ sequent years after planting should follow the same pattern recommended for the second year, using the quantities recommended in Table 8.

b. Warm Area--In the preparation of the field, compost which is more than half decomposed should be plowed into the soil at the beginning of or during the winter season before the planting year, in the same manner and quantity that is recommended for fields in the cold area. Method used for spreading a mixture of well-rotted compost Ammonium Sul­ phate, Superphosphate of Lime and Potassium Chloride together with soil in the bottom of the planting trenches should follow method recommended for the cold area. Quantities recommended for the warm area are: well­ rotted compost 17,000 pounds per acre; Ammonium Sulphate 147 pounds; Superphosphate of Lime- 202 pounds; and Potassium Chloride 152 pounds. After the plants appear and have begun to grow, Ammonium Sulphate should be worked into the soil around them in the proportion of 112 pounds per acre. Another application of Ammonium Sulphate in the proportion of 112 pounds per acre should be made during the period of the most vigor­ ous growth of the stalks. After the stalks are harvested, decorticating waste should be spread on the field, approximately half of the total recommended quantity being used.

During the growth of the second crop, Ammonium Sulphate should be spread on the field twice, the first time when the new stalks have be­ gun to sprout and the second time when the stalks are entering the per­ iod ,of their most vigorous growth; recommended quantity for each appli­ cation is 118 pounds per acre. After the second crop is harvested, decorticating waste should be spread on the field.

In the spring of the second year after planting, and before the new .sprouts appear, a mixture of well-rotted compost, 10,000 pounds per acre, Ammonium Sulphate 135 pounds (40 per cent of quantity recommended for first crop), Superphosphate of Lime 236 pounds, and Potassium Chlor­ ide 101 pounds should be spread on the field. Ammonium Sulphate should be applied when the new stalks have sprouted and again during the period when the stalks are entering their most vigorous growing period; 101 pounds per acre being used each time. After the stalks are harvested and decorticated, waste should be spread on the field, approximately one-third of the total quantity recommended for the year being used.

For the second and third crops, during the second year of plant­ ing, Ammonium Sulphate should be applied twice during the growth of each crop, the first time when the new stalks have sprouted and the second time when the stalks are entering the period of their most vigorous growth. During the second crop, each application should be 118 pounds per acre and during the third crop '67 pounds, per acre. Decorticating wastes should be spread on the field, after each harvest.

Method of applying fertilizers beginning with the third year of growth is the same as the pattern recommended for the second year; quan­ tities recommended are those shown in Table 8.

- 20 ­ VIII. Management of Plantings

1. General-Good management of all the work from the time of land preparation through planting, cultivating and harvesting is of great im­ portance and should be carefully and well done. Proper management dur­ ing the first and second years is of especial importance. If care is taken to use the best methods and to have all of the work well done dur­ ing these years, the plantings will be much better established and can be maintained with less labor and greater yields than is the case with poorly managed plantings.

. 2. Replacing Missing or Damaged Plants-Three or four weeks after the pieces of rhizomes are planted, the young plants should be strongly sprouted. Any areas where no sprouts have appeared or where they have appeared and died or are in a very poor condition, should be replanted promptly. 'This may be done by using additional pieces of rhizomes or by transplanting young plants from the edges of the field. All replant­ ing operations must be done sufficiently early in the growing season to permit the new plants to develop strong roots before the Fall season. This means, obviously, that the work of replacing missing or damaged plants should be done during the Spring and Summer. .

3. Cutting of First Growth--The first growth of stalks sent up after planting is uneven and usually fairly heavily branched. The fiber contains a high amount of pectin, is weak and of a poor quality. Generally, therefore, when the stalks of the young plants are 8 to 9 inches or greater in height, they are cut down, this growth being al­ lowed to remain on the ground in the field. The growth that follows this cutting will be more even, with a greater number of stalks having few branches and with better quality fiber of lower pectin content. This growth of stalks can usually be harvested for fiber when they have reached the proper state of maturity, though it is sometimes necessary, if the second growth is also .uneven to make another waste cutting of the second growth, the third growth then being the first .one harvested for fiber. It is important to bear in mind always that stalks from recently planted rootstock should not be cut either for a waste cutting or for fiber before the plant has attained a strong growth. If cut when the plant is weak and poorly developed, the development of the root system is adversely affected, resulting in poor and restricted growth of plants for a period of two or three years and sometimes for a longer period.

4. Adding Soil to the Field and Shallow Ploughing-In the spring after the plants appear and before the winter season, it is advisable to add a small quantity of soil to the ground around the plants that have been established two or more years. The additional soil will in-, sure adequate soil coverage for the developing root system. - During the first year of planting, shallow ploughing is recomnended between the rows after the plants appear and at intervals during the growing season. By the second year of planting, the root system will generally have spread out into the space between the rows and even shallow ploughing cannot be done without injuring the roots of the plants. It 'isimpor­ tant, however, that during the first year of planting, the soil around the plants be kept loose and friable in order that the root system may develop easily and vigorously.

- 21 ­ 5. Weeding--It is generally necessary to remove weeds and grass from the field three or four times during the growing season of the first and second years. By the third year, the plants are usually suf­ ficiently well established to prevent, to a large extent, the growth of weeds and grass and usually only one, or at most two, weeding a year is needed. This is done at the beginning of the growing season. Proper removal of weeds and grass is important. If not removed promptly and completely, especially during the first year of planting, weeds and grass can kill the Ramie plants or at best slow or prevent the normal development of the. plants.

6. Fertilization--This subject has been discussed in detail in Section VII.

7. Prevention of and Treatment for Pests and Diseases--The most serious pest affecting Ramie in Japan is the "black caterpillart or fukurasuzume (Cocytodes coerulea, Guen.). Other insects, all of minor importance are the akatateha (Vanessa indica, He st), the komoriga (Phassus excresens, Butler) and the asaminomushik.

The most serious disease is the white fungus disease, Rosellinia necatrix, Prill. Berl. ther diseases, all of very minor importance are: shimonbyo and hantenby .

The "black caterpillart damages not only Ramie plants but also tea, paper mulberry and nettle plants. The "caterpillarst hatch from eggs laid on the undersides of the leaves by the adult moths. The adult moth has a dark brown body, with grey-white undersurface, about 1 inch long. The forewings are brown suffused with black, except on the thick­ ened anterior margin and sparsely sprinkled with blue scales, lines are thick and black; anterior edges of hindwings are white. Young larvae are from one-fourth to one-third of an inch in length; mature larvae are about one and one-fourth to one and one-third inches in length. There are two varieties found in Japan, the two differing principally in the appearance of the larvae. They are known as the black and the yellow varieties, the names relating to the principal color of the lar­ vae. The black variety has a yellow stripe along the length of the back; this variety is the more prevalent. The yellow variety has a black stripe along the length of the back.

Infestations of Cocytodes coerulea are likely to occur twice a year, in June or July 'and in September. As soon as the larvae are hatched, they begin eating the leaves, leaving the veins, so that the damaged leaves present a net or mesh-like appearance. Most of the dam­ aged leaves fall off the plant, the plant stops growing and the stalks become brown. When the larvae are mature, about a month after the eggs hatch, they drop to the ground, spin a cocoon around a leaf, and assume a pupal form. The pupa is dark brown and flat.

1/ Translatorts note: Latin name appears to be unknown. Literal trans­ lation of Japanese name is "hemp insect. t 2/ Translator's note; Latin names, if known, do not appear to be available.

- 22 ­ Treatment to kill the larvae should be given during the first per­ iod of good weather after the eggs hatch. The treatment consists of spraying with a solution of lead arsenate. For the young larvae a 6 Ittolt solution (1 pound of lead arsenate to 24 gallons of water) is used; ,formature larvae a 4 "tott solution (1 pound of lead arsenate to 16 gal­ lons of water) is used. The research department of a Japanese firm owning large Ramie mills, Toyo Seni Company, has found that an emulsion of DDT is very effective as a spray against the larvae, though the cost of this emulsion is greater than a solution of lead arsenate.

Spraying will generally need to be done twice during each infesta­ tion, with a two or three weeks interval between sprayings. If the in­ festation is severe, the leaves on the ground as well as those on the plants should also be sprayed; this is especially important after the larvae begin to mature.

If no spray solution is available, the larvae are removed from the leaves by hand labor. This work is done very early in the mornings, many people, children as well as adults, taking part. The grey starling is a useful bird against the larvae as it eats large quantities of them.

The white fungus disease, Rosellinia necatrix, Prill. Berl., which occurs occasionally in Japan, results from a kind of filiform fungus which kills the plant by destroying the root system. The hair roots are destroyed first; the fungus then penetrates the other parts of the root system, absorbing the plant nutrients and the plant dies.

It is difficult to detect the white fungus disease in its early stages because the damaged parts are underground. Careful and regular inspection of the field will, however, result in its detection as soon as the part of the plant above-ground is affected. The damaged plants begin to appear weak and spindling, growth is slowed, 'the leaves begin to turn yellow and fall off and the tips of the stalks begin to bend down. As soon as any of these signs are observed, the root system should be inspected. If affected by the white fungus disease, the hair roots will already have been destroyed and the other parts of the root system will be covered with a veil of white, thread-like forms. As the fungus continues to develop, balls of fuzz appear at the juncture of the roots and the stalks.

As soon as the presence of the white fungus disease is detected, a deep, quarantine ditch should be dug around the affected plant or plants. The damaged roots and stalks should be dug up at once and burned, care being taken to remove even the smallest pieces of roots. The area from which the damaged plants were taken should be disinfected. One pound of chloropicrin, in solution, should be used to every four square yards. Holes about two feet deep should be dug at two foot square intervals and the chloropicrin solution poured into the holes after which the soil should be replaced, that is, put back into, the holes. All tools used for the work of removing the damaged plants and rootstock and for digging holes for the disinfectant should be cleaned in a 1 "to" solution of limestone and water (1 pound of limestone to 4 gallons of water). Hands and feet of the workers should be disinfected with a sol­ ution of corrosive sublimate.

- 23 ­ The white fungus is able to survive underground for comparatively long periods, sometimes for several years, especially in wetsoils in warm areas. For this reason, any area where the fungus has appeared should not be planted to.Ramie or any other crop affected by the disease f for a period of several years. It is recommended that the area be planted with one of the plants of the Graminaceae Family.

8. Protection Against 'Cold--In cold areas, the roots may be dam­ aged by freezing, especially during the first and second winters after the planting is established. It is advisable, therefore, to take steps to protect the roots against cold. The recommended procedure is to spread, in the late fall or early winter, a mixture of half-rotted com­ post, decorticating waste, straw, leaves and grass over the field to a depth of 2 or 3 inches. This-will require from'10,000,to 17,000 pounds of the mixture per acre. It is suggested that this procedure be fol­ lowed each winter in cold areas, even after the second winter after planting.

9. Prevention of Damage from Other Adverse Weather Conditions-­ .Ifthe plants should be severely damaged by heavy rain or by hail, the stalks should be out and decorticated, even though they have not matured to the proper stage for nprmal harvesting. If the damage is not severe, only the badly damaged stalks need be cut; the other stalks which are bent over will recover and continue to grow. In case of floods, the ,roots will not be affected if drainage is rapid; in some instances the roots were not damaged even though the water required 3 or 4 days to drain off the land. This means that it is possible to plant Ramie oh the outside of floor control embankments or dikes or in other areas where flooding occurs only very occasionally, providing always that drainage of the area is rapid.

Snow is beneficial in that it prevents the freezing of roots ,and stubs remaining after' the stalks are cut. Special care is needed, how­ ever, to insure proper drainage of melting,snow. Water from melting snow-may freeze and damage roots and stubs.

Drought will result in stopping the growth-of plants; the leaves and stalks turn brown before the plants have reached.the normal stage­ for harvesting-and the leaves fall off. The amount of damage from drought varies in relation to the severity of the drought. No remedy'is available for drought unless water can be obtained for irrigation when it may be possible to.prevent at least a part of the damage.

10. Rejuvenation of Ramie Field--Usually a Ramie field reaches its period of highest yield during the third or fourth year after planting, depending, of course, upon the skill of management, amount of fertiliza­ tion, climatic and related factors. The high yield, assuming good man­ agement and other favorable factors, will continue through the fifth or sixth year. Generally, by the end of the sixth-year, the roots through-, out the entire field will have increased and become- quite heavily matted and-crowded. This, of course, proportionately decreases the amount of nourishment which each plant can obtain and as a result, the stalks sent up become of increasingly smaller diameter and height with a correspond­ ing decrease in yield of fiber.

- 24­ The crowded condition of the roots in a field may be counteracted to allow the field to produce satisfactorily for a time, though eventu­ ally the roots must be dug up and the field replanted. One method used to overcome the effect of an overcrowded condition of the roots and which will allow the field to produce a satisfactory yield for another 3 years, is to apply unusually large quantities of well-rotted compost and Nitrogen fertilizer to the field. Another method of overcoming the effect of an overcrowded root condition 'is to spread the field with soil, taken from the edges, to a depth of one-half to three-fourth inch, when the field begins to show signs of overcrowding, for example, during the seventh year after planting. The additional soil stimulates the growth of the rhizomes. It also helps to prevent the fertilizer from being washed away before the roo'ts can absorb the nutrients, a condi­ tion which generally prevails in an overcrowded field because a large part of the area is occupied by the rhizomes which are very close to or on the surface, leaving only a small amount of soil through which fertilizer can be absorbed. The practice of applying additional soil to the field is followed by many of the more successful farmers in Kyushu.

A third method of increasing the period during which a field will produce a satisfactory yield is to prune the rootstock. This is done either by cutting out the older parts of the root system, that is, the center parts or old stumps, or by cutting away the roots which have ap­ peared on top of or very near the surface of the soil. This last methed is not yet widely used in Japan.

IX. Harvesting

1. Time of Harvesting--The quantity and quality of fiber pro­ duced depends to a large extent upon the timing and the method of har­ vesting. The timing of the harvesting is of especial importance.

a. Determination of Most Suitable Time for Harvesting--The fol­ lowing points serve to indicate the time when Ramie is ready for harvest­ ing for optimum quantity and quality of fiber: (1) the lower part of the stalk turns a light brown; (2) the stalk breaks easily and the bark can be separated readily from the woody, central part; (3) the stalk stops growing in height, the top begins to bend over, and occasional branches may begin to sprout from the nodes along the length of the stalk; (4) the lower leaves, approximately 10, turn yellow and begin to drop off; (5) the petioles of the leaves, except for those at the very top of the stalk, may be easily detached by running the hand along the stalk; and (6) the tips of new sprouts begin to appear just -above­ ground.

If the stalks are not cut at this time, they become over-mature from the standpoint of fiber production. They turn brown throughout their length; the surface, that is, the bark, becomes hard and dry. After the stalks reach this stage, satisfactory removal of the fiber, becomes difficult. The fiber, though greater in quantity than the quantity obtained if the stalks are cut at the proper time, is lower in quality because it is coarser and harsher in texture, has legs wax, and is inferior in luster. Also, deferring the harvesting of the stalks

- 25 ­ past the proper time shortens the growing period for the next crop of stalks and may, therefore, result in the loss of one complete harvesting within the year, or at best decrease the total quantity of fiber pro­ duced during the year since shortening the growing period means harvest­ ing before the stalks are mature with consequent lower fiber production.

If the stalks are harvested before the proper time, they will be found to be rather watery and the amount of fiber lower in quantity. The fiber is finer in texture and of a somewhat higher quality than [ fiber from stalks which are cut at the proper time. The quantity is decreased, however, making it uneconomic to harvest at the earlier stage since the difference in quality is not sufficiently great to result in a price differential for the finer fiber.

b. Schedule for Harvesting--The schedule for harvesting must be established in relation to the method used for removing the fiber from the stalk, an operation known as decorticating. In Japan, it is custom­ ary to use a small, portable machine for decorticating. There are 3 principal makes of machines in use: the Ikeda, the Kiyofuji, and the Tosen. On the basis of an 8 hour working day, the Ikeda or the Kiyofuji machine can in 1 day decorticate fiber from stalks from an area of 0.245 acres. This is based on a yield of approximately 4,200 pounds of green material, stalks and leaves, or about 2,800 pounds of stalks without leaves for the area. The Tosen machine can handle approximately 5,500 peunds of green material, stalks and leaves, in the same period but since a somewhat longer time is required to place the machine in posi­ tion, the quantity of stalks decorticated within an 8 hour period is approximately the same with the Tosen as that with the Ikeda or the Ki­ yofuji machines.

On the basis of the above rate, that is, 0.245 acre per 8 hour day, it would be possible by working continuously to decorticate the fiber from stalks from an area of 2.45 acres in 10 days. Because of un­ foreseen delays due to accidents or bad weather, it is wiser, however, to allow 2 weeks for harvesting and decorticating stalks from an area of 2.45 acres. It is recommended, therefore, that the harvesting schedule be planned on the basis of 2.45 acres per 2 weeks period per machine.

The recommended basis for harvesting means, however, that if the harvesting were to begin when the stalks in the entire area of 2.45 acres had reached the most suitable stage for harvesting, approximately half of the area would be over-age by the time it was cut. This would result in the bad effects described above as a result of harvesting when stalks are over-age. It is recommended, therefore, that the cutting schedule begin a little before the time when the stalks in the area reach the most suitable stage for harvesting. This will permit harvest­ ing the last part of the area before the stalks become over-age.

c. Seasons and Months for Harvesting--The seasons and months for harvesting vary, of course, in relation to the climate of the growing area. In Japan, the months when harvesting is done in the various areas generally vary from late June to late November. The months for each of the principal areas where Ramie is grown in Japan are shown in Table 9.

- 26 ­ Table 9. Months for Harvesting in Japan

Area Crop First Second Third

Eastern (Kanto area) Late July late September None North Central (Hokurika-Sanin area) Middle to late July Late September None South Central (Sanyo area) Early July Late August Late October Western (Kyushu area) 1/ Late June late August Early November lj Kyushu is the heaviest producing area. It is often visited by rain or wind storms. To avoid or minimize the damage from these storms, the time of har­ vesting may have to be advanced. This has an additional effect in that ad­ vancing the time of the harvesting can lessen the total fiber production for the year. It is necessary, therefore, to harvest not fewer than 3 crops in order that the yearts production may yield a profit.

2. Method of Harvesting-In Japan, Ramie is harvested. by cutting the stalks by hand with a sickle. (See cover photo.) The stalks should be cut just above the ground, taking great care not to damage the tips of the new stalks which are just appearing above the surface. It is im­ portant, however, that the stalk be cut sufficiently close to the ground to prevent a new stalk from sprouting from the old stub; such stalks would be thin and have only a small quantity of fiber.

After being cut, the stalks should be sorted in relation to their diameters. Usually 3 groups are made: large, medium, and small. A further sorting between healthy and damaged (caused by insects, dis­ eases, wind, hail or rain) stalks should also be made. This will facil­ itate subsequent grading of the decorticated fiber.

When the Ikeda or Kiyofuji machines are used, the leaves must be removed from the stalks before decorticating. This should be done in the field. The operation may be done by running the hands along the length of the stalks, from the lower part toward the tip, and is best done before the stalks are cut. It is an easy operation and may be per­ formed without injury to the workers? hands. An alternative method of removing the leaves, also done before the stalks are cut, is to run a bamboo pole about 3 feet long or an iron hemp-dressing blade along the lengths of the stalks from the bottom to the top of the stalk. Care must be taken not to damage the bark on the stalks. The detached leaves are, of course, allowed to remain on the field where they fall.

Stalks which have been defoliated become dry very quickly. Should the stalks become dry, the decorticating operation becomes difficult and gives unsatisfactory results. Defoliated stalks should, therefore, be cut immediately after defoliation, sorted by diameter and condition, and placed in the shade or covered with straw mats and, if necessary, sprinkled with water.

When the Tosen machine is used for decorticating, defoliation is not required. On the contrary, care should be used to avoid detaching

- 27 the leaves during the cutting and transporting operations since the. Tosen machine operates most efficiently on stalks with leaves attached.

The cutting schedble should be arranged in relation to the quanti­ ty of stalks which can be decorticated in 1 day on the machine being used. Should some stalks be left over at the end of the day, precau­ tions must be taken to prevent their becoming dry; this applies whether or not the stalks have been defoliated. The same methods described above for preventing defoliated stalks from becoming dry, are recom­ mended. When these methods are carefully followed, the stalks may, in exceptional circumstances, be kept for as long as 3 or 4 days after cutting.

3. Yield of Fiber-The annual yield of fiber depends upon the age of the planting, soil and climatic conditions, fertilization, manage­ ment of cultivation, and harvesting and decorticating methods. Average annual yields, together with average ranges of yields, on the basis of dry fiber, obtained at agricultural experimental stations in cold and in warm areas, are shown in Table 10.

Table 10. Average Annual Yields of Ramie Fiber (Dry Basis)

Unit = Lbs. per acre

Age of Plantings Area First Year Se6ond Year Third Year Cold: 71crop during first. year and 2 crops thereafter) . Average 270 775 1215 Range 200--340 540--880 1015--1450

Warm: - T2orops during first year and 3 crops thereafter) Average 470 1250 1620 Range 440--610 1180-1520 1350--1925

The percentage distribution of the yield by crops is shown in Table 11.

Table 11. Average Percentage Distribution of Fiber Yield by Crop

Percentage Distribution by Crop Area First Crop Second Crop Third Crop Cold: First year of planting 100 None None After first year 50 50 None Warm: First year of planting 50 50 None After first year .43 35 22

- 28 ­ X. Decortication

1. General--Decortication means removing the fiber from the stalk. It is accomplished by stripping, that is, freeing the fiber from the bark, the woody central portion of the stalk, and at least a part of the gums and waxes in the stalk.

There ar% 2 basic ways of decorticating Ramie fiber: by hand stripping and by a decorticating machine.

Fiber stripped by hand is generally of fine quality and the weight of the fiber yield per acre is good. -Hand stripping is slow, however, and hence costly. The average quantity of dry fiber produced by 1 person per day generally is about 6 to 8 pounds or less. With the use of a decorticating machine, the average production per person per day is 25 to 33 pounds or more.

The two decorticating machines which have been in use in Japan for the longest 'period'are the Ikeda and the Kiyofujo machines. These machines were adapted in Japan from the Faure decorticator, developed in France; some additional parts.having been added to the Ja.panese manu­ factured machines.

In the operation of the Ikeda and the Kiyofuji machines, the de­ foliated stalks are inserted, up to about half of their length, into -the machine which breaks the woody parts bf the stalks as they are being inserted. The stalks are then withdrawn from the machine, the broken pieces of the woody portions of the stalk, the bark and a part of the gums and waxes being scraped off the fiber as the stalks are being with­ drawn. The stalks are then reversed and the other half inserted into the machine and withdrawn, thus freeing the fiber for the full length of the stalks.

There is another type of decorticator, the Tosen manufactured by Toyo Sen-i Company, which is beginning to be widely used. This de­ corticator is divided into 2 parts: a decorticating machine proper and a brushing machine. The stalks, with leaves, are inserted into the machine and allowed to feed straight through for their full length, the woody parts being broken and largely removed, together with most of the bark and gums and waxes. The rough decorticated fiber emerges from underneath the machine, from where it is caught by hand and hung on poles for drying. After being dried, this rough decorticated fiber is cleaned on a brushing machine which removes the balance of the pieces of woody parts and bark and most of the remaining gums and waxes, pro­ ducing clean, decorticated fiber.

Details and methods of operation of each type of decorticator are given in the following paragraphs.,

2. Ikeda Decorticator-Details of the Ikeda decorticator are given in the paragraphs which follow. The Kiyofuji decorticator is not described in this publication since there are only small differences between it and the Ikeda. Principal parts of the Ikeda machine are listed on the accompanying illustration.

- 29 ­ AI

o A. Beater blade B. Beater drum C. Adjustment spring D. Drive and idler pullies E. Adjustment screw F. Feeder apron G. Safety plate H. Hand adjustment wheel

Ikeda DecorticAting Machine a. Details of Construction--The Ikeda machine consists of 3 basic parts: (1) a beater drum, 1.5 feet in diameter and 3 feet in length; (2)12 tempered steel beater blades set at equidistant intervals on and at right angles to the surface of the beater drum; and (3) a beater plate of gun metal or cast iron, against which the stalks are crushed and the fiber stripped by the beater blades as the beater drum revolves. The frame of the machine is 2.8 feet wide across the front, 3 feet wide across the sides, 3.4 feet in height, and weighs 637 pounds.

b. Preliminary Steps for Operation of the Ikeda Decorticator-- Before it is operated, the machine should first be carefully inspected to make certain that it is clean; that the proper places have been oiled; that the machine is set firmly on a level place in order that both ends of the axle, on which the beater drum turns, will be on the same level,; that the beater drum when turned by hand revolves easily and smoothly; that there is the proper distance between the beater blades and the.beater plate; and finally, that the set screw for the hand wheel is tightened again, after having been loosened to allow the beater drum to be turned by hand.

To obtain the proper distance between the beater blades and the beater plate, the beater plate is moved toward or away from the blades by means of the adjustment screw. It is recommended that the following points, which have been determined on the basis of experiments, be ob­ served when moving the beater plates to the proper distance from the beater blades:

(1) The place on the beater plate where the beater blades come nearest to it should be located at a point about 1.2 inches (3 centi­ meters) below the upper edge of the beater plate.

(2) The area on the beater plate where the edges of the blades are parallel to the plate should have a vertical measurement of 0.36 inch; the horizontal measurement of this area is, of course, the cross­ wise length of the plate. It is in this area, where the edges of the blades are parallel to the plate, that the stalks are crushed and the woody parts, bark, and gums and waxes stripped, that is, scraped, from the fiber.

(3) The distance between the beater plate and the beater blades must be the same throughout the length of"the blade.

The distances between the beater plate and the beater blades are determined basically by the diameters of the stalks to be decorticated. On the basis of ,experiments, the 'distances shown in Table 12 have been determined as being approximately correct in relation to the diameter of the stalks. These figures are shown, however, for reference pur­ poses and as a guide to adjustment of the beater plate. The actual dis­ tance to be used when decorticating must be determined by experimental operation of the machine with samples of the stalks which are to be de­ corticated.

- 31 ­ Table 12. Distance Between.Beater Plate and Blades for Ikeda Decorticator in Relation to Diameters of Stalks

Diameters of Stalks Distane'e Between Beater Plate and Blades large: 0.48 inch and over at point of stalk which is 1 foot aboveground 0.012 to 0.014 inch

Medium: 0.36 to 0.48 inch at point of stalk which is 1 foot aboveground 0.010 to 0.011 inch

Small: Less than 0.36 inch at point of stalk which is 1 foot above ground 0.006 to 0.008 inch

To adjust the beater plate, the following steps are necessary:

(1) Loosen the set screw for the hand wheel to permit the beater drum to be turned by means of the hand wheel.

(2) Turn the beater drum and observe the distance between the edges of the beater blades and the beater plate.

(3) If the beater plate is not at the correct distance, move it either forward or back, as required, by turning the adjustment screw, taking great care that the distance between the plate and the edges of the blades is the same through the length of the blade; to facilitate this operation there is an adjustment screw and spiral adjustment springs at both ends of the beater plate.

(4) After the plate has been properly adjusted, tighten the set screw for the hand wheel in order to fix the hand wheel in place..

The machine should then be operated, stalks decorticated, and the correctness of the adjustment of the beater plate judged on the basis of the efficiency of the removal of the bark and the woody parts of the stalk, the amount of waste, and the moisture remaining on the decorti­ cated fiber. If necessary, further adjustments should. be made until the fiber is being decorticated satisfactorily.

c. 'Speed .of and Power Required- by Machine--The Ikeda decorticator will operate at a speed of 500 to 650 revolutions per minute. On the basis of quality and quantity of fiber production, economic use of power, and safety, it is recommended that the machine be operated at 570 revolutions per minute. Operation of one machine. requires 2 horse­ power; operation of two machines from the same engine or motor requires 3 to 3-1/2 horsepower.

d. Operation of Machine-Usually for the proper operation,of one machine,, 4 people are required: 1 feed operator, 1 strip operator, I drying and waste operator and 2 assistant to the drying and waste opera­ tor.

- 32 ­ The feed operator stands near and to the right of the strip operator. His duty is to hand the stalks to the strip operator. The stalks, after being defoliated, cut and sorted are brought to the de­ corticator and piled either on the ground or on a table, near to and convenient for the feed operator. He picks up the stalks, arranges the butt, that is, bottom, ends evenly and hands them to the strip operator, butt ends first. If the stalks have large diameters, the feed operator usually picks up 3 at one time; if medium diameters, 5 at one time; and if small diameters, 7 at one time.

The strip operator performs the work of decortication. He stands in front of the machine and facing it with his left foot placed for­ ward of his right foot. He takes the stalks from the feed operator, gripping them near the butt ends, and feeds them into the machine, tip, that is, upper, ends first. As the stalks are rawn into the machine, they are crushed between the beater plate and bbater blades on the re­ volving beater drum. The strip operator allows the stalks to feed into the machine for approximately-one-half to two-thirds of their length. He then withdraws them by pulling them back out of the machine. As the stalks are pulled from the machine, the woody parts, bark and a part of the gums and waxes are scraped away from the- fiber by the beater blades.

The strip operator next transfers the butt ends of the stalks to his left hand and with his left hand reverses the length, catching the reverse end in his right hand. Then with both hands gripping the fiber, he feeds the butt ends of the stalks into the machine until the remainder of the lengths of the stalks have been crushed, tihen he with­ draws them from the machine, the fiber in the remaining length of the stalks being freed by this operation. The strip operator then hangs the fiber on the fiber rack on the left-hand side of the machine, each handful of fiber, as it is decorticated, being hung on the rack a short distance away from the preceding handful, always with the butt ends on the same side of the rack.

The drying and waste operator and his assistant remove the decor­ ticated fiber from the rack and, as-necessary, remove the waste as it accumulates beneath the machines.

e. Production Rate of Machine--Generally, one machine will de­ corticate 2,800 pounds of defoliated stalks (4,200 pounds of stalks with leaves) per day of 8 hours, resulting in 116 pounds of fiber, dry basis. The quantity of stalks handled and the amount of fiber vary, however, in relation to the ability of the strip operator. If 2 men alternate as strip operators, during a working day, production can be increased about 40 per cent over the average figure, since the use of 2 strip operators minimises the fatigue factor.

Yield of fiber, by weight, to weight of green-stalks with leaves averages 2.8 per cent and to weight of green stalks without leaves 4.1 per cent for the variety Hakuhi. For the variety Saikei seishin, which has a higher total quantity of fiber than the Hakuhi variety, average yield for stalks with leaves is 3.1 per cent and for stalks without leaves 4.6 per cent.

- 33 ­ 3. Tosen Decorticator and Brushing Machines--Following are de­ tails of construction and methods of using the Tosen decorticator and brushing machines. List of principal parts is given on the accompanying illustration.

7 -

CC4 0 O

'444

c~ 4 I cti CCO

OO QP-­

+, 0

o d)

C) 0

- 34 ­ - -.-.

I -- I

Fluted Roller

U-'

B. Tosen Brushing Machine, Right Side View a. Details of Construction and Related Information--On the Tosen decorticator, a pair of fluted rollers, termed feed'rolls, are placed in front of a beater drum which is similar to the beater drum on the older type machines. The purpose of these fluted rolls is to crush the stalks as they are fed into the machines. The crushed stalks then travel under a pressing plate, over the pressing roller and continue down over the pressing roller where the beater blades come into contact with the stalks and free the fiber of most of the bark, woody parts and gums and waxes of the stalks.

Before beginning operation of the Tosen decorticator, it is impor­ tant, as with the Ikeda decorticator, to make certain that the machine is clean, well oiled and placed in a level position. There is, of course., no beater plate on the Tosen. Instead of adjusting the beater plate as on the Ikeda, the pressing roller is adjusted on the Tosen in relation to the beater blades. This should be done so that the pressing roller and the beater blades barely touch each other. The finene'ss and cleanness of the fiber depends largely upon the proper adjustment of the distance between the beater blades and the pressing roller." The feed rolls on the Tosen must also be adjusted, before beginning operation of the machine, in relation to diameter of the stalks, in order that they may crush the stalks properly as the stalks feed into the machine.

The feed rolls operate at 165 revolutions per minute. The beater 'drum operates at 800 revolutions per minute.

The number of stalks fed into the Tosen decorticator at one time is the same as for the Ikeda, that is, for large diameter stalks 3 stalks at a time, for medium stalks 5 at one time and for small stalks 7 at one time. Stalks for the Tosen decorticator are not defoliated. It is important that the stalks be cut and handled carefully to avoid detaching the leaves. The presence of the leaves, which are at the tip end of the stalk, insures the proper decortication of the upper end of the stalk, which is of a smaller diameter than the butt end, thereby increasing the total yield of fiber.

If the Tosen decorticator is driven by a kerosene engine, a 4 horse-power engine is required; if operated by electric motor, 3 horse­ power is required.

b. Operation of Decorticating Machine--The same number of people, that is, 4, is required to operate the Tosen as is required for the Ikeda machine. To operate .the Tosen machine, the stalk supplier, who stands beside and to the right of the machine operator, gives the proper number of stalks to the machine operator, first arranging the butt ends evenly. The machine operator, who stands in front of-the machine, feeds the stalks into the machine, butt ends first. As the tip ends of the first handful of stalks are disappearing into the machine, the machine operator feeds another handful of stalks into the machine so that the butt ends of the second handful of stalks immediately follow the tip ends of the first handful down through the -machine. The feeifg of the machine is continuous, each handful of stalks following directly after the next.

- 36 ­ The pieces of bark and woody parts fall to the ground or platform below the machine and the rough decorticated fiber comes out from under the machine. As it comes out, it is caught by a worker, termed a catcher, who is seated on a low bench to the left of the machine. This worker catches the bundle of fiber with both hands, the right hand holding the bundle near the end emerging first from the machine and the left hand grasping the bundle near the end emerging last from the machine. The catcher then hangs the fiber over a pole or stick, set at a convenient height on a rack to his right, being careful to keep the fibers straight and to avoid tangling or crossing the fibers. Each bundle is hung on the pole a short distance away from the preced­ ing bundle. When the pole is filled with fiber for its entire length, another worker removes it from the rack, places an empty pole on the rack, and carries the filled pole to another rack for drying. It is also the duty of the worker who removes the filled poles of fiber to remove the waste from under the machine, from time to time, as it ac­ cumulates.

After the fibers are dry, the bundles are removed from the pole,. great care being used to avoid tangling, by the same worker who brought the pples to the drying rack. The dried fiber may be taken directly to the brushing machine or stored in a shed, barn, or other dry place until a more convenient time for brushing.

c. Details of Construction and Operation of Tosen Brushing Machine--The brushing machine consists essentially of a grooved wooden roller, 16 saw-toothed blades or combs, termed saw plates, mounted at equidistant intervals on the outer circumference of a large revolving drum, 2 feet in diameter, and wooden beating slides mounted on a wooden cover over the saw plates. Revolutions per minute of the re­ volving drum are 240 to 250. The number of horsepower required to operate the machine is 1.5.

The rough, decorticited fiber prepared on the Tosen decorticator, ,after being thoroughly dried, is taken to the brushing machine and placed on a table to the right of the machine, within convenient reach of the operator. The operator picks up a bundle of rough, decorticated fiber at the butt end, with his right hand, arranges the butt ends evenly, if they are not already even, and gently feeds the bundle of fiber .into the machine, tip end first, sliding the tip ends under the wooden cover which is over the 'revolving drum and allowing the revolv­ ing saw plates to draw the fiber over the groover wooden roller and down into the machine for about one-half to two-thirds of its length. The operator then firmly but gently pulls the fiber from the machine until all but the tip ends are withdrawn, when he allows it to feed back into the machine, spreading it across the grooved wooden roller, in order that the fibers may be spread out to receive the combing action of the saw plates. This alternate feeding and withdrawing of the fiber is continued, usually 2 or 3 times, until the.fiber is freed of all bark and woody parts. The fiber bundle is then reversed and the butt ends brushed.

Fiber from the brushing machine will have been separated into fine fiber strands that have been cleaned of all bark and woody parts of the stalk and of most of the gums and waxes.

- 37 ­ d. Efficiency of Tosen Decorticator and Brushing Machines--The quality and quantity of fiber produced with the Tosen Decorticator and Brushing Machines depends, of course, to a large extent upon the ef­ ficiency of the workers operating the machine. Precise data concerning the efficiency of the machines are not available at this date (1950). It is felt that to obtain more conclusive data, it will be necessary to conduct experiments and to keep records for a longer period of time and over a larger area than has been possible to date. Average fiber yields in relation to weight of green material which have been obtained on the basis of experiments conducted to date are shown in Table 13. Data con­ cerning waste fiber from the brushing machine are also included. This waste is of a high quality, and is better than waste fiber from the older type decorticators. The data in Table 13 were obtained from ex­ periments conducted at the Kawaminami Experimental Station, a branch of the.Miyazafi Experimental Station of the Japanese Ministry of Agricul­ ture.

Table 13. Average Per Cent of Fiber Yields in Relation to Weight of Green Material (Stalks and Leaves) with Tosen Decorticating and Brushing Machinery

Item Per cent of Fiber Yield

Rough, decorticated fiber in relation to green material: HEkuhi variety 7.7 Saikei seishin variety 9.0 Average of 2 varieties 8.4 Brushed fiber in relation to rough, decorticated fiber: Rakuhi variety 59.6 Saikei seishin variety ' 59.9 Average of 2 varieties 59.8 Brushed fiber in relation to green material: Hakuhi variety 4.6 Saikei seishin variety 5.4 Average of 2 varieties 5.0 Waste fiber from brushing machine in relation to green material: Hakuhi variety 0.52 Saikei seishin variety - 0.39 Average of 2 varieties 0.45

e. Quality of Fiber-If the machines are carefully and well oper­ ated and the quality of the green stalks is reasonably good, the quality of the brushed fiber and the yield will be high. Careless operation of the machines will inevitably result in poor quality fiber.

f. Labor productivity with Tosen Decorticator and Brushing Mach- ines--Data concerning labor productivity with the Tosen Decorticating and Brushing Machines are shown in Table 14. These data are the results of experiments conducted with these machines at agricultural research sta­ tions. It should be noted that the Tosen decorticator requires much less physical energy to operate than do Athe older types of machines. With the older types, the efficiency of the operator steadily decreases, as the

- 38 ­ work day passes, because of fatigue; with the Tosen machine, the de­ crease in efficiency as a result of fatigue is minor because the machine is much easier to operate. Both the Tosen Decorticator and Brushing Machines can easily be, and often are, operated by women. This has an additional advantage in that the brushing operation may be done during slack periods of the farm work when the assistance of the women of the household is not required in the fields, for kitchen gardena-or for simi­ lar work.

Table 14. Labor Productivity with Tosen Decorticating and Brushing Machines

Unit = Lbs. per 8 hr. day

Item Production

Operation of Decorticator: (5 persons, including 1 worker to bring stalks to decorticator from area where theyare cut.) "Consumption of green'material, stalks and leaves 5,900 Production of Rough, Decorticated Fiber 496 Operation of Brushing Machine: ­ (2 persons, I to operate machine and 1 to bring rough, decorticated fiber to machine and remove brushed fiber.) Consumption of rough, decorticated fiber 165 Production of brushed fiber 99

XI. Drying

1. General--Fiber may be air dried in the sun or under shelter or or dried with the use of heat. To prepare the fiber for drying, it should be hung over bamboo poles or sticks of a convenient length.

Care should be taken to hang the strands, that is, bundles, of wet fiber, as they come from the decorticator, over the pole in such a man­ ner that the drape of the strands of fiber over the pole comes at a point a little less than half of the total length of the strands, the shorter part being the butt end. This will insure that the weight of each of the two ends of the strands of fiber hanging over the pole, is approxi­ mately.the same, since the fiber nearer the butt end of the stalk is heavier than fiber from the tip end. Also, it will be found that it is easier to hang the fiber properly, if the strands, just after they are hung on the pole, are softly pressed down and spread on the pole with the left hand while the right hand is used to straighten gently any twisted parts along the length of the strands. With the Ikeda Decorticator, the fiber is hung on the pole and straightened by the drying and waste oper­ ator. With the Tosen machine,.fiber is hung over the pole by the catcher and pressed and straightened by the worker who carries the filled pole to the drying rack.

Proper hanging of fiber is important. If carefully and well done, the fiber will dry more evenly and quickly, will remain on the pole more

- 39 ­ securely while drying, and will have a greater value since tangling re­ duces both the quality and quantity of fiber.

2. Air drying--After fiber is properly hung on a pole, the ends of the pole are placed in notches located a suitable distance apart on racks of a convenient height, located in a sunny area. After remaining in the sunshine for 1 or 2 days, the fiber will be almost dry. It should then be removed from the poles by handfuls'and made into bundles which average about 5 inches in diameter at a point about 7 to '8 inches from the butt end, the bundles being tied at this point with a strand of the fiber. These bundles should then be laid flat, on mats, for their full length, in the sunshine to complete the drying. The point at which the strands of fiber were draped over the pole should be gently straightened by pulling and stretching the strands at this point. The bundles of fiber should be reversed once to facilitate even drying. Care should be exercised to be certain that all parts of the bundle are thoroughly dry, including the point where the bundle is tied.

After the fiber is completely dry, the bundle may be beaten by grasping it near the butt end and striking it against a board or a log. This opens the fiber strand somewhat and softens the fiber so that it may be folded more easily for better packing.

If the area is one with heavy dew or if there is danger of rain or snow at night, the fiber on the poles or, later, on the mats, must be placed under shelter at night. If the area is one having frequent showers, it may be necessary to air-dry the fiber completely under shelter.

After the fiber is thoroughly dry, it should be stored in a dry barn or warehouse until it is packed for shipment to the mill.

3. Heat drying--If a large quantity of fiber is grown in an area or if there is a shortage of labor so-that the work of drying fiber in the sun will delay the work of decortication, it will be found economical to dry the fiber with heat. In areas where there are frequent showers, heat drying will also generally be found to be economical.

. Heat drying may be done in a barn or a drying room used for rice or wheat, with a fire of compressed charcoal. Temperature of the drying place, when heated, should range between 176 and 212 0F. There should be a good circulation of air but no drafts.

The poles with the wet decorticated fiber are first hung for 6 to 8 hours under the eaves of the barn or a shed and allowed to air dry. ­ They-are then brought into the drying room and the ends of the poles hung on racks at intervals of 8 inches. If desired, one set of poles filled with fiber may be hung above another set of poles filled with fiber; not more than two layers of poles are-recommiended, however. Poles 12 feet long holding about 3-1/2 pounds of fiber will require about 5 hours for drying at the recommended temperature. After the fiber is thoroughly dry, it should be removed from the poles, the places where itwas draped over the poles straightened, the fiber made into bundles, if desired, beaten against a board or log, and stored in the same manner recommended for fiber which has been completely air dried.

- 40 ­ ,Rough decorticated fiber from the Tosen decorticator maybe dried by heat in the manner described above. After it is dry, it should be made-into bundles, thoroughly'shaken to remove any loose pieces of bark and shive, and stored until it can be brushed. Care must be used to avoid tangling the fiber.

XII.- Production of Waste Fiber

Waste which results from decortication contains varying quantities of fiber which may be recovered. If it is desired to recover the waste fiber, the waste, as it accummulates, 'should be spread on mats to dry. Any bundles which have formed in the waste should be pulled apart.

After'the waste is dry, it should be shaken to remove loose pieces of bark and shive. The fiber may then be removed from this dried waste either by hand or with a short-fiber decorticator.

Total amount of fiber in dry waste in relation to weight of waste is about 50 per cent; about 32 per cent in relation to weight of waste may be recovered. Iength'of the fiber which can be recovered ranges generally from 3 to 8 inches, averaging about 5 inches. Labor for re-4 covering fiber from decorticating waste resulting from a planting area of 1 acre is generally 14 man days for sorting, drying, decorticating, and packing.

The average quantity of fiber recovered from decorticating waste is shown in Table 15. These data were obtained as the result of research with the Ikeda decorticator. When studying the figures for the fiber recovered from decorticating waste,, which, by weight, is 40 percent of the long decorticated fiber, it should be borne in mind that the waste fiber, even after decortication, that is, separation, from the waste, still contains a considerable amount of bark and shive. Data regarding weight of long decorticated fiber and fiber recovered from decorticating waste are not, therefore, stricily comparable.

Table 15. Yield of Fiber-from Decorticating Waste.from Ikeda Decorticator

-I Quantity (Lbs. per acre)

Green material without leaves. 11,000 lbs. Long decorticated fiber 502 I Fiber recovered from decorticating waste - 203 It Percentageyields to green material without leaves:

Long decorticated fiber . 4.67% Fiber recovered from decorticating waste 1.88%

XIII. Fiber'Grading ,and Packing

1. gr n--The Japanese Ministry of Agriculture on 10 June 1950 established a Law of Standards for leaf and bast fibers, including Ramie,

- 41­ Hemp, and 3 kinds of Flax.- This law provides that when specific grad­ ing standards are established by the Government, they shall be used as a basis for grading the fibers. Until these standards 'are established, grading of Ramie fiber is being done locally on the basis of criteria which have come to be regarded as more or less standard grades by reason of usage over a period of time. These grades are listed in Table 16.

Samples for grading are generally taken from every 66 pound lot of fiber. Grading of quality of decortication, brushing and luster is done by comparing the sample with sets of fiber representing the various grades or classes. The finest quality fiber is completely and cleanly decorticated with no bark and shive and with only a small amount of gum remaining on the fiber. The fiber strands are clean and lustrous and there is no tangled fiber. Sorting by lengths has been carefully done. And any fiber damaged by mildew, wind, hail, rain, insects or disease has been removed and packed separately.

Table 16. Grading Criteria Used for Ramie Fiberin Japan.

* Class Description-

Special Length over 3 ft. Moisture less Completely decorticated, ,finely than 13% brushed, and with good luster First Length over 2 ft. Moisture less Good decortication, brushing than 13% and luster Second Length 2 ft. and Moisture less Average decortication, brushing over, than 13% and luster Others Length less than Moisture less Below Second class but without than 13% stain or rot Roughly Moisture less Broken and damaged fiber Decorticated than 139

2. Packing-Bundles of fiber weighing about 1-2/3 pounds each, with butt ends even, are tied with strands of Ramie fiber, if these small bundles have not already been made at the time the fiber was dried. Ten of these small bundles are then tied together, near the butt end, with a strand of Ramie. This larger bundle is folded to a length of approxi­ mately 2-1/2 feet and tied in 3 places with strands of Ramie. Additional large bundles are then placed beside the first large bundle and on top of this first layer, butt and tip ends alternating, until a sufficient number of bundles has been built into a bale of the size desired. This bale is then tied, usually with bamboo ropes, and wrapped with straw matting for shipment.

'XIV. Price of Fiber

The prices paid to-producers for Ramie fiber are shown in Table 17 for the years 1948, 1949 and 1950. Prices .paid for rough decorticated fiber and for waste have varied, the price being set on each lot at the time of sale.

- 42 ­ Table 17. Producers? Prices for Decorticated Ramie Fiber for 1948, 1949 and 1950 Unit = Yen per 82.7 lbs.

Class Year Special' First Second - Other 1948 3,800 Yen 3,400 Yen 3,100 Yen 1,800 Yen 1949 5,300 Yen 4,740 Yen 4,300 Ygn 2,500 Yen 1950 6,ooo Yen 4,900 Yen 4,300 Yen 2,500 Yen 1 Translator's note: Official rate of exchange for Japanese Yen to U. S. dollar was: 1948--270 yen = U.S. $1; 1949 (change was made during 1949 before Ramie crops were harvested)--360 Yen = U.S. $1; 1950--360 Yen = U.S. $1.

XV. Labor Required for Production of Fiber

Labor required for production of fibervaries-according to local and individual methods of management. Approximate figures are given, however, in Table 18. These data include all operations from preparing the field and planting through decortication, drying and packing fiber. Decortication is based on the use of the older type decorticators. With the Tosen decorticator and brushing machines, it is estimated that labor required will be a little more than that needed for the older type decor­ ticators.

Table 18. labor Required for ProductioA of Ramie Fiber

Unit = 8-hour man days per acre

Planting Year Area First Year Second Year Third Year and thereafter

Cold area 110 102 106 Warm area 135 122 126

- 43 First Printe. (in Japanese): 1 February 1951

Published: 5 February 1951 Sponsor: Toyo Sen-i Company, Ltd. Naigai Building, 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo, Japan

Publisher: Plant Fibers Producers Association, Inc. Asahi Building, #3 Ginza, 7-chome Chuo-ku Tokyo, Japan

Printer: Seiichiro Ishii #7, 1-chome, Shintomi-cho, Chuo-ku -Tokyo, Japan

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- 44 ­ a.*-C

UN STAE AERCA II'1,

ICA-Federal Lithograph Co. 2991 4/60