Violence and Politics

Violence and Politics:

Ideologies, Identities, Representations

Edited by Antonios Ampoutis, Marios Dimitriadis, Sakis Dimitriadis, Theodora Konstantellou, Maria Mamali and Vangelis Sarafis

Violence and Politics: Ideologies, Identities, Representations

Edited by Antonios Ampoutis, Marios Dimitriadis, Sakis Dimitriadis, Theodora Konstantellou, Maria Mamali and Vangelis Sarafis

Postgraduate Association of the Faculty of History and Archaeology, University of Athens

Advisory Board: Sophia Aneziri, Costas Gaganakis, Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, Katerina Konstantinidou and Giorgos Pallis

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-1328-9 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1328-0 In memoriam of Nikos Birgalias

CONTENTS

List of Figures and Tables ...... xi

Advisory Board ...... xiii

Editorial Committee ...... xv

Contributors ...... xvi

Acknowledgements ...... xxiii

Foreword ...... xxiv The Legacy of Nikos Birgalias: A Passion for History and People Kostas Buraselis

Introduction ...... 1 Antonios Ampoutis and Marios Dimitriadis

I. War and Violence: Theory and Practice

Chapter One ...... 14 The Machiavellian Prince-Warrior: A Modern or an Archaic Style of Sovereignty? Alexandros Giselis

Chapter Two ...... 29 Francisco de Vitoria’s Uptake of the Augustinian jus bellum iustum Efthymios K. Katsoulis

Chapter Three ...... 41 Negotiation and Capitulation during the Greek War of Independence: The End of Violence? Vallia Rapti viii Contents

II. The Ancient Greek World

Chapter Four ...... 54 The Past as a Guide to Political Practice: The Case of King Areus I of Sparta Manolis Pagkalos

Chapter Five ...... 72 Triphylia: War and Politics Gerasimos Trasanis

Chapter Six ...... 98 In Search of the Landscapes of Violence: Sketching Part of Xenophon’s and Alexander’s Great March through the Plains of Northern Iraq and Establishing Wartime Topography through the Ancient Sources Kleanthis Zouboulakis

III. Greece in the Twentieth Century

Chapter Seven ...... 118 The Pangalos Regime and the Republican Battalions, 1925–26 George Spentzos

Chapter Eight ...... 133 The Outbreak and Violent Repression of Greek Military Revolts in the Middle East, 1943–44 Vasiliki Boura

Chapter Nine ...... 144 From Appeasement to Violence: The Case of the Sofoulis Government, 1947–49 Manolis Sarlamis

IV. The State and the Monopoly on Violence

Chapter Ten ...... 160 The “Right to keep and bear Arms” and “Right of Resistance” of the British Subject: Conceptions of Violence “From Below” in British Political Discourse in 1819 Antonios Ampoutis

Violence and Politics: Ideologies, Identities, Representations ix

Chapter Eleven ...... 176 Mid-Victorian Remedies for Greek Violence: The Dilessi Murders Incident of 1870 Pandeleimon Hionidis

Chapter Twelve ...... 192 Some Observations on the Violent Episodes against the Greek Orthodox Population of Istanbul in 1821 Maria Arvaniti

Chapter Thirteen ...... 209 Violence and Power: Violence as a Governance Strategy in Ali Pasha’s Territory Maria Anemodoura

Chapter Fourteen ...... 221 Violence and Factional Conflict on the Island of Zante: The Assassination of the Syndic Pietro Macrì (1740) Nikos Kapodistrias

V. Gender and Violence

Chapter Fifteen ...... 238 Notes on Sexual Violence during the Greek Civil War Kostas Katsoudas

Chapter Sixteen ...... 252 The Rape of Women in the Greek Prose of the Second World War, German Occupation and Greek Civil War: A Stigmatic Representation of Victimisation and Gender Difference Theodora Kontogeorgi

Chapter Seventeen ...... 269 Violence and Female Radicalisation in the English Revolution: Men’s Denunciatory Discourse and Practices Charoula Moutsiou

Chapter Eighteen ...... 285 Ritual Interpersonal Violence during the Long 18th Century: Representations of Duelling in English Broadside Ballads, Class and Gender Dimensions Stella Chatzopoulou x Contents

Chapter Nineteen ...... 302 Women, Family and State in Early Modern Venice: Arcangela Tarabotti’s Perceptions of Violence Maria-Konstantina Leontsini

VI. Political Strategies and Social Conflict

Chapter Twenty ...... 320 Riots and Repression in Medieval Flanders: The Revolt of the Textile Industry Artisans in 1280 and its Repression by the Merchant-Oligarchs in the Case of Douai Vassilis Nedos

Chapter Twenty One ...... 334 Violence as a Means of Political Action of Spanish Anarchists in the First Third of the 20th Century: The Case of Rural Spain Dimitris Angelis-Dimakis

Chapter Twenty Two ...... 345 “And they struck terror into the exploiters and their lackeys.” Violence in the Athens Coppersmiths’ Strike of 1933 Kostas Paloukis

Chapter Twenty Three ...... 365 “Bia” and “Cratus” in Sicilian Tyranny Paolo Daniele Scirpo

Chapter Twenty Four ...... 380 Taming Constantinople: The First Years of Alexios I Komnenos’ Reign João Vicente de Medeiros Publio Dias

Chapter Twenty Five ...... 395 “Ἡμῶν ἀεὶ τὴν εἰρήνην ἀσπαζομένων καὶ πρὸς τοὺς ὑπηκόους καὶ πρὸς τοὺς βαρβάρους”: An Approach to the Byzantine “Just War” as Illustrated in Cases from the Middle Byzantine Era Marilia Lykaki

Chapter Twenty Six ...... 409 “All men must die.” Violence and Politics in the Early Years of Michael VIII Palaeologos’ Reign: The Assassination of the Mouzalones Brothers (1258) Nafsika Vassilopoulou LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figures

4.1 Silver tetradrachm of King Areus I 4.2 Silver obol of King Areus I 5.1 Map of Triphylia and adjacent areas 5.2 Plan of the Samikon citadel 5.3 Plan of the Platiana citadel 5.4 Plan of the Lepreon citadel 5.5 Hypothetical reconstruction of the Triphylian road system 5.6 Rough plan of the visual-territorial control in Samikon, Platiana and Lepreon 5.7 Map of the attested visual links between the citadels and the other settlements within Triphylian territory 5.8 Distances between the Peloponnesian cities 6.1 Map depicting the area between ancient Nineveh, the south side of the Maqlub elevation and beyond the western side of the Great Zab river (Zab el Ala) (after: Sushko, Gavgamela, 39) 6.2 Map depicting the general area between Arbela (present-day Erbil) and Nineveh (after: Sushko, Gavgamela, 51) 23.1 Plan of the Olympieion in Polichne near Syracuse (after Mertens, 2006) 23.2 Plan of the Athenaeum [temple C] in Gela (after Heiden, 1998) 23.3 Plan of the Athenaeum in Ortygia, Syracuse (after Van Compernolle, 1989) 23.4 Plan of the Athenaeum in Himera (after Van Compernolle, 1989) 23.5 Plan of the Olympieion in Akragas (after Van Compernolle, 1989) 23.6 Hypothetical reconstruction of Atlantes

Tables

21.1 Membership National Federation of Land Labourers (FNOA) 21.2 CNT Membership in Andalusia, 1918–19 21.3 Strikes in Andalusia, 1917–21 21.4 CNT membership in Andalusia, 1931–36 xii List of Figures and Tables

22.1 Allocation of labour force per size of business in Greece, 1917– 40 22.2 Size of workshops per labour force in the copper/bronze metalworking industry, 1933 22.3 Allocation of labour force per size of workshop in the copper/bronze metalworking industry, 1933 22.4 Labour force in the category A (41–70 workers) and B (12–40 workers) workshops

ADVISORY BOARD

Sophia Aneziri is Assistant Professor of Ancient Greek History and Epigraphy at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. She completed her PhD at the University of Heidelberg (Die Vereine der Dionysischen Techniten im Kontext der hellenistischen Gesellschaft [Stuttgart: Steiner, 2003]). Her research interests concern social and economic history, religion and the history of law in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Costas Gaganakis teaches Early Modern European History at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. He specialises in the social and cultural history of early modern France, with an emphasis on the French Wars of Religion. His latest publications are Θουκυδίδης ή Ευσέβιος; Προτεσταντική ιστοριογραφία στη Γαλλία των θρησκευτικών πολέμων (1560–1600) [Thucydides or Eusebius? Protestant historiography in France during the Religious Wars, 1560-1600] (Athens: Polis, 2017) and “Historia Sacra, Historia Humana: Calvinist debates on History,” in The Oxford Handbook of Calvin and Calvinism, edited by Bruce Gordon and Carl R. Trueman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).

Evanthis Hatzivassiliou is Professor of Contemporary History at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. He is the author of NATO and Western Perceptions of the Soviet Bloc: Alliance Analysis and Reporting, 1951–69 (London: Routledge, 2014) and The NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, 1969-1975: Transatlantic Relations, the Cold War and the Environment (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).

Katerina Konstantinidou is Assistant Professor of Modern Greek History at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, with a focus on early modern studies in Venetian-ruled Greek territories. Her main research topics include epidemic diseases, welfare institutions, Venetian justice as well as governmental practices in the Venetian territories in Levant.

Giorgos Pallis is Assistant Professor of Byzantine and post-Byzantine Archaeology and Art at the National and Kapodistrian University of xiv Advisory Board

Athens, from where he holds an MA and PhD in Byzantine Archaeology. His research interest focuses mainly on Byzantine sculpture and epigraphy and issues of topography. His field experience includes excavations in sites in Attica, Central Greece and the Cyclades. He has also served as a supervisor of Byzantine antiquities at the Ministry of Culture. He is a board member of the Christian Archaeological Society and the Society of Cycladic Studies. He is also an active member the Greek Epigraphic Society and the Greek Committee of Byzantine Studies. EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

Antonios Ampoutis studied History and Archaeology and European History at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, gaining MPhil and PhD degrees. He specialises in the political and social history of nineteenth-century Britain.

Marios Dimitriadis is a PhD candidate in European History at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. He specialises in the social and cultural history of England in the later Middle Ages.

Sakis Dimitriadis studied at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, and the University of Sussex, UK. He has received his MPhil and PhD degrees from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, specialising in the social and political history of nineteenth- century Greece

Theodora Konstantellou is a PhD candidate in Byzantine Art and Archaeology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. She is the author of articles dealing with Medieval Naxos, and a recipient of the Mary Jaharis Center Dissertation Grant.

Maria Mamali holds a BA and an MPhil from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. She is currently pursuing a PhD on the History of Venetian Crete.

Vangelis Sarafis graduated from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, where he is currently a PhD candidate. In 2015, he received his Master’s degree in Early Modern Greek History. He is the recipient of a doctoral scholarship from the Academy of Athens. CONTRIBUTORS

Antonios Ampoutis studied history and archaeology and European history (MPhil) at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, from where he also received his PhD. From 2010–13, he was a Herakleitos II scholar. He specialises in the political and social history of nineteenth- century Britain.

Dimitris Angelis-Dimakis was born in 1985. He holds an undergraduate and a master’s degree in European history (2009) from National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. He is currently a PhD candidate on a four-year scholarship at the Department of Contemporary History of the Autonomous University of Madrid, under the (supervision of Prof Juan Pan-Montojo González). The title of his thesis is “Rural politicisation and agricultural associations in Spain and Greece, 1906-1940”. He has several publications and he has presented papers in conferences and workshops. He speaks Greek, Spanish, English and French.

Maria Anemodoura was born in 1963 in Piraeus. She studied political science and public administration at the Law School of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. She is also a graduate of the Department of History and Archaeology. She is a PhD candidate in the same department and is preparing a doctoral thesis on “Political, social and economic structures in the period of Ali Pasha Tepelenli: from eastern despotism to modernity”. As part of her studies, she has participated in many conferences and seminars.

Maria Arvaniti studied history at the Department of History and Archaeology of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, where she also obtained an MA degree in 2013 in the field of modern and contemporary Greek history. She is currently pursuing a PhD at the same university, working on the Greek Orthodox population of Istanbul during the 1820s and 1830s. She held a Melina Mercouri Foundation scholarship from 2014 to 2016. She has worked in research programmes for the transliteration and recording of Greek and Ottoman Turkish primary sources. She speaks English, French and Turkish. Violence and Politics: Ideologies, Identities, Representations xvii

Vasiliki Βoura was born in 1986. She graduated from the Department of History and Archaeology in the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and holds a master’s degree in modern and contemporary Greek history from the same university on the subject of “The international status of the Greek exiled governments, 1941–44)”. She is currently a PhD candidate in the same department, working on the subject of “The Greek political bourgeois forces during the occupation, 1941–44”.

Stella Chatzopoulou gained her master’s degree in early modern history at the University of Sheffield. She is currently a PhD candidate in European history at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. At present, her research interests focus on the long history of English broadside ballads (1600–1850), exploring the representation of gender identities as manifested in occupations and interpersonal relations. More broadly, her fields of interest are cultural, social, and gender history in early modern Europe.

João Vicente de Medeiros Publio Dias holds a bachelor’s and licentiate (2002/2007) and master’s in history (research focus “Culture and Power”, 2008/2010, from the Federal University of Paraná. He has an interest as well as research experience in the political, cultural and military history and historiography of the Byzantine empire and Near Eastern Middle Ages. He has held academic presentations in Brazil, France, Germany, Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia, as well as published his work in renowned publications on his field. He is currently a PhD candidate in Byzantine Studies at the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz and was financed by Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst. His thesis, entitled “The Political Opposition to Alexios I Komnenos (1081–1118)”, aims to identify the composition and aspirations of the oppositional groups that acted against Alexios Komnenos, understand the role of the emperor’s relatives in the opposition, and analyse the imperial reaction to the expressions of opposition.

Alexandros Giselis holds a degree in history and archaeology from the National University of Athens, where he was awarded an MPhil and a PhD in European history. His doctorate and his subsequent research focus on Renaissance political and military theory in the framework of the state- building process in the sixteenth century. He speaks English, French, German and Latin.

xviii Contributors

Pandeleimon Hionidis studied history and archaeology and modern European history (MPhil) at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and, funded by the Greek State Scholarship Foundation, received a PhD degree in 2002 from the London School of Economics (University of London). He currently teaches the “General History of Europe” course for the Hellenic Open University. He has published a number of articles on nineteenth-century British and Greek history.

Nikos Kapodistrias is a PhD candidate in history at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. His thesis examines the function of criminal justice and noble ideology in the Ionian Islands in the late Venetian period. From 2013 to 2016, he was a research fellow at the Hellenic Institute for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies of Venice (2013-2016).

Kostas Katsoudas is currently pursuing a PhD in political science and history at Panteion University, Athens. He is a graduate of the Department of Communication and Mass Media of the same university, while he also holds an MA in comparative history from the Autonomous University of Barcelona. His main research interest is Greek anticommunism during the early postwar years.

Efthymios K. Katsoulis was born and raised in Athens. He is a graduate in Greek philology (2005) with a specialisation in classical Greek and Roman studies. He holds a master’s in ethical philosophy (2011) and is a PhD candidate of political philosophy in Spanish language and literature in the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. He has thought at secondary level for a number of years and as a copy-editor/proof-reader in newspapers. He is now an external partner of the Faculty of Spanish Language and History of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. He has published articles in academic journals in the field of philosophy and Spanish culture. His research fields include the history of ideas, political philosophy and theology, ethics, Spanish culture and the history of the Renaissance.

Theodora Kontogeorgi studied history and archaeology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (UoA), where she received a scholarship from the State Scholarships Foundation. She obtained an MA in modern Greek literature from the Department of Philology of the same university. The title of her thesis was “Stigmatic Representations in Modern Greek Literature: Women outside the rules in the Greek Prose of the Second World War, German Occupation and Greek Civil War”. She is Violence and Politics: Ideologies, Identities, Representations xix a PhD candidate of the same department, in the field of literary theory. Her research focuses on narratology and cultural criticism, especially on issues of representation, ideology and identity and their poetics, in modern and postmodern Greek literature. She has presented papers in conferences and workshops and teaches literature, Greek language and history in high school.

Maria-Konstantina (Maritina) Leontsini was born in Athens in 1990. She is a PhD candidate in early modern European history at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Her PhD is currently being funded by the State Scholarships Foundation (IKY). He thesis looks at Italian women writers in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 2014, she received her MA in early modern history from the University of Sheffield. Her thesis was entitled “The Woman Question in Early Modern Venice: A Case Study of Lucrezia Marinella. She received her BA in history in 2012 from the Department of History and Archaeology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Her main academic interests are early modern European history, early modern Italian history, gender studies and intellectual history.

Marilia Lykaki holds a PhD in Byzantine history/Histoire, texte et documents jointly awarded by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (UoA) and the École Pratique des Hautes Études (Paris), where she completed her master’s. During her postgraduate studies, she received distinguished grants. She has professional experience as an early stage researcher in several projects of the UoA and National Hellenic Research Foundation and as an academic teaching personnel in the field of Byzantine history. In addition, she has participated in local and international conferences and has publications in Greek, English and French. Among others, her research interests concern the middle Byzantine era, the international relations of Byzantium and the ideology of war.

Charoula Moutsiou is a PhD candidate in European history at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. At present, her research area is radicalism in the English Revolution of the mid-seventeenth century, with special reference to women’s radical discourse and activity. She is a scholarship holder from Foundation for Education and European Culture (IPEP).

xx Contributors

Vassilis Nedos is a PhD candidate of European medieval history at the Faculty of History and Archaeology of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. His research interests include social, economic and political history, mainly focused on northeastern France and Flanders during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

Manolis Pagkalos is a PhD candidate in the School of Archaeology and Ancient History of the University of Leicester. His research interests revolve around memory and the use of the past in the Hellenistic period while exploring notions of identity, politics and culture in the ancient world. He is also fascinated by the study of ancient numismatics. He holds a degree in history and archaeology from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and an MA in the classical Mediterranean, with a focus in early Hellenistic Sparta, from the University of Leicester. His research is supported by the Greek Archaeological Committee (UK).

Kostas Paloukis is a research assistant of Thessaloniki Port Authority. He completed his undergraduate studies, MSc and PhD thesis at the Department of History and Archaeology of the University of Crete, Rethymno. He has also received a State Scholarships Foundation fellowship. His research interests include the study of labour movements, the history of communist parties in Greece, especially Archeiomarxist currents, and lately the history of Thessaloniki port.

Vallia Rapti studied history at the Ionian University, Corfu, where in 2010 she concluded her MA programme in history and documentation in modern subjects. In 2014 she enrolled as a PhD candidate in the Department of History and Archaeology of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Since 2009, she has been an associate in various projects regarding the early modern period in Greece at the Institute of Historical Research/National Hellenic Research Foundation (IHR/NHRF) and Academy of Athens.

Manolis Sarlamis was born in 1985. He graduated from the Department of History and Archaeology in the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, where he also received a master’s in modern and contemporary Greek history and is researching a PhD candidate on the subject of “The political centre in Greece, 1952-1961”. He is also a graduate of the National School of Public Administration and works in the Greek public sector. Violence and Politics: Ideologies, Identities, Representations xxi

Paolo Daniele Scirpo was born in Syracuse in 1976. In 2000, he graduated in classical philology (archaeological stream) at the University of Catania (Italy). In 2012, he received his PhD in classical archaeology from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (UoA) and is a postdoc researcher in classical archaeology at same university. In 2014, he obtained a tourist guide license from the Greek tourism ministry and began working at the Italian Archaeological School of Athens. His research interests are Greek Sicily and the relations between colonies and the mother country. His publications in academic journals include a collection of archaeological essays on Sicily (Triskeles, Athens, 2005) and the Greek translation of Ernesto De Miro’s book L’arte greca in Sicilia (Athens, 2015).

George Spentzos was born in Athens in 1979. He graduated from the Department of History and Archaeology of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, from where he obtained his master’s degree in modern and contemporary Greek history. His PhD, which he is conducting at the same department, is entitled “The Question of Security in Greece, 1923–1926”. He has been awarded the Antonios Papadakis fellowship for his doctoral studies.

Gerasimos Trasanis was born and lives in Athens. He received his BA in archaeology and art history in 2010 from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (UoA). He received his MA from the University of Nottingham in 2014 for his dissertation “Fortification and Defence Systems in Classical and Hellenistic Elis, Greece: The case of Triphylia (Samikon, Platiana, Lepreon)”. He has participated in numerous excavation projects carried out by the UoA on the islands of Kos, Tinos, Andros and Kythira. In recent years, he has been working as trench supervisor at rescue excavations within a Public Power Corporation project at Ptolemaida lignite mines conducted by the Kozani Ephorate of Antiquities.

Nafsika Vassilopoulou was born in Athens in 1983. She holds a PhD in Byzantine history from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, where she also completed her undergraduate and postgraduate studies. Her research interests are focused on the late Byzantine period, diplomacy, war, identity issues, religious conflict and relations between the West and the Ottomans. She has taught as a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Crete and was a research associate in major research programmes, including the DARIAH-GR digital humanities project. She has several publications and participated in various international conferences. Besides Greek, she speaks English, German and Italian. xxii Contributors

Kleanthis Zouboulakis is a PhD candidate in ancient history at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (UoA) with a specialisation in Hellenistic and Roman History. He received his MA from the same university. The title of his thesis is “Felix Syria Nube: Combined Development of Family Relations and State Policy in the time of Antiochus III”. He has worked in various research projects of the UoA and has been a research assistant at the Danish Institute at Athens. He participated in the first Greek archaeological mission to Mesopotamia, conducted by the UoA in April 2011 in the northern Kurdistan Region in Iraq, part of which involved a preliminary topographical survey concerning the location of the Gaugamela battlefield.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This volume was a collective effort. We are deeply indebted to all those who made this publication, the Proceedings of the Third Colloquium of the Postgraduate Association of the Faculty of History and Archaeology, possible. Special thanks are due to the heads of the Faculty of History and Archaeology of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Professor Anastasia Papadia-Lala and Professor Panos Valavanis, who offered invaluable support and encouragement during the whole process of the publication. We would also like to thank the academic staff of our faculty. In particular, we would like to express our gratitude to the members of the advisory board – Professor Evanthis Hatzivassiliou, Associate Professor Costas Gaganakis, Assistant Professor Sophia Aneziri, Assistant Professor Girgios Pallis and Assistant Professor Katerina Konstantinidou – for their contribution at all the critical stages of the publication. The editing of the articles is due to the systematic and detailed work of Dr Damian Mac Con Uladh, whom we warmly thank.

The Editorial Committee:

Antonios Ampoutis, PhD, European History Marios Dimitriadis, PhD Candidate, European History Sakis Dimitriadis, PhD, Modern Greek History Dora Konstantellou, PhD Candidate, Byzantine Archaeology Maria Mamali, PhD Candidate, Early Modern Greek History Vangelis Sarafis, PhD Candidate, Early Modern Greek History

Athens, April 2018 FOREWORD

THE LEGACY OF NIKOS BIRGALIAS: A PASSION FOR HISTORY AND PEOPLE

It undoubtedly comes as a bitter realisation that we exactly appreciate the value of a person only when he/she is no longer among us. The legacy of Nikos Birgalias is one of love and passion for people and history. Both of these legacies are reflected in the work of his students, who had the opportunity to be taught and guided by him. It is their and our duty to expand and promote his fields of expertise and his academic research, with the moral attitude and the professional ethics that he exhibited towards his colleagues and his academic projects.

Personally, I must underline how much I miss his presence and how much I cherish his responsible behaviour in matters of academic life, in which he acted valiantly and bravely, giving his very best. In this volume, I undertook to present a review of his academic work. In order to do that, I shall highlight the milestones in his career, the outcome of his successful research, which was cut short by his premature end.

In his academic work, Nikos Birgalias started and remained a “Spartan”. He was active in a challenging academic field of global interest, in which Greek scholars were until then a respectable minority. In his PhD thesis, entitled “L’Odyssée de l’éducation spartiate” and supervised by Prof Claude Mossé (Paris VIII, 1993; Athens, 1999), Birgalias examined the complicated, fascinating and controversial subject of ancient Sparta’s educational system, based on primary sources and on developments in modern European thought.

His first systematic contribution and critical approach to the world (and the myth) of ancient Sparta was followed by a plethora of scholarly articles. Birgalias was also the organiser of an international conference entitled “The Contribution of Ancient Sparta in Political Thought and Practice” (September 2002), in which many prominent international scholars participated. It is important to note that this successful Violence and Politics: Ideologies, Identities, Representations xxv conference, which took place in Sparta, not only returned the scholarly debate on ancient Sparta to its historical birthplace but revealed the perspectives of modern Greece as a centre for such remarkable efforts. As its academic organiser, Birgalias was a true pillar of Sosipolis, the International Institute of Ancient Hellenic History. Birgalias established and organised the institute with great zeal, with the assistance of the Prefecture of Ιleia and especially his partner and coorganiser of all his projects, his wife, Natassa Florou.

His research interests, though, went beyond Sparta. Birgalias was interested in the Greek polis during the archaic and classical period. In his second book, entitled Από την κοινωνική στην πολιτική πλειονοψηφία: Το στάδιο της ισονομίας (From the social to the political majority: isonomia) (Athens, 2009), he examined the transition to more complete democratic forms in the ancient Greek world, using data from numerous ancient Greek cities. This work was based on a penetrating analysis of primary sources of the cities under examination. The result was to show how persistent, gradual, multilateral and diversified this movement to democratic institutions in ancient Greek world was.

Another project of his, which we had discussed with enthusiasm was the analysis of forms of popular assemblies in ancient Greek cities. Birgalias started methodically to examine the presence, function and importance of popular assemblies from the phase of Homeric society. The outcome was the publication of his last book entitled Πόλη και πολιτικοί θεσμοί στον Όμηρο (Polis and political institutions in Homer) (Athens, 2014).

One year earlier, the Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Sosipolis were published, entitled War–Peace and Panhellenic Games. The conference, which had been held at Pyrgos and Olympia a few years before and organised under the auspices of the Institute already mentioned, revealed once more Birgalias’ international standing and connections.

It is important to note that all these accomplishments were carried out in a short time and in a difficult local context, which often restricts those who attempt to thrive academically.

I reiterate that the legacy of Nikos Birgalias is alive among us, and it is our duty, especially of the younger generation, to preserve and continue it. His enthusiasm, his passion for academia and people, and his memorable smile (a diffusion valve for him and us) will remain a source of both inspiration xxvi Foreword and encouragement. The image of Nikos as a significant scholar and a very gentle man will warm our hearts and minds.

Professor Kostas Buraselis Vice Rector for Academic Affairs and International Relations National and Kapodistrian University of Athens1

* I would like to thank Dr Maria Anagnostou, who continues the debates on Ancient Sparta based on Nikos Birgalias’ work, for her help in completing titles, details and photographic material. I would also like to thank Marios Dimitriadis and Antonios Ampoutis for their translation of the above text. INTRODUCTION

ANTONIOS AMPOUTIS AND MARIOS DIMITRIADIS

This volume is the outcome of the colloquium entitled “Violence and Politics: Identities, Ideologies, Representations”, which was held in Athens on 15 and 16 January 2016 and dedicated to the memory of Prof. Nikos Birgalias. It was organised by the Postgraduate Association of the Faculty of History and Archaeology, under the auspices of the Faculty of History and Archaeology of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. The colloquium provided a forum for new researchers to explore and demonstrate the interaction between politics and violence from the perspective of Greek and European history. As a result, the chapters of this volume extend over a time span stretching from the Greek classical period to the twentieth century, covering many aspects of the relation between politics and violence.

The study of the connecting threads between the two concepts, from a historical viewpoint, initially requires their definition. The problem that instantly occurs, however, is how to define the term “politics”, since it has acquired distinctive contents over a long historical course. Subsequently, what would be the definition of the person or the group who exercise or are involved in politics? The word politikos, deriving from the word polis (city-state) in Aristotelian thought, could mean the statesman who exercised authority over freemen.1 Many centuries later, in seventeenth- century Italy, politics was connected to “the knowledge of the means of preserving domination over a people”.2 Comparably, in nineteenth-century Britain, the exercise of politics, expressed by the term “statesmanship”, was associated with the “effective administration”3 of the modern impersonal state, in which new functions, such as political economy, were included. The different contents in the term “politics” are not just a matter

1 Rubinstein, “The History of the Word politicus in Early-Modern Europe,” 42. 2 Viroli, From Politics to Reason of State, 2. 3 Craig, “Statesmanship,” 48. 2 Introduction of the “political language” of a particular historical society. The different meanings are closely related to fundamental differences between historical polities and states with regards to their social organisation. In other words, the concept of politikos/politika denoted important aspects of social organisation in the fifth-century BC Greek polis. Subsequently, significant changes occurred in its content in order to describe the politics of seventeenth-century Italian city-states or modern European states. Thus, in order to overcome the impediments posed by the historical weight of the word “politics”, we could simplify the term by using the aforementioned historical examples and concentrate on its primary elements when it is exercised. These basic elements are authority and administration. Therefore, in a consensual framework we could define politics as the ways, methods and mentalities by which a person or a group exercise(s) authority over and/or administer(s) a social organisation, usually polities or states.

Likewise, the definition of “violence” depends on the historical perspective. As Francisca Loetz suggests, the categorisation of an act as violent depends, to a large extent, on the established norms in a society.4 Therefore, within the framework of this volume, the definition of violence should be constantly correlated to its relation to politics, examining its meaning in specific historical contexts, as the chapters that follow illustrate. This of course, does not suggest that there should not be a primary definition of violence as well. Therefore, based on Loetz’s observations, we could contend that violence physical or psychological, is the action by a person, a group or an institution against a human being(s) seeking to subordinate him/her/them by means of severe damage.5 The classification of an action as violent presupposes not only the realised effect but also the intention of the agent (person, group or institution) who performs the particular action.6 Nevertheless, the connection between politics and violence is not self-evident. The clarification of the connection between the two concepts requires paying attention to the aspects of authority and subordination in an act of violence. Hence, authority and subordination in a political context bring about another useful analytical category, the concept of power and, in particular, political power.

In accordance with Michael Mann’s terminology, we could define political power as the capacity to organise and control people, materials and

4 Loetz, A New Approach to the History of Violence, 8–9. 5 Ibid., 9. 6 Ibid. Violence and Politics: Ideologies, Identities, Representations 3 territories.7 In keeping with this definition, political power is more of an organisational means than a purpose, resulting in the regulation and institutionalisation of social relations.8 The functional nature of political power assigns this sociological concept to the category of power for. Political power is a means for social groups, communities or states to achieve goals, not necessarily relevant to politics per se.9 By all means, the functional nature of political power potentially includes power over, meaning the distributive power over human beings. Therefore, violence, as a potential means, is embedded in political power, that of state authority.10

Nevertheless, the political power of the state is not exclusively commanding/authoritative; it is also normative/ideological. It is actually a mixed power wherein authority and normative/ideological power intertwine, often in a dialectical relationship.11 Thus, for example, the exercise of commanding power through the potentiality of violence can enhance the normative power of a state; and vice versa, the normative power can legitimise the authoritative power of the state. As a consequence of this dialectic, the study on violence, in particular the existence or nonexistence of violence in a political act, may produce manifestations with regards to the efficacy of political power itself. Therefore, does the exercise of violence by a state entail the effective exercise of power? Stuart Carroll, for instance, notes that the intensity of state violence during the reign of Louis XIV actually undermined the legitimacy of the French state.12 That is to say, the excessive use of commanding/authoritative power via violence can decrease the normative capacity of a state, leading to the further weakening of its political power.

Of course, this is not the only way the exercise of violence influences the capacity of political/state power. Nevertheless, the study of violence in a political context can be used as an indication and, possibly, as a means to measure the political power of the state.

The aforementioned observations with regards to the relation between the concepts of politics and violence led to the division of the 26 contributions to the volume into six parts: War and Violence: Theory and Practice; the

7 Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 1, 2. 8 Ibid, 37–38. 9 Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 2, 9. 10 Ibid., 26–27, 37–38. 11 Ibid., 24. 12 Carroll, “Thinking with Violence,” 29–30. 4 Introduction

Ancient Greek World; Greece in the Twentieth Century; The State and the Monopoly on Violence; Gender and Violence; and, finally, Political Strategies and Social Conflict.

Opening the first part, War and Violence: Theory and Practice, Alexandros Giselis contends that Machiavelli’s theory on state sovereignty denoted a personified authority, the Prince-Warrior, in whom political authority and violence was integrated. Machiavelli’s political theory on sixteenth- century “statecraft” was influenced more by archaic and pagan elements than by a modern concept of impersonal sovereignty. Taking an innovative approach, Giselis proposes that the Prince-Warrior’s style of governance indirectly originated from Indo-European archetypes brought about by Machiavelli’s study of Roman historian Livy.

The concept of “just war” is presented by Efthymios Katsoulis, who relocates the concept to sixteenth-century Spain. He examines the political theories that redefined Augustinian theology with the purpose of legitimising the authority of the early modern state to conduct war.

Using an example from the Greek War of Independence, Vallia Rapti demonstrates the limits of violence with regards to its ability to enforce political power. Ottoman methods to convince the besieged Greek revolutionaries in Missolonghi to surrender included a mixture of physical and psychological violence. It also displayed the dominant Ottoman negotiating practice during military operations. This negotiation process aimed to restore the sultan’s political control over the revolutionaries and to put an end to a costly military confrontation. It was a clear case of overt conflict, in which A sought to subordinate B through force.13 The Ottomans tried to affect the psychology of the besieged Greeks in a way that allowed them to control the options of the revolutionaries. However, the unsuccessful attempts by the Ottoman authorities to accomplish the compliance of the besieged is an important indication of the limited capacity of political power on the part of the Sublime Porte.

The second part sheds light on aspects concerning the relation of political power and violence in the ancient Greek world. This relation is clearly demonstrated in the following cases in which (geo-)political and military power networks were intertwined.

13 Lukes, Power, 22.