Lithuanian Folk Art SYLLABUS

VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF CULTURAL STUDIES AND ETHNOLOGY

Prepared by Dr. Asta Venskienė

Kaunas, 2013 Translated and edited by UAB “Lingvobalt”

Publication of the syllabus is supported by the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Project title: “Renewal and Inter- nationalization of Bachelor Degree Programmes in History, Ethnology, Philoso- phy and Political Science” (project No.: VP1-2.2-ŠMM-07-K-02-048)

The human need for artistic expression is deemed to be natural; however, in different societies it is manifested in different forms. The nature of artistic expression is determined by many things, in- cluding religion, vision of the world, social relationships of human beings, economic activities, etc. In pre-industrialised society, artistic expression was an integral part of people’s lifestyle. Amateur art in Lithuania is usually referred to as folk art or art of common people. The term ‘folk art’ was introduced in 1910 by J. Basanavičius. However, this term does not fully correspond to the equivalent terms used in other languages, e. g. Volkskunst or Bauernkunst in German, l’art populaire in French, sztuka ludowa in Polish. These terms describe the art originating among the common people, rather than the art of the entire nation. Before World War II the term ‘folk art’ was commonly-used, whereas in Soviet times the term ‘art of common people’ was more prevalent. Currently, the two terms are used interchangeably to refer to amateur art. In order to clarify, analyse and distinguish between different ideological values, researchers tend to classify Lithuanian folk art as follows: 1. the old traditional Lithuanian folk art (from ancient times to the early 20th c.); 2. the contemporary Lithuanian folk art (from 1940 to the pres- ent day).

The question arises what constitutes Lithuanian folk art and what kind of its distinctive features became especially important in the early decades of the 20th century when professional arts became in- creasingly popular in the culture of the country. There is no general consensus on the concept of folk art, in particular contemporary, in Lithuania. The discussions focused primarily on the following questions: what should be regarded as folk art (what kind of cul-

3 Lithuanian Folk Art tural phenomenon and what sort of objects) and who is the creator of folk art? Creators of the traditional Lithuanian folk art are usually considered to be villagers and people living in small towns who are usually uneducated amateur artists. If we were to believe that only peasants create folk art, we will have to answer the question what category creative works of amateur artists from other social strata would fall under. Since the second half of the 20th century educated people living in towns and cities have started to actively engage in artistic creation and become folk masters. Thus, the term ‘folk’ has expanded. Researchers tend to treat artistic creation of amateur artists from all social strata as contemporary Lithuanian folk art. Currently, a folk artist differs from a professional artist only to the extent that the latter holds a higher education diploma. There are two directions both in traditional and modern folk art:

1. applied folk art (applied – decorative). In Lithuania applied folk art is best represented by artistic woodwork, decorated furniture, household accessories, fabrics, ironware, ceramics, paper trimmings, etc.; 2. imitative folk art. It includes sculpture, painting and graphics.

Thus, folk art consists of the applied folk art and imitative folk art. Folk art is characterised by a team spirit. In order to be viable and to maintain ethnic values, folk art has to be developed on the ba- sis of the national traditions. Each ethnic group and nation creates original art. To this end and in order to maintain these traditions, the following elements contribute:

1. local raw materials; 2. consistent methods of production.

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Making an item of arts and crafts a man paid attention primarily to its practical characteristics. Matching decor and refined forms helped to achieve the unity of forms and decor. Unlike the applied folk art, the imitative folk art reflects the reality only by means of an image and depends on the creator’s worldview to a greater extent. In the imitative art, content is more significant and means of individual artistic expression are more pronounced. Folk art is considered to be the predecessor of the professional art. Ornament and Symbols in Lithuanian Folk Art

In Lithuanian folk art, as in art in general, the ornament takes one of the most important roles. It is one of the foremost and primal elements that a man used in expressing his feeling of beauty. Defi- nitions of the ornament can be divided into two larger groups:

1. definitions highlighting the decoration purpose of the ornament. For example, ornament is a decorative element used in fine arts and architecture, a pattern of one or more rhythmi- cally repeating geometric or visual shapes that are arranged on the surface of an object in accordance with the individual parts of these shapes and the whole pattern, e. g. the ordinance; 2. definitions highlighting symbolic functions of the ornament. For example, ornament is a global historical phenomenon, a certain form of the perception of the world that manifests itself in rhythmical charts on items, has an aesthetic purpose and hides old, historically conditioned functions. Analysing the ornament we will deal with both its decorative and symbolic meanings.

In terms of motifs the ornament is classified as follows: 1. geometric; 2. plant; 3. wildlife or zoomorphic; 4. anthropomorphic; 5. architectural (imagery of buildings or individual architectural elements: columns, cornices, etc.); 6. ornament of celestial bodies (Solaris); 7. religious (resulting from the direct influence of the Christian Church).

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A geometric ornament is regarded to be primary since it is simple and easily depicted. Ornament systems of all nations consist of the following shapes: point, line, circle, cross, triangle, square, etc. In Lithuania, a geometric ornament is currently widely used in folk art. Artists across Europe widely used a plant ornament in decoration. A plant ornament of Lithuanian folk is characterised by a distinctive selection of motifs, composition, peculiar general- ization of elements, considerable pastiche and graphics of the ornamental design. As a plant ornament of Lithuanian folk is very geometric, in most cases it is impossible to determine biological species of the plant. When folk art researchers find a slightly more realistic treatment of vegetation forms, they consider it to be an ornament of the late times, most likely influenced by the Renais- sance or Baroque, especially if vegetation is depicted on Baroque- type vases. Animals are represented rather rarely in Lithuanian folk art. In- stead, reptiles, birds, horse, ox and goat are more common. In traditional Lithuanian folk art a man was depicted very rarely. Furniture and other ornamented articles were not decorated with images of human household, for example, field work, weddings, etc., although these motifs were common in the ornamentation of other nations. Lithuanian ornamentation is characterised by the motifs of the Sun, Moon and stars. These motifs are more of symbols than ornaments. The genesis of imaging of celestial bodies in Lithuanian decoration remains uncertain: it may be Christian attributes; however, it may also be the remains of the pre-Christian culture and reflections of the old cults taken over by the Church. Lithuanian decoration also features purely religious motifs; the most important element here is symbol, which is sometimes also used as a decorative element. However, religious motifs such as monstrance, cup or heart are not common elements in Lithuanian folk decoration.

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Originality of Lithuanian folk art is not determined by motifs or ornaments as such; it is more related with a consistent use of certain motifs or patterns and decoration objects. A symbolic meaning of ornament motifs has evolved historically. In the course of time, pre- Christian meanings of the motifs were replaced by Christian ones and some symbols were substituted by others, similar in meaning or totally new. Eventually, the ornament has lost its symbolic meanings to retain only its decorative function.

Lithuanian Folk Architecture In relation to architecture, we will focus on the decoration of residential houses and barns built at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 20th century. There were few purely decorative forms in folk architecture as efforts have been made to avoid un- necessary splendour. The most ornate elements in Lithuanian residential houses included: 1. roof panels; 2. wind-boards; 3. cornices; 4. decorative elements on the end of a ridge (Lith. lėkiai); 5. windows; 6. doors; 7. porches.

Cutting technique was most commonly used for decorations; ornaments were made by combining planks at different angles and directions. Most widespread motifs in decoration were geometric and plant, wildlife motifs were less popular.

8 Lithuanian Folk Art Interior Design and Furniture in Lithuanian Folk Residential Houses

In order to brighten the interior, outstanding colourful accents were used, but in a moderate way: 1. colourful bedspreads; 2. paintings; 3. furniture décor; 4. white textile: towels, tablecloths, pillow covers; 5. whitened furnaces.

In Samogitia (Lith. Žemaitija) furnaces sometimes were patterned in various ways. In the 19th century tile furnaces were started to be built. Furniture filled the living area of residential houses and created the final image of the interior. The main decorative furniture included a table, benches, chairs, beds, towel-horses, spoon boxes, chests, dowry chests and cupboards. Tables, benches, chairs, beds and spoon boxes used to be decorated in a pretty modest way. There are only several pieces of furniture concerned that appear to be very decorative. Instead, towel-horses used to be quite decorative. Their decoration involved various ways of carving: outline carving, decoration with crafted through-cuts, relief, profiling. Woodcuts used to be highlighted by painting towel-horses in different colours. The most ornate polychromatic furniture included chests, dowry chests and cupboards. In Samogitia and in Higlands (Lith. Aukštaitija) as well as in south-eastern and southern Lithuania (Lith. Dzūkija) chests and dowry chests were typically shod in metal. In southern and south-western Lithuania (Lith. Suvalkija) only the oldest chests were shod in metal, at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century this tradition disappeared.

There are three types of ornamentation technique applied to chests, dowry chests and cupboards:

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1. painting (usually plant and animal ornaments); 2. stamping (usually geometric ornaments pressed by special stamps); 3. mixed type of techniques (painted and pressed ornaments).

An ornament matched to the form of the furniture. Chests, dowry chests and cupboards were mostly decorated with a plant ornament that used to be demonstrated on the front plane of the furniture. In Samogitia and Highlands a plant ornament often started from a single focal point (often a plant pot) and filled almost the entire plane. In Samogitia plant leaves depicted on chests are usually larger than the ones illustrated on chests in Highlands. In southern and south-western Lithuania rings are usually more apparent, but motifs of leaves also remain, and sometimes they are not less apparent than rings. A plant motif very often rises from a plant pot. In southern and south-western Lithuania as well as in Samogitia a geometric ornament was more of an auxiliary tool used in furniture decoration, since the main composition consisted of plant motifs. Furniture made in south-eastern and southern Lithuania is characterised by graphics of the ornamental design; here a black linear ornament was quite frequently used (almost not exampled in other ethnographic areas). When comparing Lithuanian furniture with that of neighbour- ing countries, we can notice that Lithuanian furniture is most similar to Latvian furniture.

Decoration of Household Items of Lithuanian Folk Tools of coherence of composition (shape and silhouette, proportions and rhythm) and expression (ornament, colour and facture) are very important instruments to achieve artistry and decorative- ness of wooden household items. Not all items used to be decorated with equal intensity. Wooden household items for representational

10 Lithuanian Folk Art purposes used to be decorated more richly than items intended for practical purposes only. Spinning tools were usually ornate, as they were part of the interior depending on the season. Besides, spindles and distaffs were also gift items.

Spindles are classified into three types according to the form of a plate: 1. rectangular or spade-type with a wide square top; 2. willow-leaf shaped with a somewhat narrow top and truncated corners; 3. willow-leaf shaped with a truncated top (tapered sides, sharp- ly truncated at the top).

Distaffs are classified into three types according to their shape: 1. metal; 2. stick; 3. volumetric.

A wide range of woodcarving techniques were used in decoration: carving, decoration with deep cutting and crafted through-cuts, and more rarely relief carving on convex surfaces. Several methods of woodcarving were often applied, one of which sometimes prevailed. People also used painted and polished spindles and distaffs as well as those decorated with a burning technique. However, colours were rarely used in decoration: they were usually used to paint carved plant motifs. Lithuanian folk art is characterised by colourless embossing decoration of wooden household items. Various parts of spindles and distaffs were not decorated in the same way. It was an external, visible side of a plate that was mostly decorated. An internal side, covered by a tow, was more often decorated at the bottom and on the sides, i.e. where a plate remained visible with a tow covered. Decoration of spindles and distaffs was dominated by geometric and plant ornaments, however, animal, religious, architectural and anthropomorphic motifs were also used.

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Artistic expression of spindles and distaffs is distinguished by the unity of their form and decoration. Plates of rectangular spindles were mostly decorated with a linear ornament. Such an ornament breaks up a plane into smaller parts and follows a rhythmic pattern. As regards some types of distaffs, an ornament dominated the form of a plate. This is particularly obvious in the case of plant- shaped distaffs with two circles. Ornamental motif of such distaffs was the same as the form of a plate: a distaff was cut according to the form of an ornament. Geometric ornaments were most common in the decoration of spindles and distaffs. In particular, a segmented star and rosette were most frequently used. A motif of a segmented star was used as the main ornament in the decoration of distaffs; it was also often decorated with additional motifs. Kitchen utensils for food storage and use (e. g. mortars, certain types of tubs (Lith. gorčiai), scoops, salt-cellars, wooden spoons, forks, knives, etc.) were sparsely decorated. Instead, sculptural forms of nutcrackers attract more attention, e. g. the head of a human or a beast, sometimes the whole body. A nut is to be placed in the ‘mouth’ of such nutcrackers.

Lithuanian Folk Pottery Encaustic items of clay or other minerals are referred to as pottery. According to archaeologists, clay utensils moulded by hand and found in the territory of Lithuania may have been used since the Neolithic period. The artistic level of the décor of Lithuanian pottery is not as high as that of, for example, woodenware. In Lithuania clay pots were moulded and thrown. Pottery was used for practical items; therefore, the forms of ceramics were as- sessed from a practical point of view. Pottery is classified as follows: 1. domestic (food containers and kitchen utensils); 2. architectural (various elements of ceramic buildings and tiles);

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3. ritual-decorative (urns, vases, flower pots, sculptures, whis- tles and candlesticks).

Decoration was most popular in the 1920s and in the 1940s when competition kept growing due to an increase in the number of craftsmen. The purpose and form of a utensil were the most -im portant aspects in decoration. Utensils for food production were least decorated, while bowls and plates, jugs for beverages and interior artware were most decorated since their decorative value was more important than their practical function. Thrown articles were more decorated compared to sand ones. The surface of pottery was decorated applying the following methods: 1. contour cutting (engraves). In the times of the primitive community contour lines were engraved on the surface of a utensil with a wisp of straw or grass. In the 19th and 20th centuries patterns were engraved and inscribed with a special toothed plate, comb, fir twig, bottle neck, and so on. Contour cutting has been used in the decoration of pottery to this day. This technique has been used to decorate thrown and moulded articles. Geometric ornaments were most common in the decoration applying this technique; 2. surface relief patterning. This method of decoration was mostly applied in architectural ceramics. In the 15th and 18th centuries the technique of surface relief patterning was widely used in the decoration of tiles. In the 19th and 20th centuries only few rural potters applied this technique when decorating earthenware; 3. polychromic painting. Pottery decorated with this technique was most ornate. Plant ornaments were most popular in painting earthenware. The surface of articles was usually decorated with red, green, yellow and white glaze. Geometric and plant ornaments were most common in the decoration of earthenware.

13 Lithuanian Folk Art Traditional Memorial Monuments of Lithuanian Folk and Their Sculpture

At the end of the 19th century writers, poets, painters and scientists focused on wooden memorial monuments, admired their beauty and variety of forms. However, people did not always admire folk crosses. The first known written prohibition to built crosses dates back to 1426 when Semba Bishop Mykolas Jungė prohibited Prus- sians to build crosses on the tombs of the deceased and ordered to cut off the ones that had already been built. Up to the 19th century there were more documentary evidence at our disposal concern- ing the ban on construction of crosses and trading folk articles of graphics and sculpture decorated with religious (Christian) themes. However, it remains unclear whether Catholic and Prot- estant clergy prohibited the construction of crosses due to their ‘paganism’ or because they did not like the works of uneducated folk artists. As folk articles usually did not meet the requirements of Christian iconography and aesthetic criteria of the professional art, the official Church was unlikely to recognise and promote such art. The problem of the origin of Lithuanian memorial monuments remains unresolved. There are two contradictory opinions: 1. the origin of the memorial monuments is pre-Christian, they generated from local customs, traditions and beliefs (e. g. Miežynskis A., Šukevičius V., Basanavičius J., Galaunė P., Gimbutienė M., Baltrušaitis J., etc.); 2. the result of the Christian influence and symbols (e. g. Mažiulis A., Grinius J., Rūkštelė A., etc.).

Memorial monuments were particularly popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. Lithuanian folk monuments were mostly wooden. Even at the end of the 19th century Lithuanian peasants preferred wooden monuments to stone or metal ones.

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Classification of wooden memorial monuments. Čerbulėnas K. classifies Lithuanian folk memorial monuments according to their raw material: 1. wooden memorial monuments; 2. stone memorial monuments; 3. iron memorial monuments. According to their form, monuments are classified into three groups: 1. plank-type monuments (made from the profiled planks), small tombstones made from planks (Lith. krik tai); 2. pillar-type monuments (pillar-type crosses, pillared shrines, crosses); 3. box-type monuments (chapels on the ground and in the trees).

Krik tai represent a type of tombstones. The monument was made from a thick profiled plank, in the middle of which Gospel quotes, the name of the deceased and dates of death and life among other things were inscribed. Pillar-type crosses (tall memorial monuments, around 7–9 meters high) were usually richly decorated with an openwork and plastic ornamentation consisting of abstract geometrical or stylised forms of plants and animals. The artistic form of pillar-type crosses is one of the most beautiful and original. The structure of pillared shrines consisted of a pillar (approxi- mately 3–5 meters high), on the top of which differently ornamented chapels open from one side or from all four sides, made from planks and decorated with sculptures were attached. In Lithuania crosses were usually decorated in such a way that their upper and lateral cross pieces were barely noticeable. They were decorated with a variety of rays, aureoles and nimbuses. Rays bore comparison with plants, animals and objects. Chapels were built on the ground, in the trees and, more rarely, fixed to the wall. The form of the chapels built on the ground was similar to that of belfries or wooden churches. These chapels were

15 Lithuanian Folk Art one, two or three storeys high and used to be open from one or several sides. The form of the chapels built in the trees was more diverse than that of the chapels built on the ground. The production and construction of monuments combined both pre-Christian and Christian traditions, which reflected in the decoration of crosses and sometimes in their structure as well as location. In Lithuania memorial monuments were usually decorated with geometric and plant ornaments and, more rarely, with a zoomorphic ornament. Crosses were also decorated with Chris- tian symbols. Geometric patterns were dominated by curved and straight lines, arches, circles, semicircles, etc.; they were artfully combined with plant ornaments. Stylised birds, grass-snakes and horses were among the animals usually depicted, whereas the sun and the moon were the most commonly illustrated celestial bodies. The following techniques were usually used to decorate memorial monuments: 1. profiling technique; 2. through-cut technique.

Through-cut ornaments highlighted the junction of a pillar and cross pieces. Relief carving, contour cutting and polychromic painting were less popular in this field. The layout of decorative elements usually aimed to highlight the most important pieces of a monument which were meant to draw the attention of the observer, e. g. the cross piece of a cross and the hole of a chapel (groups of sculptures inside the chapel could be seen through the hole). Intentions to build monuments can be divided into the following larger groups: 1. intentions related to a personal and family life; 2. intentions related to secular and religious activities of a rural community or part of it; 3. intentions related to certain periods of life of the whole nation or parts of it, especially in relation to historical turning-points.

16 Lithuanian Folk Art Stone Memorial Monuments

In Lithuania stone became popular in the 19th century. Since the mid-20th century people have started to build folk memorial monuments from granite. Artists used the forms and symbols of monuments that were characteristic of wooden memorial monuments in the particular area.

Sculpture Traditional Lithuanian folk sculpture was purely religious in nature. There were no sculptures with mythological, mundane or other themes (these themes became widespread in the sculpture after World War II when religious themes became undesirable and forbidden). Sculpture was a significant attribute of the memorial monument; it often expressed the main ideas of the entire monument. Tra- ditional folk sculpture was inseparable from the small architecture. In the middle of the 20th century sculpture was separated from memorial monuments and became an autonomous branch of folk art. Portraying the sainthood folk artists often digressed from Chris- tian iconography. This digression was not the result of self-search; rather, it was caused by the following reasons: 1. insufficient knowledge of the requirements of the Church iconography and of the life stories of individual saints; 2. implementation of the idea in the creative process, usually unconsciously; 3. inability to convey the image of the model and opting therefore for a free interpretation.

Religious scenes were usually interpreted from peasants’ point of view, giving them typical characteristics of local people and reflect- ing the peasant way of life. Due to the fact that folk sculpture did not comply with the requirements of the Church iconography, it was often forbidden and ‘expelled from the Church’; as a result, folk

17 Lithuanian Folk Art sculpture was released from the constraints of the ecclesiastical tradition and had an absolute freedom to develop. Folk sculpture was dominated by: 1. carving of round shapes; 2. bas-relief carving.

Carving of round shapes was more popular. The appearance of a sculpture entirely depended on the abilities of a creator of religious figurines and his capacity to feel the form. Folk sculpture was mostly influenced by Baroque, although the Gothic influence may also be seen. Figurines were not tall: 15–40 centimetres high and, more rarely, 1 meter or of the height of a human being. Some of them were stylised and others were realistic. All sculptures were polychromed, except for crucifixes – the Passion of Christ. Sculpture plots and their popularity. Every nation has its own favoured saints, which has been particularly reflected in folk art, both in painting and sculpture. The popularity of saints depended on a number of factors:

1) exciting biography of the saint that people were aware of; 2) direct link of a Christian saint with agriculture, a protection of human property and the daily life of country folk; 3) it seems likely that some Christian saints were popular because of the fact that their miracles and the protective functions at- tributed to them were very close to those of pre-Christian gods; 4) saints famous for miracles in the region and country enjoyed popularity.

According to the sculpture plot, the sculpture can be classified into the following categories: 1. depiction of Christ; 2. depiction of Mary; 3. depiction of saints.

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According to the composition, figurines can be classified as separate and belonging to a group. Creators usually carved separate figurines of the following saints: Jesus (the Pensive Christ, Nazarene, Christ Carrying the Cross, the Crucified Christ), Virgin Mary (Our Lady of Grace), St John of Nepomuck and other saints. Group sculpture was dominated by the following sculpture plots: Gift of the Three Kings, the Holy Family, St Joseph, St John the Bap- tist, Way of the Cross or Stations of the Cross, the Painful Mother of God, Stigmatisation of St Francis, St Anna, St George, St Anthony, St Rock, St Florian, St Isidor and St Martin. There is only one known group sculpture of the Pensive Christ together with two angels. Folk artists mostly depicted Christ and Mary.

Lithuanian Folk Graphics Graphics is a type of fine arts that is subject to a wide range of repro- ductions of the drawing. The most important image creation tool of graphics is a contour line and a combination of black and white spots; however, some works of graphics were also multicoloured. The Eastern countries saw the first examples of carvings or graphics. The first known woodcut was created in China, in 868. There was very little knowledge about woodcuts available before World War II. As more information became available, it was established that the centre of the production and distribution of woodcuts was in Samogitia. There were almost no graphic works in other ethnographic areas of Lithuania, and if somehow one or more woodcuts happen to be found there, they must have come from Samogitia, mostly from iluva and sometimes from Poland. Distribution centres of woodcuts are considered to be the most famous places of wakes in Samogitia, e. g. Žemaičių Kalvarija, Kret- inga, Šiluva. It is difficult to establish where and when folk craftsmen learned carving techniques. Only assumptions can be made. It is believed that they might have learned this technique from

19 Lithuanian Folk Art monks while working in printing-houses. The technique of carving of woodcuts from Samogitia seems to be rather perfect. Folk artists had to have something to follow so that their images of saints would at least be in line with Christian iconography. Pro- totypes of folk woodcuts were usually considered to be miraculous paintings from local churches as well as images of saints popular in Germany and France. It is difficult to determine when Samogitia saw the first examples of woodcuts. There is no archive information or any reliable facts as to the origin of woodcuts. The dates engraved in woodcuts are not to be fully trusted. It is believed that the first woodcuts were made in Samogitia in the first half of the 19th century, although some researchers consider it to be the beginning of the 18th century. Wood- cuts disappeared in the second half of the 19th century. A work of graphics is an impress of a carved plate (usually on paper). Our graphic artists used only wooden plates to carve on. Carv- ings were impressed by embossed pressing or deep pressing. Folk carvings were painted, mostly with bright aqueous paints, distem- per or tempera. Red, yellow, green, blue, violet and rusta (a colour obtained by mixing red and black) were the most popular colours. Contour lines of drawings were in black. One carving combined up to four colours. Carvers decorated graphic works with the motifs recurring in the fabrics and canonicals of the 18th century and used them in their own way, sometimes with the colours changed. The stylisation of flowers and plants of folk carvings is also original. A specific element of the composition of Lithuanian carvings is the eye of Providence that was used very often. The composition of carvings is characterized by simplicity, monumentality, a plane, frontal and linear approach to shapes and ornaments, elementary techniques of drawing and carving, naivety, open expression, intui- tive and moderate use of rhythm and colours.

20 Lithuanian Folk Art Lithuanian Folk Painting

Researchers became interested in Lithuanian folk painting relative- ly late, only after World War I. The majority of examples of paintings have been collected in Samogitia, but this does not mean that there were no paintings in other regions of Lithuania. Painters did not sign their works making it difficult to identify the authors. Painting inscriptions usually referred to the portrayed saints and occasionally to the people who funded the paintings. As in carvings, inscriptions in paintings were usually copied and written with mistakes. The plot of paintings was religious, just like that of folk sculpture and carvings. Folk painting on paper could be treated as coloured drawings that are very similar to folk carvings. Images were drawn with thick and thin lines, whereas blank areas between them were filled with several one-tone colours, usually with aqueous paints sometimes mixed with egg white. Such paintings were very decorative. Their decorative aspect was even more emphasised by flowers and bouquets incorporated in the background. Painters also used flower and plant motifs to decorate clothing of storyline characters. According to their author, paintings in museums can be classified into two main groups: 1. Painted by self-educated painters; 2. Painted by folk artists who had had some sort of training experi- ence (after Vilnius Art School had been closed (in 1832), school- leavers, who had not finished the study programmes, not only practised painting themselves, but also taught apprentices).

Works of art often featured ‘the eye of Providence’ motif. It is typical of the whole Lithuania. The prevalence of the eye of Providence is associated with the Baroque, since it was very popular to depict flaming aureoles, cloud banks and rays at that time.

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Carvings and paintings were used to decorate pillared shrines and chapels. They were also used to paste up the inner side of the lid of dowry chests. Carvings were used to paste up the walls of a living house or a barn. Paintings were sometimes framed.

Lithuanian Folk Ironware Ironware is classified as a sculptural type of folk art, since these articles contain artistic elements of this kind of art that are mostly combined applying the principle of silhouette. Ironware was less popular in folk life than woodenware. In Lithuanian village they were used only in those fields of life where they could not be substituted by woodenware. Iron was an expensive and prestigious material. Techniques of processing iron. Creative possibilities of blacksmiths and the shape of articles first of all depended on the material. Lithuanian blacksmiths used flat, ribbed and round iron rods and iron tin. Iron was usually processed when hot. Sometimes iron was processed by metalworkers, just as tin. A beautiful shape of ironware is likely to be achieved when the hardness of the material is palpable and the master’s ability to work with the material is obvious. Although iron was not easy to process, Lithuanian iron crosses were usually elegant and light with bal- anced proportions and rhythmic ornaments. In order to maintain the diversity of décor and rhythm, blacksmiths sometimes pressed many through-cuts in a flat sheet of iron and rhythmic patterns of cross ornaments that created an impression of lightness and tracery. Some metal crosses were polychromed.

Iron Tops of Monuments Iron tops were an integral part of wooden memorial monuments. Crosses on the top of monuments were of different size, ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 meters high. They were mostly decorated with geo-

22 Lithuanian Folk Art metric, plant and celestial body motifs. Purely Christian symbols were much less widespread, e. g. cups, hearts, monograms of Christ and Mary, angels, etc. A zoomorphic ornament (mostly birds) was rarely used in the decoration of the crosses. Crosses on the top of monuments in Samogitia are distinguished by their various shape and design from the crosses in other regions. Artists in Samogitia particularly preferred to decorate the end of crosspieces and rays of suns with a stylised branch of a tree, leaves or stars. The ornamentation in this region was dominated by geometric, celestial body and plant motifs. The most popular motif in Samogitia was a heart. In Highlands (especially in the western part of the region) iron crosses were characterized by rich ornamentation: many openwork ornaments and abundance of rays of the sun. Rays were usually depicted in the form of plants. Artists in Highlands particularly preferred to decorate the centre of openwork suns and rays with small crosses. Blacksmiths inserted even a couple of moons in the crosses that used to be fixed not only at the bottom of the pole but also at the top of the cross, i.e. at the end of the crosspieces. Eastern regions of Lithuania are characterised by large openwork discs of the sun with Christian patterns at the top. Crosses in south-eastern and southern Lithuania often con- tained religious elements. Crosses built in this region are characterised by a flat shape; a cut-out tin was often used to make as if a roof for a wooden crucifix. These crosses were decorated less than those in Samogitia and Highlands. In southern and south-western Lithuania crosses with two crosspieces were common. Crosses built in this region are not characterised by a variety of forms and wealth of ornaments. They look similar to modestly decorated crosses in Western Europe. Crosses in Lithuanian Minor were also decorated quite modestly. More often than not their only décor was waning moon or new moon. Their typical feature was crosspieces of the same length.

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Crosses on the top of monuments were sometimes supplement- ed with weather vanes. There could be up to four weather vanes on the top of the cross.

Iron Grave Crosses In Lithuania iron grave crosses were started to be built in the mid 19th century and early 20th century. More often than not they were fixed in stone stands and sometimes in cement stands. Iron crosses were coherently combined with cubes and sometimes with natural stones. Decoration techniques of iron crosses and composition of ornamental elements depended in particular on the design of a cross. According to the design of a crosspiece, crosses are classified into two main groups: 1) single-pillar; 2) two-pillar (multi-pillar) or frame crosses. Both of these groups are characterised by decorations of the shape of ‘S’ and plant ornaments.

Other Types of Ironware Other iron articles, in addition to crosses, were also made. The oldest ornate iron articles (museum-pieces, not archaeological articles) date back to the 18th century, however, most of them were made at the beginning of the 20th century. Ironware included:

1. locks in the form of horses, ducks and other birds; 2. chest and door latches. These latches in Samogitia were often decorated with small crosses; 3. iron door handles. Churches, estates, houses of wealthy farm- ers were mostly characterised by ornate door handles. They were greatly influenced by the baroque style; 4. door hinges. They were also mostly found in churches and

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estates. Although local blacksmiths might have made them, similar hinges have been found across Europe.

Paper Trimmings Trimmings are decorative and applied-decorative items made from paper. The history of paper trimmings is old. In China, ‘window flowers’ were cut from paper in the 7th century A.D. In Japan, landscapes as well as images of plants and wild animals were also cut from paper. In the Indian shadow theatre, human figures were made from paper. Available information suggests that decorative paper trimming has been used since the 16th century in ethnographic Lithuania. While stamping documents, a cut sheet of paper was firstly fixed with wax on the documents and then stamped. The style of these trimmings was mostly Baroque. Such stamps were used until the first half of the 19th century. However, Lithuanian folk trimmings dating back to the end of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century do not show any influence of the Baroque or paper trimmings of other nations. Prevalence, types and development of paper trimmings. Prac- tice of paper trimming was a global phenomenon in Lithuanian farms at the end of the 19th century and particularly in the early 20th century. Application-based articles became the most important paper trimmings having replaced occasional (wedding, etc.) jewellery. The former included:

1. window curtains; 2. shelf covers, tablecloth – ‘corners’; 3. lampshades; 4. painting, mirror and frame decorations; 5. paper ‘mats’, ‘napkins’ under flowerpots, etc.

The prevalence of paper trimmings is related to changes in the village architecture. In the second half of the 19th century a smoky cot-

25 Lithuanian Folk Art tage, in which paper was not actually used as a means of decoration, was replaced by a house with a chimney. A wealthy farm had a clean room and bigger windows, etc. Lithuanian paper trimmings imitated and substituted interior tex- tiles. Occasional trimmings also used to be made (for altars of divine worship in May or home altars to welcome a priest). In poor funerals the corners of a coffin were decorated with ribbons made from white paper. Paper trimmings in a cottage used to be replaced before holidays, weddings and christenings, whereas in tidier farms they used to be renewed as soon as they wore thin. They also used to be replaced before get-togethers and gatherings of young people. Housekeepers had to do this in order to live up to their reputation. Although at the end of the 1930s paper trimmings were still practised across Lithuania, the extent of paper trimmings gradu- ally decreased and their public popularity slowly declined. In the first decades of the 20th century the most common cutting tool was household scissors; tailor scissors and sheep shears were also occasionally used, just as knives, razors and razor blades. Appliqué cutting was not popular in Lithuanian village in which a single sheet of paper was usually used. Paper trimmings with im- printed rather than cut out patterns were less widespread. White paper was most frequently used for paper trimming. Traditional patterns of paper trimmings were related to the patterns of our other folk art branches of the 19th century: openwork needle works, knitwear, chest bindings, wood carvings and architectural elements. Traditional Lithuanian folk trimmings were ornamented with openwork. One example of ornamentation: cut-outs created a pattern, whereas the remaining paper served the function of a background. Another example: the remaining paper created a pattern, whereas the cuts formed a background. The first method of ornamentation was more popular in Lithuania. Ornaments of Lithuanian folk paper trimmings are classified as follows:

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1. geometric (most common); 2. plant; 3. zoomorphic (quite rare).

The main motifs of a pattern included stars and suns. Larger- or naments used to be cut out on the bottom of a paper trimming, whereas lighter and smaller decoration pieces were applied at the top of the trimming. Another version of a composition: a large ‘sun’ was cut out in the centre of a trimming, with smaller related ornaments cut out on the corners. Lithuanian paper trimmings were mostly monochrome. However, white trimmings were livened up with coloured paper flowers, and ‘corners’ were sometimes combined with a coloured background.

Lithuanian Folk Easter Eggs Easter eggs in Lithuania were referred to as early as in the 16th century by authors writing about Lithuanian customs and household life. The oldest and simplest decoration technique is a one-colour painting. Such eggs were called painted eggs and were most widely known nationwide. Eggs decorated with patterns were called Easter eggs. Eggs were painted with natural paints, mainly of plant origin. In Lithuania aniline dyes began to grow more popular only at the end of the 19th century and in the first decades of the 20th century. Traditional colours of Lithuanian Easter eggs include black, brown, yellow, red and green. Black or another dark colour was usually used to paint the surface of the egg, which was then patterned with various compositions. According to the decoration technique traditional Lithuanian Easter eggs are classified as follows: 1. eggs decorated with wax (written eggs); 2. scraped eggs.

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Eggs decorated with wax were usually two or four coloured. Scrap- ing technique was simpler and faster than writing with wax. Ap- plying this technique eggs were firstly boiled and painted using one colour and then scraped. Such Easter eggs were always two- coloured: a colour background and white pattern. Ornament. Decoration techniques of Easter eggs determined their pattern motifs, composition and a painting character. Ap- plying the scraping technique, decoration pattern elements were smaller involving graphic and square lines; whereas decorating eggs with wax, a decoration pattern was smoother, mostly with abstract geometric lines, common rues or other stylised plant motifs. A geometric and stylised plant ornament was usually used for decorating eggs.

Palms According to the dictionary of modern Lithuanian, the word verba (palm) means a juniper, willow twig or other twigs. We will talk about the so-called palms of Vilnius. Palms of Vilnius are made from dry plants. For a long time palms used to be made from dry plants only in Vilnius district and thus started to be called as palms of Vilnius. Only later, from 1987 onwards, they started to be made in Dūkštos, Parudaminys, Trakai district, Šiauliai district and elsewhere. Field, forest, water and parterre plants are used for making palms. In the second half of the 20th century palms were already made from 45 kinds of various wild and cultivated plants. Palms were also made from wood cuttings. Until the beginning of the 20th century self-coloured plants with their natural colours were mostly used.

28 Lithuanian Folk Art Literature

Main literature 1. Gimbutas, J. (2010). Lietuvos kaimo trobesių puošmenys. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras. (4 copies, VMU). 2. Jankevičienė, A., Kuodienė M. (2004). Lietuvos mūrinės koplytėlės. Architektūra ir skulptūra. Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės akademijos leidykla. (5 copies, VMU). Lietuvių liaudies menas, XVII–XX a. (2003). Sudarytoja Da- lia Bernotaitė-Beliauskienė. T. – 2, Kaišiadorys: A. Jakšto sp. (3 copies, VMU). 3. Galaunė, P. (1988). Lietuvių liaudies menas: jo meninių formų plėtojimosi pagrindai. Vilnius: Mokslas. (11 copies, VMU). 4. Lietuvių liaudies menas. Grafika, tapyba. Sudarė ir paruošė P. Galaunė. Vilnius: Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1968. (3 copies, VMU). 5. Lietuvių liaudies menas. Skulptūra. Sudarė ir paruošė P. Galaunė, J. Balčikonis. Vilnius: Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla. 1963. Kn. 1; 1965. Kn. 2. (7 copies, VMU). 6. Lietuvių liaudies menas. Mažoji architektūra. Vilnius: Vaga, Kn. 1 – 3., 1966 – 1992. (9 copies, VMU). 7. Lietuvių liaudies menas. Medžio dirbiniai. Sudarė ir paruošė P. Galaunė. Vilnius: Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla. V., 1956. Kn. 1; 1958. Kn. 2. (7 copies, VMU).

Additional literature 1. Edited by Ray Cashman, Tom Mould, Pravina Shukla. (2011). The Individual and Tradition: Folkloristic Perspectives. Indiana University Press. (1 copy, VMU). 2. Marjolein Efting Dijkstra. (2011). The Animal Substitute: An Ethnological Perspective on the Origin of Image- Making and Art. Eburon Academic Publishers. (1 copy, VMU).

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3. Edited by Howard Morphy and Morgan Perkins. (2006). The Anthropology of Art. A Reader. Blackwell Publishing. (1 copy, VMU). 4. Leslie Dawn. (2006). National Visions, National Blindness: Ca- nadian Art and Identities in the 1920’s illustrated edition. The University of British Columbia: UBC Press. (1 copy, VMU). 5. Kathleen M. Adams. (2006). Art as Politics: Re-crafting Identi- ties, Tourism, and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia (Southeast Asia–Politics, Meaning and Memory). University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. (1 copy, VMU).