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Andras Kraft

Andras Kraft

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IN THEBYZANTINEAPOCALYPTICTRADITION THE LAST ROMAN LAST THE MA ThesisinMedievalStudies Central Eu András Kraft May 2011 Budapest ropean University

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Central European University, Budapest, inpartial fulfillment of therequirements IN THEBYZANTINEAPOCALYPTICTRADITION Thesis submittedtothe Depa Accepted inconformance with ______THE ROMAN LAST THE of theMasterArtsdegreeinMedievalStudies Chair, ExaminationCommittee Thesis Supervisor András Kraft (Germany) May 2011 Examiner Examiner Budapest by rtment ofMedieval Studies, thestandardsofCEU TOPOS

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Central European University, Budapest, inpartial fulfillment of therequirements IN THEBYZANTINEAPOCALYPTICTRADITION Thesis submittedtothe Depa Accepted inconformance with ______THE LAST ROMAN EMPEROR ROMAN LAST THE of theMasterArtsdegreeinMedievalStudies External Examiner András Kraft (Germany) Budapest May 2011 by

rtment ofMedieval Studies, thestandardsofCEU

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Central European University, Budapest, inpartial fulfillment of therequirements IN THEBYZANTINEAPOCALYPTICTRADITION Accepted inconformance with Thesis submittedtothe Depa ______THE LAST ROMAN EMPEROR ROMAN LAST THE of theMasterArtsdegreeinMedievalStudies ______External Supervisor András Kraft (Germany) Supervisor Budapest May 2011 by

rtment ofMedieval Studies, thestandardsofCEU

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Budapest, 23May2011 institution of highereducation foran academic degree. also declare thatnopart of the thesis has been submitted inthis form toanyother of others,andnopartthe bibliography. Ideclare thatnounidentified andillegitimate use wasmade of thework research and onlysuch externalinforma declare herewiththatthe present thesis I, theundersigned, András Kraft thesis infringesonanyperson’s , candidatefortheMAde is exclusivelymy ownwork,basedonmy tion asproperlycreditedinnotesand ______or institution’scopyright.I gree inMedievalStudies Signature CEU eTD Collection 3.5. 3.4. 3.3. 3.2. 3.1. 2.4. 2.3. 2.2. 2.1. 1.4. 1.3. 1.2. 1.1. Methodology Terminology Characteristics ofByzantineapocalypses Introduction BIBLIOGRAPHY CONCLUSION 3. 2. THESOURCESOFLA OFTHE ANDCONTENT 1. STRUCTURE PROLEGOMENA LIST OFABBREVIATIONS LIST OFFIGURES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3.4.5. 3.4.4. 3.4.3. 3.4.2. 3.4.1. RECEPTION RECEPTION Andreas SalosApocalpyse The VisionsofDaniel The firstGreekredactionofthe The GospeloftheTwelveApostles The Edessan Apocalypse The -Vaticinium The historicalcontextofthe The Ethiopianaffiliation Syriac vs.Jewishsources? The eschatological The narrative ofthe A descriptionofthe Initial reactionstotheArab conquest ...... Last Daniel Seven-Hilled Daniel Daniel Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse Diegesis Danielis ...... 73 ...... 82 ...... 1 ...... iii ...... καὶ ἔσ ...... 62 ...... topos Apocalypse Apocalypse ...... ii ...... ται ...... 48 ...... iv ...... 37 ...... 58 ...... oftheLastRom ...... 26 ...... ST ROMANE ...... 50 ...... 37 ...... 34 ...... 64 ...... 24 ...... TABLE OF ...... 60 ...... Apocalypse Apocalypse ofP ...... 16 ...... 14 ...... 4 ...... 40 ...... 12 ...... APOCALYPSE MPEROR MOTIF MPEROR CONTENTS ...... 31 ...... i

an Emperoran ...... 55 ...... seudo-Methodius ...... 12 ...... 19 ...... 24 ...... 43 ...... 7 6 1

CEU eTD Collection demonstration ofacademic zealprovided aconstant source of motivation. hard-to-reach literature.Finally,I orthography andstyle.Furthermor Special thanksmust begiventoJudithRassonforherenduring,caring,andpreciseassistancein support andinspiration.Ialsowant First, IwanttothankmysupervisorsIstván ACKNOWLEDGEME e, IwanttothankMártonRibáry feel theneed toexpress my gratitudeto colleagues whose tothankNielsGaulforhis Perczel andVolkerMe ii

NTS discerning commentsandadvice. whohelpedme inacquiring nze fortheircontinuous CEU eTD Collection Figure 2.Structuralcomparisonofmotifsa Figure 1.Para-historicalgenealogyofAlexande LIST OFF ssociated withtheLastRomanEmperor iii r theGreatandLastRoman Emperor…….18

IGURES IGURES topos...70–72 CEU eTD Collection Last Daniel Edessan Apocalypse DOP Diegesis Danielis Daniel Thomas, BarbaraRoggema, ed. David, CSCO BZ Corpus Scriptorum BibHist Christianorum Orientalium (Greek) (Syriac) Reinink, Apocalypse Andreas SalosApocalypse Byzantinische Zeitschrift καὶ ἔσται

if followed byRoman numerals the reference istotheSyriac:

Aerts, W. G.A.Kortekaas,ed. J., if followedby Arabic numerals Methodius. CSCO540–541.Leuven:Peeters,1993. 122–144. letzte Vision.’”Ph.D.dissertati Schmoldt, Hans.“DieSchrift‘V America, 1985:222–8. Ph.D. dissertation.Washington, D.C.: CatholicUniversityof Early MuslimPeriod:Pseudo-Methodius andPseudo-Athanasius.” Martinez, Francisco Javier. “Easte Dumbarton OaksPapers 1976: 12–23. Berger, Klaus. 202–218. letzte Vision.’” Ph.D.disserta Schmoldt, Hans.“DieSchrift‘V 2009. A BibliographicalHistory.Volume1(600-900) Übersetzungen Methodius: Dieältestengr 214). Translation, andComm Rydén, Lennart.“TheAndreasSa LIST OFABBREVIATIONS

Gerrit J.,ed.&tr. . CSCO569–570.Leuven:Peeters,1998.

Die griechische Daniel-Diegese iv

entary.” entary.”

DieSyrischeApokalypsedesPseudo- tion, UniversityofHamburg, 1972: the referenceistoGreek: DOP on, University of Hamburg, 1972: on, UniversityofHamburg, 1972: om jungenDaniel’und‘Daniels om jungenDaniel’und‘Daniels iechischen und rn ChristianApocalypticinthe los Apocalypse.GreekText, DieApokalypsedesPseudo- 28 (1974):197–261(at201– Christian-Muslim Relations. . Leiden:Brill, . Leiden:Brill, lateinischen

CEU eTD Collection Twelve Apostles Seven-Hilled Schmoldt, Hans.“DieSchrift ‘Vom Apocalypse Pseudo-Chrysostomos Oracle ofB ODB OC MPG OriensChristianus J.-P.

aalbek Daniel

Alexander, Paul. Ibid., 190–198. 220–236. letzte Vision.’” Ph.D.disserta Greek Dress Byzantium Kazhdan, Cambridge UniversityPress,1900. Together withtheApocalyp Harris, JamesRendel. Migne, AlexanderP.,ed.chief. . 3vols.NewYork: Patrologia graeca . Washington, D.C.:Du v The OracleofBaalbek.TiburtineSibylin

The GospeloftheTwelveApostles, ses ofEach OneofThem tion, UniversityofHamburg, 1972: Oxford mbarton Oaks,1967:9–22. jungenDaniel’und‘Daniels UniversityPress,1991. The

Oxford Dictionaryof Oxford . Cambridge: . Cambridge: CEU eTD Collection Armenian, 3 2 century, wastranslatedintoGreekandsubs into the so-called northern Mesopotamia around690.Within yearsofitscomposition theSyriactextwasadapted which today isreferred toasthe would endureuntiltheemperor’sab Christians from theyokeofArabs, This LastRoman Emperor wassaidtobecomi one of themostinfluential literary this apocalyptic which reactedto thesudden andunprecedented succe sentiments thrivedamong Jewish,Zoroastrian,a to awaveofapocalypticwritingsacrossconf The Arabconquestoftheseventhcenturyandcon Olympus’ Speculum 4, No. 3 (1929): 329–39 and Francis J.Thomson, “The Slavonic Translations of Pseudo-Methodius of ed. Wł ,” in Coptic Studies: Acts of the Third International Congress of Coptic Studies, Warsaw, 20-25 August, Last Roman Emperor points to Matthew of Edessa, a twelve-century Armenian monk, who in his Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance (Le 1. Papers. Vol. Collected 1 SeeFrancisco JavierMartinez,“The King of R E.Stone, “The Document called ‘Question’,” in See Samuel H. Cross, “The Earliest Allusion in Slav in “TheEarliestAllusion H.Cross, SeeSamuel odzimierz Godlewski (Warsaw:Éditions Scientifiques dePologne, 1990), 247–59 (esp. 254 ,n.37). The Introduction Apokalypsis 2 Coptic, topos Zeitgeist of theLast Roman Emperororiginated topos ,” Turnovka Knizhovna Škola Edessan Apocalypse 3 andArabic. , that is, of amotif derived from Pseudo-Methodius. uven: Peeters, 2006), 239–42; see also Christopher MacEvitt, MacEvitt, seealsoChristopher Peeters, 239–42; 2006), uven: , Christiancirclesintroduced anewideologicalfigurewhichbecame

Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius topoi dication attheendoftimes. PROLEGOMENA (Philadelphia: University ofPe University (Philadelphia: pacifytheworld,andestablish the andshortlyafter,attheverybeginningofeighth inmedieval history,name ū m andthe King of Ethiopia in Medieval Apocalyptic Texts from 4 (1985): 143–73. 143–73. 4(1985): essional anddenominational borders.Apocalyptic 1

equently intoLatin,OldChurchSlavonic, ic Literature to the Revelations of Pseudo-Methodius,” ofPseudo-Methodius,” Revelations tothe ic Literature nd Christian,aswell ng atamoment ofgreat tinued ArabruleovertheNearEast gaverise Apocrypha, Pseudoepigrapha and Armenian Studies Armenian and Pseudoepigrapha Apocrypha, ss oftheArabonslaught. Inthe contextof in thelateseventh-centurycomposition, . Itwascomposed inSyriac nnsylvania Press: 2008), 27–8, who who 27–8, 2008), Press: nnsylvania ly, theLastRomanEmperor. uses thepotentimagery of the Muslim groups,allof distress toliberate pax Christiana The Crusades and the the and Crusades The 1984, 1984, that 1 .

CEU eTD Collection Byzantium, the Empire of New Rome Methodius Byza Methodios,” Methodios,” further Cyril Mango, the city,seeJanL. van Dieten, ed. fromentering Germans crusading to prevent in order up walled be to in gate the Xylokerkos ordered Magdalino, the Romans Romans the Press, 1993), 34. 34. 1993), Press, Isaak II(r.1185–1195,1203–1204). king. Epistula deOrtuetTemporeAntichristi influenced thetenth-century monastic writer Ad 11 9 7 6 5 emperor, whowouldonedayreturn and chasethe Ottomans from theQueenof Cities. emperor intheEast,Constantin stimulated apocalypticexp the CrusadesnotonlyinWest butalso of theHohenstaufen. West. four kingdoms andomits theidio in SouthernFrance. century. tremendous. AfirstGreektranslationwascarried Russia Übersetzungen lateinischen Mediaevalis 45 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1976), 26 (lines 112–23). 112–23). (lines 26 1976), Brepols, (Turnhout: 45 Mediaevalis Variorum, 1993), 26 and idem, 10 4 8 See Aerts, Kortekaas, SeeFigure 1 and abendländische “Eine frühe Prinz, Cf.Otto 30. Ibid., W. J.Aerts, W. G.A. Kortekaas, ed. See Donald M. SeeDonald Nicol, DanielVerhelst,ed See ’ (d. 1217) account of II, who believed in the Pseudo-Methodian prophecy and and prophecy Pseudo-Methodian the in believed who II, Isaac of account 1217) (d. Choniates’ SeeNiketas ntine history Paul Magdalino, “The History of the Future 8 , ed. Jonathan Shepard Jonathan ed. , 7 Thismotif of theLastEmperor came toplay Morethana150manuscripts ofthisrecension havecome downtous.Inalllikelihood, it The im Moreover, Pseudo-Methodian trad 4 and its adaptations were being consulted in an attempt to make sense of the Ottoman triumph. See Mango, SeeMango, triumph. in ofthe Ottoman an attempt make sense to consulted were being anditsadaptations Shortlyafter,between710and720thefirst “ Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung desMittelalters Erforschung für Archiv Deutsches (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 100–8. What is more, the the more, is What 100–8. 1992), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: Isaac II,Saladin and Venice, . udies dedicated to Donald M. Nicol pact ofthe Die ältesten griechischen und lateinischen Übersetzungen lateinischen und griechischen Dieältesten infra St Byzantium, the Empire New the of Byzantium, Rome p.17. ., Adso Dervensis, 5 The ImmortalEmperor Arecensionofthistranslation,wh . CSCO 569 (Leuven:Peeters, 1998),See 16. (Aldershot: Ashgate Variorum, 2007), 93–106. 93–106. 2007), Variorum, Ashgate (Aldershot: Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius The Empire of Manuel I , 1143–1180 Komnenos, I Manuel of Empire The ectations atthecourtof

, 213–4. , 213–4. Nicetae Choniatae Historia Nicetae Choniatae syncratic imperial genealogy, e XIPalaiologos,came tobe DieApokalypse Pseudo-Methodius: des Die ältesten griechischen und ” inTh e Expansion of Orthodox Europe: Byzantium, the and 10 De ortu et tempore antichristi ettempore De ortu Followingthe : e Life and Legend of Constantine , Last Palaiologos, Constantine e Life Legend of and Th transferstheroleofLastEmperor totheFrankish d its

an ition prompted eschatological

Aktualisierung der lateinis der Aktualisierung Uses 2 , ed. Roderick Beaton and Ch in theEast. Greekrece so ofMontier-en-Der,whoinhiscomposition (New York: Scribners, 1980), 212 and especially Paul : Prophecy, Policy and Propaganda,” in andPropaganda,” Policy : Prophecy, 41 (1985): 22. 41 (1985): an essential role in outattheverybe Alexios IKomnenos (r.1081–1118) (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1975), 404, 6–7. See 6–7. 404, 1975), Gruyter, de Walter (Berlin: halosis translationwascomposed, possibly, ich deemphasizes thenarrationof throughoutthemedieval periodwas

infra ofConstantinople,thelastRoman 6 became abestseller intheLatin (CSCO 569), 31–5. 31–5. 569), (CSCO

, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Continuatio Christianorum , Corpus chapter 3.3. 3.3. chapter (Cambridge: Cambridge University associated with chen Übersetzung des Pseudo- des Übersetzung chen sentiments ontheeveof the imperial propaganda nsions andadaptations arlotte Roueche(Aldershot: ginning oftheeighth ApocalypsePseudo- of thesleeping The making of 11 Emperor

9 and and

of CEU eTD Collection Weissagung the eschatologicalpeoplesmentioned byPseudo-Methodius. incite military opposition against the encroachi mid-sixteenthLater, inthe served thepurposeofbolsteringmorale 15 14 12 is frequentlynotedbymodernscholar to better appreciate the complexity of themotif the most prominent motifs ofByzantineapocalyp learning how thismotif wasaccommodatedtotheByzantine audienceandhowitbecame oneof means ofconceptualcomparison Imap the I focusonthenotionofLastRoman Empe Crusades.Inparticular, evaluating thedevelopmentsdown totheeveof ofitssubsequentuse and theimmediate afterlifeofthe first modern scholarshiponthe disintegrated German Empirehadgr the themes of theLastEmperor totheirow legends. Yearningfornationalunification,German Pamphleteers ofthe ReformationEra,” Use and Abuse of Eschatology in the kritisch und Textgeschichte Revelationes: Methodius, g Medievalia et Humanistica Alexander, “Byzantium andtheMigratio development the of abrief overview For 1898). Niemeyer, Sackur, Ernst (1968): 46–50, esp. 50. 46–50, (1968): 1988), 113. 13 16 riechischen und lateinischen Übersetzungen lateinischen und riechischen In this context Ernst Sackur’s critical edition ofthe f criticaledition Sackur’s Ernst context this In Michael Kmosko, “Das Aerts, Kortekaas, See John Wolfgang Bohnstedt, “The infidel Scourg Hannes Möhring, Hannes

Out ofthislong-standing andwide-rangingtr In 1497afirstGerm During theNapoleonicwarsth (Stuttgart: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 2000) provides an exception. anexception. Verlag, 2000) provides Thorbecke Jan (Stuttgart: Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen. Pseudomethodius, Adso und die tiburtinische Sibylle tiburtinische und die Adso Pseudomethodius, Forschungen. Texteund Sibyllinische Die ältesten griechischen und lateinischen Übersetzungen lateinischen und griechischen Dieältesten Der Weltkaiser der Endzeit: Entstehung, Wandel und Wirkung einer tausendjährigen

, New Series 2 (1971): 48–54. 48–54. 2(1971): , Series New Rätsel des Pseudomethodius, century, German ( pamphlets an translationofthea

Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Philosophical American the of Transactions n of Literary Works and Motifs. The Legend of theLast Roman Emperor,” eat appeal inthelatenineteenth Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius s butrarelylooke e German Romantic movement (CSCO 569), 35; Marc569), 35;LaureysandDanielVerhelst,“Pseudo- (CSCO , ed. Werner Verbeke, etal. (Le use andtheadaptationsofthisliterary e Edition. Ein Leuven-Groninger Forschungsprojekt,” in Forschungsprojekt,” EinLeuven-Groninger e Edition. thedefendersat siege ofViennain1683. our earliest Latin manuscripts needs to be highlighted; see see highlighted; to be needs manuscripts Latin our earliest n . Theideaofrestoringthetroubledand ” 3 of theLastEmperor,whoseubiquitousinfluence ng Ottomans, whowerebythenidentified with

tion Byzan ror intheByzantineapocalyptictradition.By e of : the TurkishMenace as Seen by German tic thought.Theoverallpurposeofmystudyis bove mentioned Latinrecension wasprinted. poets andscholarsalikewereeagertoapply adition Iwilldealwiththe verybeginning in late nineteenth-century late Germany,in nineteenth-century J. seePaul d atindetail. Türkenbüchlein) wereprinted inorder to 6 (1931): 6 13 . (CSCO 569), 35. 35. 569), (CSCO 15 274; Aerts, Kortekaas, Eventually,suchpamphlets

century,andgaverisetothe 16

uven: Leuven University Press, University Leuven uven: revivedvariousmedieval , tracingitssourcesand , New Series 58, No. 9 topos, thereby Dieältesten (Halle:M. 14

The 12

CEU eTD Collection a Genre Institutum Studiorum Orientalium, 1987), 339–40. 339–40. 1987), StudiorumOrientalium, Institutum Pseudo-Methodius,” in specific toSyriacapocalypses, see Francisco Javier Mar Twelve Apostles an essential attribute of apocalypses. From among the apocalypses I deal with in this thesis only the inte and messenger, whodelivers angelic an Middle Ages esoteric innature, under thefollowingrubrics:apocal That is,anapocalypse is first andforemost aliterary genre.Its characteristics canbesummed up 21 19 17 apocalypses, characterizedbyanascensionintoheaven, suchasinthe marked interestineschatology. disguised asprophecies.Also,apocalypsesshow (8) inordertolendauthoritythe pseudonymity dualistic insupposingaconstant cosmic plan, that apocalypses form: the most authoritative definition ofapocalypse hasbeengiven byJohn Collins,who proposes methodology. Firstofall, Before Icanformulate my concreteresearch Westminster Press, 1964), 122ff. 122ff. 1964), Press, Westminster (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005), 2. 2005), 2. Literature, Biblical of Society (Atlanta: his own fate. Generally, what maniscan do un 18 20 For an introduction to these characteristics, see Bernard McGinn, McGinn, see Bernard characteristics, these to introduction an For As a result, apocalypses generally promote ethical passivity To “Introduction: J.Collins, John SeeJohnC.Reeves, SeeDavid S. Russell, Characteristics ofByz vaticinia exeventu (1979): 9. (1979): Additionally, twotypesof salvation, andspatialinsofarasitinvolvesanother,supernaturalworld. transcendent realitywhichis is mediated byanotherw a genre of revelatory literature with a (New York: Columbia University, 1979), 3–7, 10–11. It should beadded that apocalypses often contain 19 contains an angelic messenger, who transmits (4) pessimistic insofar as evil will persist until the end of theworld, and (5) 18 IV Symposium Syriacum (3)deterministic inthesense thathumanlife isseen asregulatedbya Trajectories in Near Eastern Apocalyptic: A Postrabbinic Jewish Apocalypse Reader The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic: 200 BC–AD 100 200 Apocalyptic: of Jewish andMessage The Method , thatis,prophecies aftertheevent,whicharehistorical narratives I needtoclarifywhatundersta antine apocalypses antine

wards the Morpholo the wards 21

fight betweengoodandevil.Furt ypses are(1)literaryinform(asopposedtooralprophecy),(2) bothtemporal,inso orldly beingtoahuman rprets the revelation. In contrast to Collins, though, I do not consider it I consider donot though, toCollins, Incontrast the revelation. rprets derstand and agree with the cosmic plan. See apocalypses canbedisti 1984, ed. H.J.W. Drijvers, R. Lavenant, et al. (Rome: Pontificum narrative framework, inwhicharevelation text, (7)symbolic andstereotypedlanguage, gy of a Genre,” of gy 4 goalIneedtolay tinez, “Thetinez, ApocalypticGenr (9)astrongsenseofimminenceand(10) , that is, the view that man is incapable of determining of determining viewthat man isincapable is,the , that far asitenvisageseschatological Visions of the End. Apocalyptic Traditions in the the revelatory information. For characteristics For characteristics information. revelatory the nd bytheterm apocalypse.Probably Semeia recipient, disclosinga recipient, 14: 14: hermore, apocalypsesuse(6) nguished: (1)otherworldly Apocalypse: TheMorphology of Revelation ofJohn out my terminology and e inSyriac: the World of infra 17

p.34. p.34. (Philadelphia: of theGospel of , and (2) , and(2) 20 and

CEU eTD Collection that the apocalyptic motif of the wicked woman was a literary adaptation of Rev 17; see chapter 3.4.1. see 3.4.1. Rev 17; chapter of motif wasaliteraryadaptation ofthe woman wicked apocalyptic the that idem (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 249–54. As to idem 249–54. (Leiden: Brill, 2003), ed. the Year in 1000, in Byzantium increasingly recognized. inByzantium,” SeeMagdaYear “The Paul lino, 1000 chapter 3.4. Untersuchung Grossreichenu. 7)und der (Daniel2 Themes Meyendorff, SeealsoJohn n.108. 50–1, GmbH, 1991), III in ZeitVaria Jahrhundert),” (7.-9. mittelbyzantinischer in Lebenstrost und See the sixth century. Wolframwas anissue of “Endzeitvorstellungen about debate until Brandes, specific Pauline passages, 29 26 25 24 23 22 kingship withinaChristianframework bytransla Caesarea (d. 339)pioneered thele Constantine, thefates of andtheempirebecame intrinsically linked. established peaceandfacilitated under Romanrule.Atfirst,theempire of Augustan EmpirecoincideswithCh Empire enjoyedanexceptionalre knowing thattheonlyeverlasti Byzantine imperialideologywhichrequiredjustifi implying thattheRoman statewouldlastuntilth empires. Traditionally, thelast empirecame to contain apocalypticvisionsthat Byzantine apocalyptictraditionwere Aswillbecome apparentthescripturalb provided bythe to thelattercategory. cosmic weekmotif from the narrative andinperiodizingworld historyusing,forinstance,theyear-weekschem historical apocalypses,whichrec 28 27 SeeMcGinn, Initially,theByzantineswe Most notably, 1 Cor 15:24, 2 Thess 2:7–8, and 1 Tim 4:1. I.e., Mk 13:1–37; Mt 24:1–51; Lk 21:5–36. Ps78:65. and Ps 68:31 Notably, Magog. and of theGog on elaborates notion which Ez38–39, Particularly See Gerhard Podskalsky, On the tension between and Byzan (New York: Fordham University Press, 1979), 7–8. Ho 7–8. 1979), Press, FordhamUniversity (NewYork: (Munich: Fink, 1972), 10–2. Fink,10–2. 1972), (Munich: Visions of the End Book of Byzantinische

Ezekiel, re reluctantto accept the 25 , 33. Book ofDaniel andtheRevelationofJohn

ng kingdom thatofGod. was revolvearoundsymbolic allusionstofour consecutiveworld 22 the BookofDaniel , fewPsalms, ount worldhistorywithparticul the spreadofChristianity. the increasingly important role of the ofthe role important the increasingly lationship toChristconsider

tausendjährigen Friedensreiche (Apok. 20); einemotivgeschichtliche Reichseschatologie: die Periodisierung derWeltgeschichte invier den gitimization ofthisfusion.HeputHellenisticnotions chaptertwoandsevenofthe rist’s lifeandgiven . Alltheapocalypses Iwilltreat inthisthesisbelong RevelationJohn of wasappreciatedasadominion that 5 ting theconceptofkingbeinganimage or e endoftimes. Thisnotionwasimperativefor beidentified withtheRoman Empire,thus ByzantineTheology: HistoricalTrends and Doctrinal ackground oftheapocalyp cation forestablishingaworldlyrealm while tine imperial ideology, see the beginning section of section seethe beginning imperial ideology, tine (Poikila Bizantina 11) (Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt Habelt Rudolf Dr. (Bonn: 11) Bizantina (Poikila wever, its use in Byzantine inByzantine its use wever, the factthatlatterlivedanddied . 26 27 However,theRoman orByzantine Ofparticularimportance forthe asacanonical book. Its canonicalstatus 28 Later, withtheconversion of ing thatthef Revelation Book ofDaniel.Both chapters 23 ar interestinthepolitical thesynopticapocalypse, I will argue, for instance, instance, I for will argue, is literature apocalyptic ses Iinvestigate is oundation ofthe 29 of e orthe e 24

CEU eTD Collection 17 Oaks Center for , 1966), Vol. 2, 611–22. 2, 611–22. Vol. Studies, Byzantine 1966), for Center Oaks 4 places eschatologicaltho eschatology isconcernedwith Greek version(anditslaterre chapter, Iwill,bydefault,refertotheGreekratherthanSyriacsource, because itwasthe the first Greek rescension of the the LastRoman Emperor, whoabdicatesattheend Victorious Emperor, whocarries out a successful military campaign againstthe ,and into dissociated andfragmented intoseparate figures, Emperor. Aswillbecome clear,the initially unitary apocalypses. Iwilldistinguishbetweentwomotif synonymously. Generally,Iemploy thefuturete Despite theirdifferentconnotati

32 31 30 “Muslim.” Insteadthey referto Muslims asArabs,Saracens,Ishmaelites, andHagarenes. Byzantine interchangeably. Theapocalyptic sources Regarding myterminology afewpreliminary remarks seem necessary.Iusetheterm Roman and the Syriacsources). imperial ideologyisall-pervasiv can beonlyoneemperor duetothefactthatthereisbutoneGod. reflection oftheKingdom ofHeaven. Accordingly, theemperor wasGod’sviceroyon im Early Christian and Byzantine Political Philosophy Political Byzantine Christian and Early Dvornik, Francis Seefurther 52–5. Press, 1988), University Cambridge J. Burns (Cambridge: , ed. H. 1450 350–c. th Foratreatment of the term “Saracen,” see David D. Graft 52. Thought,” See Political “Byzantine Nicol, in Thought,” Political “Byzantine SeeM.Nicol, Donald 8–84. For additional designations of Arabs, seeMar /5 itation ofgodintothenotionthatempe th Centuries: Effects on Contemporary Christian-Muslim Relations,” Usually itisimportant todistinguish between Terminology ught into the dactions) thatwasavailable to theByzantine audience.

the endofworldand ons tothemodern ear,hereafte e throughouttheapocalypticliteraturestudiedhere(including Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodiusinthebeginningthird 30 literary genredescribedabove.Thus, Moreover,therewasthegeneral understanding thatthere rigins and Background and rigins : O tinez, “The Apocalyptic GenreinSyriac,” 342, n.13. 6 The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought c. Thought Political Medieval of History Cambridge The most notablyintothetworelatedfiguresof s: theLastRoman Empe earthreigningoveranempire thatwasthe on, “’The Arabs’ inthe Eccles ror wasdivinelyappointedandconfirmed. nse tosummarizethena of time. Further,afterIwillhaveintroduced Iuse persistently avoidusingtheterm topos apocalypticism last thingsingeneral, ofalastRoman emperor became HTS Theological Studies r Iusetheaforementioned terms , 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton DC:Dumbarton , (Washington, 2 vols. 31 Thisframework ofByzantine and eschatology. While andeschatology. ror andtheVictorious iastical Historians of the iastical Historians ofthe apocalypticism rrative partsofthe apocalypticism 64, No.1(2008): can 32

CEU eTD Collection 900) and DavidThomas’ bibliographicalcompilation on thebasisofreasoningthatwhat 36 35 33 subjected totopicalanalysis.Morethepoint, consider the LastEmperor motif tobe,firs understanding wouldnotdojustice totheliterary evocative, elusive,an symbolic incharacter rather thanreferential andfactual. eschatological motif developed.In seventh centurydowntothe(p Byzantine apocalyptic traditionstarting withthe My primary concern is thereconstruction andma apocalypses, IwilluseLorenzoDiTommaso’s on thetitles.Inordertoguideth For the it inthisway. Inthecase of the manuscripts. Thestichometry servesthepurposeof introduced by modern scholars tofacilitate orienta kept inmind thatdividinganapocalypseintoch eschatological. be regardedasasubcategoryofeschatology. literature. Thus, all motifs are apocalyptic and, by definition, eschatological. eschatological. Thus,by allmotifsand, literature. definition, are apocalyptic (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998), 14–7. 14–7. 1998), Eerdmans, MI: Rapids, (Grand 37 34 David Thomas, Barbara Roggema, ed. Lorenzo McGinn, See John J. Collins, J. Collins, SeeJohn Of course, the reverse does not follow. However, I only deal with with I only deal However, follow. not does the reverse course, Of (Leiden: Brill, 2009). (Leiden: Brill, 2009). Concerning mostoftheapocalypsesIusether Methodology Whenever givenIfollow the respective stichometry oftheeditor.However, ithas tobe Edessan Apocalpyse DiTommaso, Visions of the End, 3–4. 34

The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature toJewish Apocalyptic An Introduction Imagination: The Apocalyptic The d oftenequivocalinmeaning. Apur Book Danielthe andApocryphal DanielLiterature andthe

of

Visions ofDanielIindicateachapternumber withthesymbol §. e readersmoothly throughtheoftendifficulttextsituationof robably) eleventh-century ever isconsideredtobeapocal doing so,Iregardapocalypticli Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 1 (600- 1 Volume History. A Bibliographical Relations. Christian-Muslim oftheTwelveApostles 33 t andforemost, aliterary designwhich canbe Asaresult,Iuse thesetwoterms synonymously monograph ontheapocryphalDanielliterature 7 36 apters andsubchaptersis asreferenceguides. natureofapocalyptic writing.Consequently, I pping oftheLastRomanEmperor motifinthe the idea istoappreciate apocalyptic textsand tion inthetext.Nosuch division exists inthe Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodiusinthelate convenience for the modern reader and I use convenienceforthemodernreaderandIuse e isstill no generally accepted consensus 37 Furthermore, apocalypticlanguageis Last Daniel topoi taken from apocalyptic or oracular yptic is, atthesame time, also ely referentialorhistorical , Irefer tothepagenumber. terature to beexpressive and . (Leiden: Brill, . (Leiden: . Iinvestigate howthis anauxiliary measure 2005) . , 2nd ed. 35

CEU eTD Collection development in the Christian Christian East. the in development motif intheByzantine Empire. Möhrin presence of particular motifs, themes, orcharacters.” Reeves, biblical and parascriptural substrates governing their formation and shape could plausibly explain the contextual (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 5–8. Press, 19 California of University idem, and (esp. 1010–7) 1018 Paul Alexander, “Medieval Apocal 41 40 39 38 and Magog.NeitherwillIconsidertheApocalypse’s Alexander Legend group, andthe that arecloselyrelatedtoit,itsfirst of theByzantineapocalyptic tradition? that thePseudo-Methodianmotif its development inorder toansw question concernslessthe Muchscholarlyattentionhasbeendevotedtotheorigin motif. Iwillpresentthemostimpor that thisthesis isdevoted to. para-scriptural substrate of theLastRoman Empe material from biblicalandpara-scripturalsubstr genres (apocalypticand shared poolofapocalypticthemes. Thispoolwa concentrate ontheadaptation,m gain newhistoricalinformation. Apocalyptictextsareusuallyappreciatedas dating andtheuseofobscurevaguelanguage, theology ofhistorythat an eschatological framework. Apocalypses writeth their Tothe best of my knowledge no study has yet been devoted to the topical of the Last Roman Emperor he Reeves’ program which I agree with approach this In See Most notably by Alexander, who extracted information, for instance, about the Muslim conquest of Sicily. See topoi Magdalino, “The History of the Future My sourcematerial willcomprise the original Syriac Apocalypse,twoSyriacapocalypses asgenericliteraryd Andreas SalosApoclapyse corpus,whichseems tobehavebeenpr determines thepresent. oracular literature, oral prophecies, liturgies, origin than thesubseque The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine The 40 85), 62–72. Cf. Walter E. Kaegi, E.Kaegi, Cf. Walter 85), 62–72. Review ypses as Historical Sources,”American

evices thatstructur evices er thequestion:What werethe g’s monographthefocuses onLatinWe was adaptedtoandremained intheeschatologicalframework odification, andappropriationof odification, 38 tant resultsofthisinquiryinchaptertwo.Yet,myresearch Greek redaction,fiveapocalysesfromthe Without thehistoric denying ,” 21–2. ,” 21–2. . IwillnotdealwithPseudo-Methodius’impactonthe 8 ates. Itistheidentificationandmapping ofthe ror motif intheByzantineapocalyptic tradition formulates as follows: “Discerning and identifying the the formulates as andidentifying “Discerning follows: s trans-confessional,i e history byinterpreti e history of the future and thereby construct a e historyofthefutureandtherebyconstructa Trajectories in Near Eastern Apocalyptic nt development ofthis apocalypseshavebeenstudiedinorderto historical sources.Despitethedifficultyof influenceontheapocryphalJohannine imarily inrespect tothenotion of Gog Byzantium andthe Early Islamic Conquests (ed. Dorothy deF. Abrahamse) (Berkeley: (Berkeley: deF.Abrahamse) Dorothy (ed. essential elements whichensured of theLast Roman Emperor al value of apocalypses, I al valueofapocalypses, st and has littletosayaboutits topoi ng itinaccordance with nvolved variousliterary 39 , which came from a , whichcame froma etc.),and drewits topos 73, no.4(1978): 997– Visions ofDaniel . 41 Iinvestigate , 22.

CEU eTD Collection (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 23–65 (esp. 36–8, §13). 36–8, §13). (esp. 23–65 Press, 2000), Academic Sheffield (Sheffield: apocalypse in question, see John M. Court, inseeJohn question, apocalypse DiTom from theEarly Islamic Period,” apocryphal apocalypse of John.See Alice Whealey, “The Apocryphal Apocal Gruyter, 2008), 157–200 (esp. 198). Cf. McGinn, Cf. McGinn, 198). (esp. 157–200 2008), Gruyter, Weltreligionen den monotheistischen in Eschatologie Apokalyptische Schriften und Kaiservaticinien als Medium antikaiserlicher Propaganda,” in the Ottomans to Constantinople fallof time afterthe to statecensorship, whichcoul subjected have been texts might apocalyptic demise. early Consequently, emperors’ particular “prophesying” in used could be ofemperors various lengths the regnal address apocalypses Byzantine that The quality emperors. ruling against agitation political promoting and discontent civil were asmediaexpressing texts used for apocalyptic that 201–14. 220–236; 202–218, 190–198, 122–144, 1972), Hamburg, 47 46 45 44 structural analysis andconceptual comparison inordertoidentify themotifs thatwere essential primary concerntoidentify thein within my approachoftopicalanalysistheda hypothetical whichtentativ 1453. come downtousinlatemanuscripts whichgenerallypostdatethe final fallofConstantinoplein the altogether fiveversionsofthe my thesis.With regard tothe text editionsIus appear tohavebeencomposed beforethe eleven Emperor motif. Thevarious considerations. Iinvestigate of LeotheWise Much attentionhasalreadybeenpaidtohistestimony. trad Byzantine Studies/Études byzantines Brill, 1976). 12–23. 12–23. Brill, 1976). oracles, seealso Alexander, (possible) exception of Leothe Wise,” of Legend “The 42 43 Brandes has formulated an intriguing hypothesis that attempts to answer this curious fact. He convincingly shows shows convincingly He fact. curious this answer attempts to that hypothesis intriguing an formulated has Brandes Lennart Rydén, “The Andreas Salos Apocalypse. Greek Text, Translation, and Commentary,” Hans Schmoldt, “Die Schrift ‘Vom jungen Daniel’ und ‘Daniels letzte Vision.’” Ph.D. dissertation (University of Mango has shown that the Recently, Alice Whealey hasnoticed that Recently,Alice tracesoftheWhealey Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic SeeAlexander,Byzantine Andreas SalosApocalypse ition. 47 maso, As tothesourcematerial itneedstobeem Thisfactmakes thedatingoforiginal 42 e

Also,Iwillnot dealwithLiudprandof Cremona’s account ofthe Th Book Daniel due toitslatedate.

of , allthe apocalypses Daniel Isurveypredate th Last Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine Oracles of Leo the Wise d explain why most Byzantineapocalypsesthat Zbornik Radova Vizantološkog Instituta Vizantološkog Radova Zbornik Journalof Theological Studies , 89–90. , 89–90.

. the immediateafterlifeof Visions ofDaniel 46 Visions ofDaniel

4 (1977), 9–10; Podskalsky, Podskalsky, 9–10; (1977), 4 terrelationship ofparticularapocalyptictexts.Rather,Iemploy ely advancesarelativechronol The Johannineand the Apocalyptic Tradition 44 Visions of the End Visions of Mychoiceofsourcesisdetermined byhistorical , ed. , ed. Wolfram Brandes, Felicitas Schmieder (Berlin: deWalter , 96–122; John Wortley, “TheLiterature of Catastrophe” . See Wolfram Brandes, “Kaiserprophetien und Hochverrat. were known by the mid-twelfth century; see Cyril Mango, e HansSchmoldt’sandKl 9 . Iselectedandthe ting isofsecondaryimpor 45 th century, whichis the Klaus Berger, , 130–6. , 130–6. Further,IconsultLennartRydén’seditionof Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius , New Series 53 (2002): 533–40 (esp. 538–9). (esp. For the , 538–9). 533–40 New Series 53(2002): textsaprecariousis phasized thatmostapocalyptictextshave 43 , 30–2. , 30–2. Moreover,Iwillleaveoutthe 6 (1960): 59–93 (esp. 62–3, 71–2). With the With 71–2). 62–3, (esp. 59–93 6(1960):

Die griechische Daniel-Diegese Byzantinische Apocalypse anditsLastRoman e ofthe Crusades. On the Leonine ypse of John: By A John: ypse of have come down to us originate in the ogy ofthesources.However, Andreas SalosApoclapyse aus Berger’seditionof historical borderlineof

sue. Iwillproposea Reichseschatologie tance. Itisnotmy Visions ofDaniel. can be found in an zantine Apocalypse DOP 28 (1974): (1974): 28 Endzeiten: Endzeiten: Oracles (Lei , 53; den:

CEU eTD Collection 49 48 two Syriacapocalypses address thethesisth Apocalypse inthepolemicatmosphere ofCaliph whether itinspired the notion of aLast Ro investigate theissueof Ethiopianpr First, Iconsiderthedisputedi Last Roman Emperor revolves around twocentraltypological motifs, structure: ahistoricalandtypologicalscheme. Ther conquest Ireconstructthenarrativeof Pseudo-Methodius In chapteroneIanalyze thestructure the complex motif. Here,Ipresupposethatcomplex literarymotifshavea unitary motif predatesan assembly of multiple make useofwhatIcalltheprinciple in detail,thenonehasgoodreasontoassume reviews tendtobemore deta second principle,theprincipleof The problem,ofcourse,ishowtoidentifygenuine vaticinium exeventu been writtennotlongaf to arule that Alexander laid Myanalysis willbeassisted bythree methodol of eleventh century. in theappropriationp See Alexander, “Medieval Apocalypses as ultimum vaticinium ex eventu DiTommaso, In the third chapter I investigate the receptio In chaptertwoIexamine variouspossible

The . Aftersituating at the topos Book aniel whichanapocalypseprovidesindicates topos withitsrichtypologicalimagery. rocess andsubsequent

closely related to the of D ter thelatesteventto iled thanpropheticnarratives. down yearsagoaccordingtowhic

ssue ofwhetherithasroots inJewishorSyriacsources. ThenI derivesfrom anow-lostfourth-centurySibylline prototype. ,

for theapproximate datingofthesources.Thisprinciplerefers 107, 138. particularity, whichisbasedonth Historical Sources,” 999. See also Magda the apocalypseincontextof ovenance, focusingontheso-called and contentofmy primary source,the lectio brevior,whichIdefineasfollows:acomplex, , which ischaracte Apocalypse, which 10 Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius, its first Greek that ithadahistoric notably the Ishmaelite-Midianite analogyandthe reception historydownto(roughly) theearly topoi whichitalludes.” ʿ man Emperor. Thecont Abd al-Malik’sreforms followsnext.Finally,I sources oftheLastRoman Emperor motif. n historyoftheLastEmperor motif. Istudy vaticinia whichportrayanobviousresemblance to ogical principles. First,Iusetheprinciple econstruction showsthatthe 49 Thus,ifatopos theestimated date . Asaruleofthumb Idefinemy h, “everyapocalypsemusthave literary responses e presumption thathistorical al background.Third, Iwill lino, “History “History 29. lino, of the Future,” 48 Inotherwords, thelast tendency tofragment. extualization of the rized byabipartite Kebra Nagast isparticularly rich ofcomposition. Apocalypse of Apocalypse of totheArab Apocalypse and

CEU eTD Collection development andfinishwiththe associated with Last Roman Emperornarrative. Fi better overview,Isupplement my changes and particularities of thismotif, aswell survey ofthesourcesfocusesonreconstructiLa redaction, fiveversionsofthe Visions ofDaniel prospect for further research. forfurther prospect analysis withatableinwhic 11

group,andtheAndreasSalosApocalpyse as ontheissueofdatingtext.Toprovidea nally, Idrawconclusions

st Emperor narration,theanalysisof h Ijuxtaposethevariousmotifs regarding thelatter’s . My CEU eTD Collection Niewohner in 1286),” (d. Bar Hebraeus to 648) (d. John Patriarch from “the faithoftheIshmaelites” w apocalyptic imagery wereevoked,then,intime, doc details, certainmajor themes canbeidentified. Whileprovidence grantvictorytotheArabs? 52 51 50 of Christianity. accounts werepenned,suchasthelifeofStAn difficult taskofaccountingfortheirlosses. various Chalcedonian andnon-Chalcedonian congr of theByzantinemilitary debacle.Althoughth century CE,EasternChristianswere In theafterm 1.1. Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Early on Writings Jewish and Zoroastrian Christian, comprehensive overview, see Robert G. Hoyland, Imagination European the Medieval Islam in Saracens. Islam: aBookofEssays to in Islam,” Responses Christian Eastern “Early John C. Lamoreaux, 363–78; Rule,” and Early Conquest the Muslim of Interpretation Damascene: Tradition and Originality in Byzantine Theology Byzantine in Originality and Damascene: Tradition Louth, see study, Andrew introductory agood For 1–13)). 60 (lines 60–7 (esp. 1981), Gruyter, P. ed. Bonifatius Kotter, had sectthat acrypto-Arian with the Ishmaelites” of Religionswissenschaft 632–750” Zeitvon der aus Texte der Islam.und Christliche Christen “Orientalische Suermann, Harald 199–203; 9–21, Press, 1982), University Illinois Southern (Carbondale: Views on Emergent Islam,” in Byzantine Reactionstothe Arab conquest,” DOP Islam,” of Views “Byzantine Meyendorff, seeJohn Islam, to See IgnaceDick,“LaPassion Arabe deS.AntoineRuwa Its first proponent was (d. ca. 753), who in his weremanifold onslaught the Arab to reactions Christian Initial reactionstotheArabconquest (Wiesbaden: Oto Harrassowitz, 1992), 251–73; Alan 251–73; 1992), Harrassowitz, Oto (Wiesbaden: ath oftheMuslim conquestofthe 52

67 (1983): 120–36; Sidney H. Griffith, “Dispu Griffith, H. Sidney 120–36; (1983): 67 1. STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OFTHE ANDCONTENT 1. STRUCTURE , ed. John V. Tolan (New York: Garland Publishing Inc.), 2000, 3–31; John V. Tolan, Tolan, V. John 3–31; 2000, Inc.), Publishing Garland York: (New Tolan V. , ed.John Die Schriften des Johannes von Damaskos. Vol. 4. Liber de haeresibus de Liber 4. Vol. Damaskos. von Johannes des Schriften Die Studies ontheFirstCentury of Islamic society

ith earlier theological errors. facedwiththe needtocome Church History Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of and Evaluation ASurvey It: Saw Others as Islam Seeing (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 40–67. For a For 40–67. Press, 2002), Columbia University York: (New ere wasnohomogenousresponsefromamong the 50 recently developed out of a pagan cult of . See 12 thony Ruwah,supportingthe thony

Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations Christian-Muslim Islam and Atfirst,notions oftemporal chastisement and Theessentialquestionwas:whydiddivine the Christianresponses ḥ . For introductory literature on early Christian responses responses onearlyChristian literature introductory . For (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1997), 53–335. 53–335. 1997), Press, Darwin (Princeton: ,” 38, No. 2 (1969): 139–49; Sebastian P. Brock, “Syriac Religionsgespräche imMittelalter Religionsgespräche (Oxford: , 2002), 52–83. 52–83. 2002), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: Roman East inthefirsthalfofseventh Le Muséon

trinal polemics wereformulated identifying egations, allChristianshadtofacethe M.G 18 (1964): 115–32; Walter E. Kaegi, “Initial E. “Initial Kaegi, Walter 115–32; (1964): 18 chapter 100 identifies “the identifies “the faith 100 De haeresibuschapter tes with MuslimsSyriactes with in Texts: Christian Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Missionswissenschaft für Zeitschrift 74 (1961): 74 109–33. 51 uenther, “The Christian Experience and and Experience Christian “The uenther, Inaddition,newhagiographical to terms withtheconsequences Medieval Christian Perceptions of APOCALY , ed. Gautier H. A. Juynboll H.A.Juynboll , ed. Gautier differed regarding the differed regardingthe religious legitimacy PSE , ed. B. Lewis and (Berlin: Walter de Walter (Berlin: 10, No. 3 (1999): 3 (1999): No. 10,

Saint John

F . CEU eTD Collection , 83, 85–6. 85–6. Arabs, 83, University Press, 1913), “ 52: 1913), Press, University from theFour “Eastern Christian Responses,” 14–5. 14–5. Responses,” Christian “Eastern God’s love for , and themystery ofthe sufferings of the Godwhobecame flesh foryoursakes.” Lamoreaux, C. Lamoreaux and reads as follows: “We have all actedlikewild beats towards one another, ignorant of the of Wright, ed., Arabia.” initially understoodasnothingmore thananin Consequently, theArabincursionsintoSyro-Palestine 58 57 56 the Saracen occupation oftheareasurrounding Jerusalem. of 634,seesnothingmore thanapassingdivinech Christian sins. years 634and640,attributesthe Arabmilitary su were notoriouslyknownforraidingChristian bravery, whichwasnotedforstriki (r.364–378)attheBattleofAdrianopledi Roman aftertheemperor’sdeath. army earned themselves thestigma ofbeingunreliabl Emperor ’s(r.361–363)campaign againstSasa Roman-Arab relationswentbackce mind thattheArabconquerorsorIshmaelites werebynomeans unknowntotheByzantines. generally avoids distinguishing between the various Arab group gestarum libri qui supersunt. Volume 2 gestarumlibri qui supersunt. Volume 1 to ourto wretchedness whichis unworthy of blessings.” Kaegi,“Byzantine Reactions,” 139–40. theSaracens,and wefear of areprevented fromexperienci indeed contrary to our wishes, weare required to say at homed, not bound closely by bodily bonds, but bound by from are [theBethlehem] sights prevented and of things Kaegi’s. Itreads: “Because of countless Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century in the Fourth Arabs andthe Byzantium Tan the he refersto at. is thattribes It seems atleastonce he pointing clear,though, 53 55 54 See Sophronius, SeeSophronius, See , Emperor by SeeJulian, AtermJulian. coined See Ammianus Marcellinus, See Alexander A. See Vasiliev, “Notes SomeAlexander on Episode See Ammianus Marcellinus, W 56 hen itcomes toinitial Christian reactionstoth The Works of the Emperor Julian. Emperor the of Works The Accordingly,Maximus theConfessor, 57 Oratio I.- Natalita In Christi Oratio Similarly, Sophronius,PatriarchofJeru ἐξ Epistula

th to the Sixth Century,”

Res Gestae Res Gestae Ἀραβίας

(Leipzig:Teubner, 1978), 368. 14 (MPG 91, 541B–C). The passage in question has been translated by John John by translated has been question in passage The 541B–C). 91, (MPG 14 sins and very serious faults, we have

λῃσταί (Leipzig: Teubner, 1978), 200. When speaking of Arabs Ammianus Ammianus Arabs of speaking When 200. 1978), Teubner, (Leipzig: nturies before theriseofIsla ng terrorintotheGothicopponents. XXV.6.8–10 in Wolfgang Seyfarth, ed., ed., Seyfarth, Wolfgang in XXV.6.8–10 XXXI.16.6in Wolfgang Seyfarth,ed., (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1984), 83–5. 83–5. 1984), Oaks, Dumbarton D.C.: (Washington, 53 (MPG 87/3, 3205D).This passage hasbeentranslated by WalterE.

.” Fora study of this expression, see Shahid, First Oration: Panegyric in honor of Constantius ArabcontingentsalsofoughtfortheRoman Emperor Vol. 1, Loeb Classical Library 13 13 DOP entering Bethlehem by way of the roads. Unwillingly, Unwillingly, roads. Bethlehemwayofthe entering by s concerning the Relations between the Arabs and the the the and between Arabs theRelations s concerning ng such heavenly joy, and are engulfed by a grief suited crease inraidingactivitybythe“robbersof e, even treacherous alliesfordeserting the astisement forrecentChristianwickedness in ccesses to atemporary divineretributionfor 9/10 (1956): 306–16, esp. 307–8. 307–8. esp. 306–16, (1956): 9/10 monasteries, particularlyintheSinai. in aletter pennedsomewhere betweenthe stinguishing themselves s. Therefore, itisto s. Therefore, hard nian Persia.DuringthiswartheSaracens e Arabinvasion itisimportanttokeepin salem (d. 639), in hisChristmas sermonsalem (d.639),in that intensifiedintheearly630swere 58 Within afewyears, however, become unworthy ofthe sightofthese m. mercenaries Arab servedin ū khid khid (Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard Ammiani Marcellini Rerum Rerum Ammiani Marcellini Ammiani Marcellini Rerum Ammiani Rerum Marcellini 54 tell what particular Arab Arab tellwhat particular Furthermore, Arabs withtheirsavage Byzantiumthe and ; see Irfan Shahid,; (21b) in W. C. 55

CEU eTD Collection Century in the West-Syrian Sebastian Brock provides a partial translation in Andrew Palmer andSebastian Brock, ed. and tr., in and Alexander, 122–201 of 1985), America, University Catholic in the Early Muslim Period: Pseudo-Methodius and Pseudo-Athanasius,” Ph.D. dissertation (Washington, D.C.: in found be can translations English 34–85. 1985), Lang, Reaktion auf die einfallenden Muslime in der edessenischen Apokalyptik des 7. Jahrhunderts alternativ (Leuven:Peeters, 1993).Foran tr., and German. ed. See Gerrit J.Reinink, du VIIe siècle.” a deceitfulprophetamong theSaracens. Empire ofDaniel,i.e.,Rome, hasalreadyfallenandthelittlehornha primarily an anti-Jewish polemic whichargues thatChrist wastheMessiah, since thefourth nuper baptizati,whichdates from thefirst years 62 61 60 59 incipit: “OntheSuccession oftheKingsandEnd The 1.2. more prominence culminating inthe divine providence.Overthecourseofseve order tobeassuredthatthepr God’s retributionforChristian sinfulnessand(2) divine punishment insofarasattr developed alongtwolines ofreasoning:(1)under andtheriseofIsla of Muhammad already appeared must be true.Theimportance of of theMessiahaspredictedbyDanielhavehappened,Christianclaim thattheMessiahhas of desolation”asprophe Sophronius issaidtohavestartedusingapo circles Muhammad was appreciated asa prophe wasappreciated circles Muhammad Gerrit J.Reinink has reconstructed the Syriac original of Cf.Dan 7:8. See Kaegi, “Byzantine Reactions,” 141–2. Thus, the the thelatest of For edition C. de Boor,ed. Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius The firstreferencestoapocalyptic A descriptionofthe In sum, theearliest Christianexplanations Travaux etMémoires Theophanis Chronographia Theophanis sized byDaniel11:31. Doctrina Jacobi Apocalypse

esent tribulationsarenothingbut 11 (1991): 17–248. 17–248. (1991): 11 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1993), 230–42. 230–42. Press, 1993), University Liverpool (Liverpool: ibuting theincreaseofArabra m asaneschatologicalevent. e German translation, see Harald Suermann, Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius . Vol. 1 (Leipzig: Teubner, 1883), 339. Die Syrische Apokalypse desPseudo-Methodius , see G. Dagron and V. Déroche, ed., “Juifs et chrétiens dans l’Orient t. This text denies this recognition. this recognition. text denies t. This is alate seventh-century composition which carries the 61 Thatistosay,because theevents followingthearrival sentiment canalrea calyptic im nth centuryapocalypticla 59 14 Francisco Javier Martinez, “Eastern Christian Apocalyptic

of theonsetArabinvasion. Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius this sourceisthatitappreciatesthepreaching standing theSaracenattacksasatemporary referring toaneschatological framework in given for themilitarysuccess of theArabs agery callingtheArabs“abomination .” Theliterarygenreofthetext isa Times.” Doctrina Jacobi Jewish in certain testifiesthat Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine dy befoundinthe ids intotheByzantineEmpire to just andbenevolentelements of s just arisen inthe person of . 62 nguage gainedmore and

Die geschichtstheologische (Frankfurt a.M.: Peter a.M.: (Frankfurt and translated it into itinto translated and Doctrina Jacobi . CSCO 540–541 540–541 . CSCO 60 This work is The Seventh , 36–51. , 36–51. CEU eTD Collection ed. Wout Jac. Van Bekkum, Jan Willem Drijvers, Alex C. Alex Drijvers, WillemJan Bekkum, Jac.Van Wout ed. in in the Literature West-Syrian Tradition,” Apocalyptic Ginkel, “The End is Near! Some Remarks on the Relationship between , Eschatology, and J. SeeJan van history. on authority asan toPseudo-Methodius refers who (d. 1199), Syrian the Michael of work matters in authorities of Ol extra-biblical most used widely 4 1895), von J.C.B.Mohr, Verlagsbuchhandlung millennia following Methodius’accountthat the re and intoaprophetic(XI.1–XIV.13-14)part.Inthefi are equalin length.Thechronological composition audience directly. 68 67 66 65 64 63 prevalent throughouttheworkclimax Both aretechnicalfeatureswhichservetosu millennium. millennialism asportrayed inhiswork a m likely that the genui Islam. Anearlyfourth-century ec political andreligioussuperior the be theauthor, becausehe wasaGreekspeaker, Syriac-speaking ChristianinnorthernMesopotamia. who diedaround311duringtheDiocletian Persecution. hom Kmosko, “ Todathe place oforigin. identifying for Sinjā writers. See Carl Albrecht Bernoulli, ed., Bernoulli,writers. SeeCarlAlbrecht ed., to beidentified w See Reinink, SeeReinink, Cf. Reinink, MPG 18, 265–329. Cf. The preamble ofthe Morecorrectly, theear Apocalypse artyr, whichcharacterizedhi artyr, Apocalypse is first andforemost a Christian polemic directed againstArab r is located 96 km south-east of Nisibis and 115 km west of Mosul. This reference is the only direct evidence ily (prose m infra . NewEd. Vol. 9: The

Rätsel, n.136. n.136. I.1, VI.1, VII.1, VIII.1,XII.2. Apocalypse isstructuredinachronologicaland 68 Die Syrische Apokalypse Inaddition, theauthor employs theyear-week counting of the ” 291–5. ” 291–5. ith Methodius,Bishop of Olympus 63 ē mr Apocalpyse Thepreamble ofthetextattributes September ne authorofthe liest recensions of the ā ) thatprovidesamoralizing and names Mount Sinj (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2000), Press, 196. 2000), MN:TheLiturgical (Collegeville, Die SyrischeApokalypse

ity caution m asavictim ofpagantyranny, (CSCO541),vii. Pseudo-Methodius’ clesiastical writer wouldnothaveaddressedsuchissues.Itis y this identificationthis hasbeen generallyaccepted.y Foranearlier view, see Hieronymus und Gennadius. De Viris Inlustribus Apocalypse ing inchapterV,IX,andXIV. De resurrectione ( Apocalypse 4–5. See further Sarah Fawcett Thomas, ed., Butler’s Lives of the ing fellowing Christians toabstainfrom conversionto , knownfrom Jerome’sentryin ā r asthe placewherethe author received his revelation. Mount pport theauthenticity.The typologicalscheme is 15 attributedtheworkto Syriac Polemics, Studies in Honour of Gerrit JanReinink Klugkist (Leuven: Peeters, 2007), 205–18 (esp. 213–6). (esp. 213–6). Peeters, 205–18 2007), (Leuven: Klugkist d Testament history. This can be seen, canbeseen, for instance, inthe This d Testament history. a nativeLycian.Moreover, interms ofcontent attribute the work to Methodius, bishop of Patara.Heis of bishop Methodius, to the work attribute (CSCO 541), vi–vii. vi–vii. 541), (CSCO 65 divides theworkinto ahistorical (I.1–X.6) rst partthetimeline is From thisitisclear thatMethodius cannot surrection willtake Ἀγλαοφῶν writing toBishopMethodiusofPatara, 64 inspirational sermon addressingits a typologicalscheme Itwasoriginally composed bya 66 historical narrative became oneofthe andbecauseofhisnotion περὶτῆς Methodius becausehewas his catalogue of ecclesiastical his catalogue of ecclesiastical organizedintoseven place intheseventh (Freiburg: Akademische ἀναστάσεως Book ofDaniel. . Bothsections pretensions to ). 67

, CEU eTD Collection divine chastisement for Christian sexual misconduct (see spread sexual abuses.Similarly, thei 157–8, where Reinink observes Pseudo-Methodius’ opposition to (Pseudo-)Sebeos’ portrayal of the Arab dominion Islam Early 1 and in Late Antiquity Studies Material,” LiterarySource the 71 70 69 superseded. that theRoman Empire isthelastoffour liberate theChristiansfrom Arabrule. (XIII.11–13), theLastEmperor, w so didGideonfreetheHebrewsfrom theMi Gideon, andthefutureLast Emperor. JustasMo the desert.InthissectionPseudo-Methodiusintr years (V.5),beforeGideon,theOldTestament judge identified withtheMidianites homeland beforeattackingandultimately conqueringthe introduced (V.2).These“sonsofIshmael” aresaid Babel andNimrod’s firstkingship (II.3) ending thesecond millennium of worldhistory. Cain’s sonsgraduallysuccumbed tosexualde rise andfallofworldempires. history upuntil theIshmaelite invasion,paying closeattention tothe political perspective ofthe Apocalypse. the LastEmperor’s eschatolog narrative focusing ontheall-pervasive roleof theLastRoman Emperor. Itwillbecomeclearthat What ismore, Iwillpay closeattention toth main themes and toshowhowthevarioushistoricalandpropheticsections In thefollowing,Isumm 1.3. See Gerrit J. Reinink, “Pse SeeGerritJ. Reinink, SeeJudg 6:1–8:35. Itis worth noting that Pseudo-Methodius considers the The nextsectionsofthe Pseudo-Methodius’ historicalaccountstarts The narrativeofthe 71 Onereads anenumeration oftherise and fallofnumerous OldTestament udo-Methodius: A Concept of History inRespon History of AConcept udo-Methodius:

in in arize thenarrativeofSyriac The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East I: Problems in the Literary Sources – Apocalypse

70 mmediate causeforthe Arab onslaught in Pseudo-Methodius’ timeisseenasa Followingtheexpulsionfrompara –ruled“allthekingdoms ofthepeoples”for60consecutive ical functionsaremeticulous Apocalypse the narration gains momentum wh ho is considered the typological counterpart of Gideon, will ho isconsideredthetypologicalcounterpartofGideon,will Conrad (Princeton: Darwin Press), Press), Darwin (Princeton: Conrad I. Lawrence Cameron, Averil ed. , diante oppression.Sim aredesignedtovalidat e typological parallelsth kingdoms ofDanielandwill,therefore, neverbe 16 Apocalypse oduces atypologicalrelationshipbetweenMoses, viancies, whichbrought Great Flooda divine punitive ses ledtheHebrewsoutof with inparadiseandportraysworld tohavebeendriven oftheHebrews,expelledthem backinto 69 I XI.6–7). tothis below. point will return FollowingthestoryofTower oikoumen Apocalypse inordertolaydownits ly constructedthroughoutthe se to the se tothe Rise of Islam: Problems in dise andthemurder ofAbel, ilarly, laterinthe ē en the“sonsofIshmael” are . These“sonsof ” – e Pseudo-Methodius’claim at emerge throughoutthe about theGreatFlood operation reacting towide- theirEgyptianexile, arelinkedtogether. outoftheirdesert Apocalypse CEU eTD Collection Anastasios Lolos, Sophie G. Vashalomidze, Lutz Greisiger (Wiesbaden: Orient und seine Umwelt. Gesammelte Studien zu Ehren Jürgen Tubachs anläßlich seines 60. Geburtstags daughter oftheEthiopianKingP Roman emperors, whoarealldescende (i.e., Ethiopian orNubian)princess.Thisge proposition issubstantiatedbyaninnovativegenealogy linkingAlexandertheGreattoaKushite descendant oftheRoman,Macedonian, andKush stresses thecontinuousintegrityofRoma 73 “Byzantine Reactions,” 146–7. Part 1. Translation and Notes (Liverpool: Liverpool Univer tr. Thomson, Daniel. W. See Robert kingdom of final and fourth as the Constantinople in626andthesubsequentArabinvasion(X.6). Romans hadsufferedatthebeginni reference tothedestructionof Christian . Thehi emphasizes continuouslytheimplica Last Roman Emperor, willabdicatehisearth the Great–willlast untiltheendof times whentherepresentative of theRoman Empire,i.e., the have lockedawaybehindtheCaspianGates. attention ispaidtohisdealing withtheunclean peoples oftheNorth,whom Alexanderissaidto in worldhistorybeginswithAlexandertheGr the Great(VI.1–6). kingdom Lutz Greisiger,“Ein nubischerErlöser: K 72 See Figure 1.Similarincharts canbefound Palmer, Fora useful chart mapping thesuccession ofOld Test

s starting with the reign of Nimrod ande s startingwiththereignofNimrod Die ApokalypseDie desPs.-Methodius 72 Afterhighlightingtheconstantfluctu the SecondTemple(X.4)and ī l (VIII.1–3,IX.1–8). storiographical partofthe ū ng oftheseventh century CE,alluding tothe Avarsiegeof š in syrischen Apokalypsen des 7. Jahrhunderts, ” in Der ”inDer 7.Jahrhunderts, des Apokalypsen š insyrischen tion ofthisreasoning,whichistheindest nts ofthesame Kushitemother, K (Meisenheim am Glan: Verlag Anton Hain, 1976), 1976), 13. Hain, (MeisenheimVerlag Anton am Glan: Harrassowitz, Harrassowitz, The Seventh Century inthe West-Syrian Chronicles and , 223 This verysame kingdom –initiatedbyAlexander ly dominion toGod(IX.7–9).Pseudo-Methodius nealogy connectsAlexande 17 n Empire, whichisportrayedasthedirect sity Press, 1999), 105–6 (Chap 44). See further Kaegi, See Kaegi, 44). further (Chap 105–6 sity Press, 1999), nding withthedominion ofCyrus(Chosroes) eat’s heroicdeeds,among whichparticular ament rulersas recounte ite heritageandlegitimacy (VIII.1).This 73 Thatis,thefourth,andlastkingdom 2007), 208. The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos. ation ofearthlyrealms, theauthor Apocalypse endswithabrief recent tribula d by Pseudo-Methodius,see r theGreatwith ūshyat, whoisthe ructibility ofthe tions whichthe Christliche Christliche , ed. , ed.

CEU eTD Collection 74 a divinetestofthefaith (XI.18, famine andplague(XI.13,XIII.2),theultimate paying tribute towhichChristianswillbes punishment forChristiansinfulness(XI.5–7). which theinvadingIshmaelites willbringabout (X Figure 1.Para-historicalgenealogyofAlexa the lastm This sinfulness is identified with widespread sexual misbehavior among Christians. Philippos The second,prophetic,partbegins illennium ofecumenical history.Itde Alexander Urbanos king of Ethiopiaking of in Byzantium K ū

P shyat ī l , XIII.4). Inthiscontext,Pseudo- , viceroy viceroy

Byzantia withsituatingthesubsequent ubjected (XI.14,XIII.3–4),thedesolation causedby nder theGreatandLastR 74 18 scribes ingreat detail th Theauthornotestheburdensome obligationof B viceroy in Rome in viceroy the Last Roman ū Armelaos Emperor s meaning of theseevents,whichissaidtobe , I.9–18), andattributes thismisery toajust king of , Armelaos, Methodius addressesthe issueof of theRomans eventsinse Claudios e devastation and misery misery e devastationand oman Emperor in Alexandria king

, viceroy viceroy venth, thatis,

CEU eTD Collection more precisely the fragment ofthe True Cross that was housed in Jerusalem). See not entirely clear. What is certain though is that the Romans were considered to have rescued the True Cross (or Apocalypse likewise 70-year Arab captiv relationship between the history of the 70-year Jewish Syria. Chronographia, the AntichristwillenterJerusale history. Hementions neithertheBabyloni It isnoteworthythatPseudo-Methodiusleavesout 1.4. remained faithful amidst allthetrying tribulations. descend from heaven,castthe into hell,andaward heavenly blissto thosewho 79 78 77 76 75 5), signs hewillabdicateonMountGolgotha,pl will ascendtoJerusalem awaitingthe firstsigns North, whowillbeannihilatedbyanangelicfigu prosperity willensue,whichw power anddrivethe Ishmaelites b Christians havenosavior(p predicted to descendupon theArabdominion executed bytheimpending arrivaloftheLastRoman Emperor. ThisRoman Emperor is apostasy (XII.1–8)andwarnshisau see ( Th Éditions du du Éditions Pseudo-Methodius. references, see Podskalsky, the Generally, ofthe Antichrist. revelation the hinders isthe Messiah. Christ that denies which proposition, the original of the edge polemical reducing Apocalypse Pseudo-Methodius’ passing overthe Babylonian captivity See 2 Thess 2:7. The Concerning the True Cross, Note the above mentioned typological connection with Gideon. Cf. Judg 8:1–28. abstractterm rather uses the I with willdealbelow, which translation, Greek The us, Pseudo-Methodius could legitimately claim that the Roman emperor was in possession of the invincible Cross 77 Bernard Flusin, transferring hisearthly dominion to Whether he did so prior to the defeat at the battle battle atthe the defeat to so prior he did Whether The eschatological XIII.14. It appears that this typological connecti this typological that XIII.14. It appears CNRS, IX.9) whichhewould usein abdication his ( 337. Cf. 337. 1992), 293–327. 293–327. 1992), Anastase le Perse et l’histoire dela Palestine katech Thomson, tr. Byzantinische Reichseschatologie Theophanes reports that that reports Theophanes ō ity, whichis followed by each captive’s returnto his respective homeland. See n , i.e., the one who holds is back, universally whoholds , i.e.,the one topos ā

r ūqā ill beterminated bytheonslaughtofuncleanpeoples T oftheLast RomanEmperor m andsettleinthetemple of he Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos ) (XIII.6). ack intothedesert(XIII.11–13). dience ofits grievousconsequences (XIII.15), whichwillbe Christandtherebyremoving the an captivity,norChrist’sincarnation. 75 acing hiscrownontopoftheHolyCross(XIV.2– removed if from Jerusalem when he departed from katech of Yarmuk (636) as Theophanes claims or after the defeatof is afterthe Yarmuk claims or (636) as Theophanes 19 Consequently,theemperor willeradicate Arab re (XIII.19–21). Then,theLastRoman Emperor Apocalypse captivity with the eventual Christian liberation from a liberation Christian the eventual with captivity of theappearance Antichrist.Uponthese reacting totheblasphemous that accusation certain essentialeventsinChristiansalvation on was more appreciated by is peculiar, because one capeculiar, because one is ō , 55, n.332. This interpretation is also shared by shared isalso interpretation This n.332. , 55, n is understood to refer to the Roman Empire. toreferthe For isunderstood XIV.2–3). On Heraclius and the True Cross, Cross, andtheTrue On Heraclius XIV.2–3). début du VIIe siècle

au understood as the impeding factor that God. Atthattime, Christwill 76 , 91 (chap41)and 98 (chap42). A shorttime ofgeneral ἀνάρρυσις C. de Boor, ed. C. de n easily read a typologicaleasily reada n theByzantine audience, katech

(rescue), therefore 79 ōn. Onlyabrief , 2(Paris:Vol. 78 The Finally, Finally, ophanis CEU eTD Collection considered themselves to be subj Christians the captivity Arab and captivity Babylonian the between link typological the promotes addition this thetemple.In myopinion rebuild and return their Great, Jewsto “promised permittedto the land” the who since the Greek recensions expand oneSyriac passage ( just andbenevolentpurposeofdivine th sins justifythetribulationsenduredatendoftimes, while expectations. Inthe subjugation interms of(1)temporary divine elaboration ofthetwobasicin second AlexanderandoperatesasCh the Arabdominion. Additionally, theLastEmpero on (b)thenotion of theLastRoman Emperor, whowillserve asasecond Gideonineradicating which Christians suffered from theproto-Arabs calledMidianites inthe fifth millennium that theArab ruleis nothing but aneschatol the Last Roman Emperor (IX.7). the uncleanpeoplesofNorth(VIII.10); (i.e., tenweeksofyears) type andtheeschatological antitype. Thethreein Apocalypse furtherstrengthensthea motif. important typologicalschemes revolvingaroundth Methodius carefullyselectedandtreatedonlythose historicaleventswhic reference toMoses(V.6)accounts are attributedtosinfulChrist necessary, andultimate “furnaceof reader withanintricately constructed providentialscheme inwhichthepresentmoment isajust, people. typological counterpart of the seventh-century Arabs. That is, the Midianites are considered to be a proto-Arab that is,totheimperfect. See Alexander, linguistically due to the fact that the Syriac narrative switches from a historical perfect tense to the tense of prophecy, 80 81 These prophetic interludes as well interludes prophetic These SeeApocalypse Apocalypse tofullydevelophismajo These twotypologicalschemes ofthe The fact that three prophetic interludes are V.1–7. Here Pseudo-Methodius presents the Midianites mentioned in Judg 6:1–8:35 asthe Apocalypse bothapproachesarecombined tobecomplementary: Christian ected tointhe seventh century. Ishmaelite rule(V.9);th 80 ians whocommitted themselves tosexuallydeviantbehaviornot terpretive approachesmentioned These interludes allow Pseudo-Met Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine fortheEgyptianexileand the second, prophetic part of the trial”(XI.18, XIII.4). Onthe rist’s ultimate deputyonearth. ll-pervasive typologicalconnect chastisement.Theauthorofthe r typologicalthemes, whichcenteron(a)theconviction Apocalypse 20 ogical repetition of the temporary chastisement punishment andinterm prophecy foretelling the final abdication of the prophecy foretellingthefinalabdicationof Apocalypse showacontinuationandfurther terludes are:theprophecyofseventyyears e GideonstoryandtheLastRomanEmperor r fulfillsthefunctions e prophecyconcerningthefutureinvasionof integrated into thehistorical account of the VII.2cf. , 17. above: understand Apocalypse Apocalypse one hand, thepresent sufferings Exodus. ItappearsthatPseudo- e finalsalvationguaranteesthe hodius inthesecondpartof ion betweenthehistorical Apocalypse confrontsthe [7] 2) by referring toCyrus h m are easily distinguishable of a second , a of asecondJovian, s of(2)apocalyptic attered for hismost ing theSaracen 81 and

CEU eTD Collection Apocalyptic,” 28–32 and Möhring, and 28–32 Apocalyptic,” th On 691. or year 690 the in composition of date the puts 7 to might allude (XIII.3–4) taxation burdensome Mesopotamia CE;the in theyear 686/ 687 cf. Kmosko,“ light sentence.” However, it is possible that Pseudo-Methodius considered the Arab invasion to be a “flood of wars;” a with off theythat weregetting feel could the yokeIshmaelites suffering under the Christians of seventh-century AsTolan, domination. Arab isthe which chastisement, present-day the downplays that Pseudo-Methodius impression the gets one millennium, ofthe second end the at committed construction of theDome of theRock, persisted despite asecond civil war, considering th Gerrit Reininkdatesthework Pseudo-Methodius 85 84 83 82 combines threeeschatologicalnotions: (1)Only Macedonians, theGreeks,andKushites.By em constructed the other. Itwasinordertodenythisreligiou faction ontheonehand,a strategies directedagain message isclear:atmost onlyafewyearswi anticipated thearrival of theLastRoman Emperoratany time verynearfuture.His inthe Apocalypse wrotetowardstheendoflastyea or solaryears–onearrivesattheyear number andstartscounting in622–accordance soon. Ifoneconsiderstheseventy imminent endtothischastisement delivered bythe Arabs. hand, theeschatologicalimagery oftheLastRo seen sincethetim Reinink, Reinink, CE. See ca.680–692 between fought civil war Arab second the to typologically refer might (V.5) Midianites 05) tax reforms in the year 691/692 CE. Cf. Brock, “Syriac Views,” 18–9. Furthermore, the rage and raving of the the of andraving rage the CE. Cf. Furthermore, Brock,“Syriac Views,” 18–9. year 691/692 taxreforms the 05) in See Reinink, The outbreak of the plague and the famine referred to in Cf. perors sharethesame maternal ancestorwith infra Apocalypse The emphases onperseveranceandthejustna Indeed, Pseudo-Methodius promotes theideathatArabsubjugation willendvery Die Syrische Apokalypse pp.32 –3. Die SyrischeApokalypse Rätsel, II.2–3 with X.5–8. If one considers the punishment para-historical ” 281. e prior seem tosupportthedateofitsco st the st to theGreatFlood,whichundidmost ofGod’screation. nd witha realm thatstarted toopenl (CSCO 541), xiii. xiii. (CSCO 541), Der Weltkaiser der Endzeit

(CSCO 541), xviii. Reinink agrees here (CSCO agrees Reinink 541), xviii. ubiquitous dangerofapostasy.C genealogy mentioned above, according towhichtheByzantine to theendofyear691. years referredtoin(V.5)as 690or692CE.Textualallusionsinthe 85 Christianswere apoliticallydominant facedwith ll passuntiltheChristiansareliberated. 21 s legitimacy toIslamthatPseudo-Methodius e issue of dating, see further Martinez, “Eastern Christian “EasternChristian seefurther Martinez, e issue of dating, (XIII.2) probably alludeto cat r-week oftheArabdominion, i.e.,685–692.He his predecessors, thatis, withtheRomans, the e increase of the poll-tax, poll-tax, ofthe e increase Roman havealegitimateclaim emperors to man Emperor isworkedouttoportraythe means ofthislineage,Pseudo-Methodius with theHijricalendar andcounting inlunar , 75–82. , 75–82. mposition tothebeginningof690s. ture ofth , that is the Great Flood, for the sexual sins sexual sins the Great for , thatisthe Flood, Saracens 84 y claim religioussuperiorityonthe Thatistosay,theauthorof with Brock, “Syriac Views,” 19, who“Syriac Views,”19, Brock, with onsidering thefactthatIslam beingmore thanasymbolic , 47 , puts it: “(…) in 47 comparison, e present aclysmic events in in northern aclysmic events and inparticular the ʿ tribulations areall Abd al-Malik’s (685– al-Malik’s Abd 82 Apocalypse of Ontheother 83

CEU eTD Collection 23. Antichrist. Antichrist. mitigate the significance ofthe Arab presence by postula peoples. It isworth unclean the the Arabs with identify to scheme in which are followed by the Antic 88 86 discipline forsexualmisbehavior, Pseudo-Methodiu subsequent Parousia. creates is thatthelatestIs emphasizing thefuture afflictions of theChristian community. Essentially, theimage theauthor It seems asiftheauthordownplaystosome ex even aftertheir ultimate defeat which willbeshattered bytheinvasionof Roman Emperor has liberated theEast from theSa trial.” Methodius provesthattheArab Christian worshipandpractice tothe faithful. cults. Just asJovianhaddonecenturiesbefore,sowilltheLastRoman Emperor, too,restore who restoredChristianityafterhispredecessor, ultimate abdication scene, thelast Roman ruler earth, sinceitishisdutytoreturn identification claims that theRoman emperor is scene withtheLastRoman Emperor,whois, will surrender toGod.”Theauthorofthe worldly dominion toGodduringth of Ethiopiankinshipprovideshim withtheuni Alexander’s political-geographical realm. Alexander theGreat’sheritage, Apocalypses” in (Damascus: Institut français de Damas), 75–86 and idem, “A Concept of History,” 170–4. 170–4. (Damascus: français idem,de Damas), Institut and History,” “AConcept of 75–86 87 Of course, Pseudo-Methodius integrates the notion of the of the notion integrates Pseudo-Methodius Ofcourse, Empire, seeAlexander, Byzantine the of invincibility the theme the of Regarding See Gerrit J. Reinik, “The Romance of Julian the Julian “TheRomance of SeeGerritJ.Reinik, In fact,this “furnaceoftrial” La Syrie de Byzance à l'Islam, VII-VIII siècles 88 Moreover,bydescribingtheArabconquestinterms oftemporary hmaelite invasionisbutoneantecedent of theAntichrist and the

the tribulationswill not end,since a factthatwillen subjugation isadivinelyorches thepolitical authority toitsdi e finaldays,asalludedtoin isonlyonepartof achainof 86 (2)Furthermore, thefactthatRoman emperor is Apocalypse identifies the Kushite in this abdication 87 22 Bymeans ofthistypologicalframework Pseudo- Julian(r.361–363),hadtr peoples oftheNorth(VIII.10,XIII.19–21). Yet, ting that it was only one among various forerunners of the the of forerunners amongvarious one only itwas that ting is portrayedastheEmperor Jovian (r.363–364), tent thesignificance oftheSaracenpresenceby que eschatologicalfunctionofturningoverhis considering why he did not. I suppose that he intended to Apostate asa Source for the Seventh-Century Syriac hrist. However, Pseudo-Methodius could have attempted the solelegitimate representative of Christ on racens only ashortperiodofpeace willensue, Arab threatintothe alread after all,aKushitedescendent.Thusthis s furthernegatestheid able the La , ed. Pierre Canivet and Jean-Paul Rey-Coquais Rey-Coquais Jean-Paul and Canivet , ed.Pierre Psalm 68:31:“Kush(Ethiopia) st RomanEmperor torestore vine source.(3) the Antichristisstill tocome. trated temporary “furnaceof divinetrials.AftertheLast Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine y establishedeschatological ea thattheArabshave ied toreinstatepagan Finally, inthe , CEU eTD Collection The accusation that denounced Muslim customsgain sexual denounced that accusation The itisby virtue since sexual deviancy, Saracen to 90 89 moves subsequentlytoJerusalem, where(7)he time ofpeace and prosperity. Furthermore, (5)he campaign theArabs against togetherwithhisson, motif are:(1) heappears atamoment of greatdistress, (2)heleads asuccessful military religious legitimacy isutterly erroneous. Thee deputy onearth,willdemonstrat Methodius promotes theideaofaliberatingLast and religiousaspirations.Byconstructingan intention todenyanyenduringArable any re SeeFigure 2. The fact that Saracens are the divine penal instrument for sexual obscenities can be read – in turn – as an allusion ligious signif

In essence,the icance of their own. Apocalypse presents apolemic primarily directed against Arabpolitical

e throughhisactionsthatany gitimacy, beitreligiousorpolitical. of Arabs that Arabs of Christian “willbe( women defiled” 89 This fact fits well withthe abdicates atthe arrivaloftheAntichrist. 23 intricatetypologicalworldhistory,Pseudo- ssential elements of theLastRomanEmperor enduresthe arrivalofGogandMagog(6) ed great popularity in later Christian polemic writings. polemic writings. laterChristian ed great in popularity Roman Emperor, who,intheroleofChrist’s (3) herestoreschurches Muslim claim topoliticalor Apocalypse , and(4)ushersina Apocalypse ’s general 90

XI.8). CEU eTD Collection Wurzeln,”197–205. Wurzeln,”197–205. “Diesyrischen Reinink, from argumentation Reinink’s summarize I follows, what In 195–209. 1984), Boekhuis, à W. Noomen dédiés médiévale civilisation Nove. Mélanges sed de Tradition 93 92 91 is, the sudden appearance is meant to heighten th 1 Thess5:2.Moreover,thismotif sudden appearanceoftheemperor canbederived Christ’s viceroyonearthratherthanpointing is neithernamed norindividually Syriac ratherthanintheJewish these motifs canbefound inthe empire. distress, (3)thesignificancegiven toJerusalem, are: (1)individualindistinctionor connect Jewish messianic motifs withattributes Methodius’ notionoftheLastRoman Emperor. In a1978articlePaulAlexanderarguedthat Syriacvs.Jewish sources? 2.1. Last Em challenged Christiansbothfinanc polemic context of the late seventh century whenthe reforms of Caliph on Pseudo-Methodius’notionoftheLastRomanEmpe In this chapter Iexamine the influence that Sy Warburg and Courtauld Institutes Courtauld and Warburg Gerrit J. Reinink, “Die syrischen Wurzeln “Diesyrischen der mitte GerritJ.Reinink, Wurzeln Origin,” 6–8. “Messianic Alexander, Paul Alexander, “The Medieval Legend of the Last Roman Emperor and Its Messianic Origin,” 92 , 174–84. He is followed by Suermann, peror topos Reininkhas convincingly objected to this interpretation. 2. THESOURCESOF hasrootsinthe 41 (1978): 1–15. He supports his argumentation in idem, his argumentation Hesupports 1–15. 41(1978):

tradition.Accordingly, ially andideologically.Last,I should beseeninthepolemical contextof thelackofpersonal characterized testifies toth Apocalypse, heconsidersthemhaverootsintheChristian- Sibylline tradition. ST ROMANEMPERORMOTIF THELAST Die geschichtstheologischeReaktion lalterlichen Legende zum 24 riac, Jewish,andpossibl 91 assigned totheLastRoman Emperor.Thesefour to Jewishmessianicthought.Similarly, (2)the

e audience’s expectationof Headvances fourcentralcharacteristics which from scripturalevidencesuchasMt24:44and Jewish MessianicthoughtinspiredPseudo- and(4)theconceptofaninterim worldly

ity, (2)appearanceatamoment ofgreat (1) thefactthatth , ed. M. Gosman, J. van Os (Groningen: Bouma's ror. Further,Isituat e formal functionofhisbeing e formal consider thehypothesisthat 93 römischen Endkaiser,” in Nova, Non While he agrees that most of ,

208–212. 208–212. y Ethiopiansourceshad e LastRoman Emperor animminent salvific the apocalypse:that e thismotifinthe Byzantine Apocalyptic ʿ Abd al-Malik Journal of the CEU eTD Collection the seven millennia. millennia. seven the Pseudo-Methodius “The Syriac Legend Concerning ,” (1957): 231–49; Suermann, Suermann, 231–49; (1957): Chalcedon. Studies inTheo motifs taken from the the from taken motifs of use Pseudo-Methodius’ 224–5. 1927), Society, Tract Religious Book oftheCave The ofTreasures (: 120. The see Alexander, Miaphysite/non-Chalcedonian) opposition to Persian opposition Miaphysite/non-Chalcedonian) Legend of Alexander others – implied a successful struggleagainst Persia, thearchenemy ofChristianRome. Inessence, the Syriac was to repeat or rather tocontinue syrischen Alexanderlegende als politisch-religiöse Pr alspolitisch-religiöse Alexanderlegende syrischen Wurzeln,” 203–5;idem, Birthday Alexanderlied Schatzhöhle und die Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodios,” Pseudo-Methodios,” des Apokalypse die und Schatzhöhle of thecoronationscenenarratedin Alexander ultimately derives from Syriacsources. Reinink hasdemonstrated thatth 98 97 96 95 thesis. ThatiswhyHaraldSuermann proposedacompromise solution.Hedrewattentiontothe into heaven. the TrueCrossonMountGolgotha. Consequently, thecrownandcrosswillascendtogether motif inalmosttheexactreverse, since theLa Jovian’s head,symbolizing Christ’sapprovalof on topofacrossforspiritualcleansing.Fromtherethecrownmiraculously descendedonto accepted his army’s nominationfor 5:3, restoration andultimate peace.While thelatter that instead ofamessianic the messianic kingdom notbefoundinthe can the Syriac liberation. AccordingtoReinink,(3)thesignificance 94 170–4. idem, of History,” Concept 75–7; “A Julian,” of “TheRomance Reinink, Inthe Syriac Reinink, “The Romance of Julian,” 77, n.11. Apocalypse Reinink, “Die syrischen Wurzeln,” 200–1. See also 95 thenotionofimperial restorationcanbefoundintheSyriac , ed. C. Laga,J.A. Munitz, L. van Rompay (Louvain: Peeters, 1985), 263–81; idem, “Die syrischen What ismore, theall-important abdicationscene attheendof the Although Reinink’sargumentation Cave ofTreasures Cave ofTreasures XIV.4. See Reinink, “A Concept of History,” 173–4. 173–4. of History,” “AConcept SeeReinink, XIV.4. . CSCO 455 (Leuven:Peeters, 1983), 1–15. 98 Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine Alexander Legend

. Reinink dates the text to the year 629. On the Syriac year On to the 629. text the dates . Reinink Cave of TreasuresCave of is a literary propaganda work which was de work which isa literary propaganda Die Syrische Apokalypse , together with Methodius’ Methodius’ with , together logyChurch andHistory Offeredto Prof Die geschichtstheologischeReaktion Emperor Heraclius is portrayed as a divinely appointed agent whose mission it Zwischenreich .

94 Alexander the Great’s establishment of Finally,(4)thenoti e notionoftheLastRoman Empe wasalso noticedbyAlexander. emperorship andorderedhismen toplacethe imperial crown , 167, n.59. See further Budge, Budge, See further n.59. , 167, Julian Romance. is persuasive,ithardtofullydismiss Alexander’s , Pseudo-Methodiusdescribe (CSCO 541), xxxiv–xxxviii. See further idem,(CSCO xxxiv–xxxviii. 541), rule. Thus, it shares the asthe itsharesthe same Thus, objective rule. De resurrectione st Roman Emperor issaidtoplacehis crownonto ogagandaschrift für Herakleios’ Kirchenpolitik,” in Kirchenpolitik,” fürHerakleios’ ogagandaschrift Apocalypse 25 OC Acta OrientalaAcademiae – Scientiarum Hungaricae might bederived from Mt24:38 and1Thess hisrulership.Pseudo- idem, “Der Verfassername ‘Modios’ der syrischen 67 (1983): 46–64. See further E.A. Wallis Budge, Seefurther 46–64. (1983): 67 on ofaninterim worl attributed toJerusalemcanbede , 206–7; Gerrit J. Reinink, “Die Entstehung der Entstehung “Die J.Reinink, , Gerrit 206–7; . Infact,Reininkis 97 , also provided the chronological scheme of signed to Christian(in signed bolster particular essor Albert van Roey for his Seventieth He notes, forinstance, the use of Accordingtothislegend,Jovian Alexander Legend the last earthly realm. lastearthly This – amongthe The Book of the Cave of Treasures Alexander Legend ror whois styled asasecond Methodius employsthis Apocalypse isareverse s aperiodofimperial dly realm prefiguring correctinstressing , see Károly Czeglédy, Apocalypse of . Das syrische 96 rived from Inshort,

Ps 78:65; After Th 7 e , CEU eTD Collection Möhring, Möhring, Miaphysite kingdom. intentwas Pseudo-Methodius’ Reinink argued thatthe association withKu about whyPseudo-Methodiusputsuchstressonthe shows amarked interest inthe Methodius. Also,thepara-historicalgenealogyofAl The useofPs68:31isonethemo TheEthiopianaffiliation 2.2. reconsidered. appreciation ofJewishsourcesbehindthePseu personifies Rom polemicsreus He alsoshowedhowJewish Jewish apocalyptictext Thus, IagreewithGreisigerthat“acompara 103 101 100 99 over fromtheopponent,reattributedandreused the topical evidenceattestsareciprocal difficult tosupposeofanyhermetic demarcation between JewishandChristianpolemics. Infact, Jewish polemics whichclaimed thatthefalseMessiah is conceived by anadulterous woman. Christians (includingPseudo-Methodius)adoptedth portray onepossibleaspect thatunderlined fact thatboth,Reinink’sandAl impending messianic age. Pseudo-Methodius appropriated Jewish messianic sentiments at the end of the seventh century. That is, their thesis proposes that in the context of polemic discourse Pseudo-Methodius’ that presupposition Last Armelaos mentions also Methodius 37 (esp. 23–37). Cf.Reeves, Konstruktionen 15– von 2010), FeindbildernVerlag, Akademie (Berlin: Schmieder Wolframed. Felicitas , Brandes, 102 Harald Suermann, “Der byzantinische Endkaiser bei Pseudo-Methodios.” Pseudo-Methodios.” bei Endkaiser byzantinische “Der Suermann, Harald It is important to realize that Alexander’s Suerma Itand to realize that Alexander’s isimportant Cf. Lutz Greisger, “The Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius (Syriac),” BibHist, 166. Lutz Greisiger,“Die Geburt desArmilos unddie Geburt des‘Sohnes desVerderbens’,”in Roman Emperor. Cf. Apocalypse

Der Weltkaiserder Endzeit XIV.10. e, and applied itagainst Christians. and e, Apocalypse s isadesideratum.” Trajectories in Near Eastern Apocalyptic

in connection with the city of Rome and the para-historical genealogy of the ofthe genealogy para-historical the Romeand the cityof with connection in , 53 and Brandes, “Endzeitvorstellungen und Lebenstrost,” 44. 44. Lebenstrost,” und “Endzeitvorstellungen Brandes, and , 53 ex IX.4.6.Figure See 1. land of“Kush.”Consequently,th topos ander’s insights arenot mutually ofthe LastRoman Emperor wasdesigned to counter Jewish messianic st characteristicfeaturesofthe adaptationprocessinwhichvarious ed the originally anti-pagan motif of topoi 100 and motivated Pseudo-Methodius’composition. tive studyofPseudo-Methodiusandcontemporary In fact,Greisiger has al 26 do-Methodian LastRoman to fit a new socio-historical context. tofitanewsocio-historical in order to contest and refute the Jewish hope in the inthe Jewish hope the refute and to contest order in sh orEthiopiawasduetobeinga sh nn’s appreciation of the Jewish sources is based on the exander theGreatandRomanemperors Kushite originoftheLastRoman Emperor. to show thattheByzantineEmpire wasnot 102 e originallyanti-Christianmotifusedin Itbecomes clear thatitisincreasingly , 17–21. It is noteworthy Pseudo- that isnoteworthy It , 17–21. OC ere hasbeensome speculation exclusive and they might both 71 (1987): 140–155 (esp. 145). Cf. Cf. (esp.145). 140–155 71 (1987): ready demonstrated that Apocalypse ofPseudo- Emperor needstobe topoi Armelaos weretaken 103 Thus,an Antichrist. Antichrist. , who 101 99

CEU eTD Collection Methodius’ confessionalbackground. 110 109 108 107 106 105 104 no consensuscanbereached. the argument forPseudo-Methodius’ Egypt beingburntdoesnotnecessa which canalsobefoundin will be laid waste.” Apocalypse portraysahostileattitudetowards(Miaphys non-Chalcedonian kingdom, thusprovingthatheisthe abstain from apostasy and waitfor the liberating Miaphysite connotationofEthiopiawasdesi im utterly anti-non-ChalcedonianandthusSyrianMia U Eschatology in theMiddleAges ἐξηγόρασεν to I first which will turn Greek redaction, 1000,” 253. 253. 1000,” Transformation of a Culture image andthe Pseudo-M then iscorrect to Christ apostleship 644–63 (esp. 570). If Breckenridge’s dating and argument that this iconography emphasizes the emperor’s xxvi, 31, n.7. idem, “ this statement. this emperor identified as animage avictorious of putting solidus tothe iconography new in der Wüste: ZurTypologie der Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodius,” Cyrillian (i.e., Chalcedonian or Miaphysite (i.e., Chalcedonian or Cyrillian 2, part Grierson, 705–711) (A.D. 685–95, II Justinian numismatic innovation dates to the early 690s, see James D. Breckenridge, Apokalypse Verfassername‘Modios,’” 60. However, Reinink niversity Press, 1988), 111; idem, “The Romance of Julian,” 86; idem, “A Concept of History,” 168–9, 185–6; 185–6; History,” 168–9, of Romance idem, idem, Concept Julian,” 111; “The of 86; “A Press, 1988), niversity This is so, because Pseudo-Methodius persistently avoids giving away his confessional credo. In contrast, the See, for instance, See Alexander, “Pse SeeGerritJ. Reinink, title The the for context aNestorian of thepossibility Concerning Apocalypse perial government whenitcame totheliberati 2. Der edessenische There isalsotheideathatmarked emphasis onMiaphysiteEthiopiapointstoPseudo- Heraclius Constantine to Theodosius III (641–717) III Theodosius to Constantine Heraclius Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and the Whittemore Collection the Whittemore and Collection Oaks the Dumbarton in Coins the Byzantine of Catalogue (CSCO 541), x. x. 541), (CSCO

τῷ servus Christi XIII.15.6. For thear For XIII.15.6. o ἰκείῳ Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition OracleBaalbek of a 108 ἵματι

ethodian Last Emperorethodian Last ‘ Pseudo- However,ithastobekeptinmi was adopted on the coins of Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711). Justinian introduced a introduced Justinian 705–711). 685–695, II (r. Justinian of the on coins wasadopted (whom he (i.e., Christ) redeemed with his ow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 370–1 and Magdalino, “The Year udo-Methodius und die Legende vom römischen Endkaiser,” in Endkaiser,” vom Legende römischen die und udo-Methodius , ed. Verbeke,Werner Daniel Methodius’,” 110 gument, see Möhring,

the Sibylline literature. there is good reason to consider aclos consider to reason is good there (New York: American Numismatic Society, 1959), 78–88. See further Philip See furtherPhilip 78–88. 1959), Society, American Numismatic York: (New replacing the symbol of the lamb with a figural representation of Christ and afiguralChristand lamb of with the representation of symbol the replacing

22 (line 221). 221). (line 22 rily revealtheauthor’santi ) confession. Ithank ProfessorIstván confessionalidentity below, inserts a confessional statement in inserts in below, statement aconfessional 107 3 (1990): 44, n.96; idem, BZ topos Atthesame time, theargument isalsomade thatthe 8 , 29;Suermann, later abandoned this interpretation; seeidem, this interpretation; later abandoned . See John F. Haldon, F. . SeeJohn Haldon, servus Christi gned topersuadeSyriannon-Chalcedonians 27 Der Weltkaiser der Endzeit Roman emperor, whoissaidtodescendfrom a Apocalypse physites woulddowelltoputtheirtrustinthe (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1968), 568–609, 568–609, Oaks,1968), Dumbarton DC: (Washington, on fromtheArabfoe.Thatistosay, Verhelst 109 nd thatthedestructionofEgyptisa servus Christi Die geschichtstheologischeReaktion Thus,Pseudo-Methodi ite) Egypt when itmentionsite) Egyptwhen that“Egypt on the obverse. Breckenridge argues that this isslipperygro , see Gerrit J.Reinink,“Ismael, der Wildesel , Andries Welkenhuysen (Leuven: Leuven Leuven (Leuven: Welkenhuysen , Andries e connection between Justinian’s imperial Justinian’s between e connection -Miaphysite tendencies.Generally, BZ n blood). This statement attestsatleasta Byzantium in the Seventh Century. The Die SyrischeApokalypse 75 (1982): 336–44 and idem, “Der idem, “Der and 336–44 (1982): 75 Perczel for callingmy attention to The Numismatic Iconography of of Iconography Numismatic The 105 , 95. ofallChristians. und onwhichvirtually Apocalypse TheUse andAbuse of us’ portrayalof [14] 11,3: Die Syrische (CSCO 541), 541), (CSCO , 161. 106 104 topos

, Vol. to ὧν

CEU eTD Collection Israelite. favor thattheEthiopianmona transferred from Jerusalem toAksum,theimperial Solomon’s first-bornson.(2)TheTabernacle,th monarchy isoftheSolomonidlin which derivesimperial Ethiopiansovereignty Pseudo-Methodius hegemony overtheChristian Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius the blessedDavidspokethisword(i.e.,Ps This interpretationissupported 116 115 114 113 112 111 century. considered apolitically efficaciouspower whic Alexander seems toimply herethatEthiopiawas,priortothecomposition ofthe Ethiopia asasourceof hope, Alexander notesthat“Pseudo-Methodiussaw th Ethiopian kingwoulddefe there must havebeenatraditionthatwasolde did notfavorEthiopiabeingconsideredarealpotentfactorindriving backtheArabs.Thus, realm toprotecttheMiaphysitefa had successfullyfendedofftheArabinvaders. the factthatEthiopiawas theonlyChristianco see John Moorhead, “The Monophysite “The Moorhead, see John disputed the On Literary 58–9. Works,” of Migration the inva the toaccommodating and indefinitely liberation the n.49. Alexander might be right in pointing out that the prospect of Ethiopian intervention amounted to postponing For Shahid’s arguments concerning the dating, see ibid., 137–45. IrfanShahid, “The Kebra Nagast inthe Light ofRecent Research,” Cf.Brock, “SyriacViews,” 18. Alexander, Alexander, Apocalypse In a1976article,Irfan

Another argument proposesthattheemphasi 116 115

Onthebasis ofinternal evidenceShahiddates thisliterary worktothesixth Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine IX.7.follow I hereAlexander’s revisedtranslation. Alexander, contests the politicalideology of the nd andprotecttheMiaphys oikoumen

Shahid laidoutanow-debatedthes rchy enjoyed.(3)TheEthiopian but asahistoricallyproven successor to suchideas.” by thephrasethat“m Response tothe Arab Invasions,” eage, sincethelegend ith. However,thegeopoliticals reactstoaparticulartraditi , 30, n.49. n.49. , 30, Reinink, Cf. 29. , ē . More to thepoint, Shahid argues thatthe 68:31) concerningthekingdom oftheEthiopians.” 111 28 h enjoyedconsiderable creditinMesopotamia. r thanPseudo-Methodiuswhichclaimed thatan issue of Miaphysite collaborati issue ofMiaphysite from the following claims:from (1)TheEthiopian thefollowing ders for the time being. Se time ders the being. for untry which wasMiaphysite inconfession and Thus, Ethiopiawasconsideredtheonlypotent capital,thusportraying e ArkoftheCovenant,anditsChariot were e Roman Empire not asanalternativeto s onEthiopiamight havebeenmotivated by Die Syrische Apokalypse any brethrensoftheclergysupposedthat Kebra Nagast ary firstEthiopianking,MenelikI,was Le Museon ite interestsacrossthe Byzantion on thatstressed the Ethiopian ituation oftheseventhcentury negus Byzantine Apocalyptic Thought Apocalyptic Byzantine is inwhichhearguesthatthe 89 (1976): 133–78 (here 146–150). 146–150). (here 133–78 (1976): 89 51 (1981): 579–91. 579–91. 51 (1981): anEthiopiannationalepic e Alexander, “Byzantium and , orking,isabaptized on with the Arab invaders, Arab the with on (CSCO 541), xxvi. the exceptional divine Apocalypse of Apocalypse Apocalypse, oikoumen 112 Thus, , 29, 114 113 ē

.

CEU eTD Collection Veka Antichrist, (4) the Parousia, and (5) thejour under thename D Caquot speculateswhetherareferencetoMethodius hasbeenpreservedinacorruptedform Roman Emperor. claims bysubstituting thesemotifs for theeschatological narrative that iscentered ontheLast century, Shahid argues thatPseudo-Methodius basis oftheseinternalresemblances andrelyingonhisdatingofthe Methodius, namely the motifs of (1)awarof 124 123 122 121 120 119 118 117 However, Shahidhasshownnosuchbipolaropposition.Instead,hema attitude might haveseemed im for whom wasunthinkabletodivideEthiopia it Ethiopian monarchyin argument tobebasedonthedifficultyofimagin Methodius waspredatedandinfluencedbythe Syriac exegesisofPs68:32,wherethephrase“ argues, showsthatbothwritingsdrewonthesa legendary motherofAlexandertheGreatand Methodius usesthefemine designation Macedonian (woman), toreferSaba,thele lead. Caquotshowsthatthe Againstthis,Alexandersupposedthatthe therefore shows theinfluence of the latter. Delage (Paris: Société française pour française Delage (Paris: Société août Paris, 24-28 études éthiopiennes, des internationale Xeconférence la Ibid., 257. 257–8. Ibid., usesthe same Martinez 334–5. Ibid., André Caquot, “LeKebra Nagast et les Révélations du Pseudo-Méthode,” in Anti Ethiopia],” and [Pseudo-Methodius iEtiopija “Pseudo-Mefodii Paul Alexander, 174–6. Seeibid., 171–2. Seeibid., 169–71. Seeibid., 10 (1973): 21–7. Unfortunately, I have not been able to consult this article. this to consult able been 21–7. Unfortunately, I not (1973): have 10 The Martinez advances further arguments against considering that the Kebra Nagast 119 ě m

ā t ě thesixthcentury.” yōs. sh 122

les etudes éthiopiennes, 1994), 334. 334. éthiopiennes, 1994), les etudes ares certain centralthemes with the Kebra Nagast plausible forasixth- argument. See Martinez, “The King of R k ūšat 124 120 ney ofthekingorhiscrowntoJerusalem. MartinezarguesthataCoptwasRoman citizen , i.e., theKushite(woman), AndréCaquotandFranci usesthefemine designation k 29 the Roman Thisresemblance, emperors. Caquot ūš tašlemʼīd from theRoman Empire. Indeed,suchabipolar knew aboutthiscomposition andcontested its gendary mother ofMenelikI,whilePseudo- liberation,(2)aroyalabdication, me tradition,whichprobablyoriginatedinthe ing “aCopt writingapoliticaltheoryforthe Kebra Nagast Kebra Nagast orseventh-centur ā” waseasilyreadas 1988, ed. Claude Lepage and Étienne postdatesthe . Étudeséthiopiennes, vol. I: Actes de ū 123 m,” 258. Iconsiderhisstrongest Kebra Nagast Apocalypse ofPseudo- kes clearthatthe sco Martinezfollowhis Apocalypse ofPseudo- in ordertorefer tothe y Roman provincial. č naja Drevnost i Srednie M āk Apocalypse k ād, i.e.,the ū tothesixth šat 117 118 . 121 (3)the Onthe Kebra Also, Also, and CEU eTD Collection History the Christianization of Nubia in the sixth century on the basis of John of Ephesus’ (d. 586) account in his seeRichter, more detail, For 36–7. Press, 2000), Tella’s (d. 538) attitude towards estab towards attitude Tella’s (d. 538) (c.400–585) Conquest Arab Sixth-Century Syrian Orthodox Bishop Orthodox Syrian Sixth-Century Kutlu, Akalin and Menze emperor, seeVolker Roman the with Historians and of the Middle East in the Seventh Century Seventh the the Eastin of Middle andHistories Historians originated. refer to such veryspeculations about whichitis monarch whowasanalternativetotheemperor unnecessary. Itisqui 130 129 127 126 125 that thenotionofKushitehegemony isofEt converted thecountrytoChristianity enjoyed, inalllikelihood,excelle intervention intheYemenputtinganendtoChristianpersecutions. have befound,forinstance,in legitimate and potent Christian leadership outsi Roman sovereigns. leader of the Christian Syrian Miaphysite communities increasingly came oikoumen Nagast that Nubia usurped the prestige previously assigned to the Axumite kingdom. See ibid., 211. but rather Nubia. Forthe present argum Ethiopia designate to isnot meant Kush to reference that Pseudo-Methodius’ argues Greisiger 195–201. Erlöser,” Christianisierung Nubiens 128 Cf. Wood, SeeBengt Sundkler and Christopher Steed, Concerning the terminology pertaining to Ethiopia, Axum, Kush and Nubia, seeSiegfried G. Richter, Wood, SeePhilip 160–5. Nagast,” “The Kebra Shahid, On the Axumite-Himyarite war (c.517–537), see James Howard-Johnston, WitnessesCrisis. to aWorld seeJamesHoward-Johnston, war (c.517–537), the On Axumite-Himyarite , which he collated with archeological and epigraphic evidence. evidence. epigraphic and archeological with collated he , which portraystheE

Recently, PhilipWood hasarguedthatoverthec ē togethertheByzantineempi ‘We have no king but Christ ‘We have no king but Christ’: Christian Political Thought in Greater Syria on the the of the in Syria on Greater Thought Political Christ’: Christian king but no ‘We have 126 te reasonabletosupposethat (Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag, 2002), 14–7 (esp. 16) and Greisiger, “Ein nubischer “Ein nubischer and Greisiger, 16) (esp. 14–7 2002), Verlag, Reichert (Wiesbaden: Accordingly,itcanbesupposedthat oikoumen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 18–20, 210f, 261–4. See, for instance, John John of instance, See, for 261–4. 210f, Press, 18–20, 2010), University Oxford (Oxford: thiopian monarchy ashavi

theonce-potentAxumite kingdom, lishing a counter-church hi acounter-church lishing (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2009), esp. 51–4. 51–4. esp. Press, 2009), NJ:Gorgias (Piscataway, ē ent, however,this thesis withalternativem , nt tiestoSyriaduefact ’ 220–4. 220–4. startingfrom century. thefourth A History of the Church in Africa re asitsjuniorco-ruler. Studien zur Christianisierung Nubiens hiopian provenance,evenifitiscorrect, 30 de theRomanEmpire. Suchleadershipcould in Constantinople.Pseudo-Methodiusseems to therewereSyrianspec virtually impossibletoa to displacetheRoman emperorasthesole JohnTella’s of Profession Faith. of Legacy Theof a ng ahegemonic claim totheChristian odels ofrulerssuch erarchy and opposing the imperial church together imperial church the andopposing erarchy bears no weight since Greisiger himself proposes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 396–8. 396–8. 2010), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: ourse ofthesixthandseventhcenturies Syriancircleswerelookingfor 125 that itwasSyrianmonkswho

127 (Cambridge: Cambridge University whichwasacclaimed forits 128 What ismore, Ethiopia 129 ulations aboutaKushite , who carefully reconstructs asholymen andnon- ssert from where they fromwherethey ssert Therefore,assuming 130 Studien zur seems Church Church CEU eTD Collection 273–80. 273–80. Mell Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam xiii. (CSCO 541), Second unrest Arab Civil War; seeReinink, the tothe of might V.5 refer typologically Byzantine and Modern GreekByzantine andModernStudies 691/692. and oppressivetaxation. he describesthehardshipsthatwouldoccurduri devastation andgreatsufferingwhichthiswar Second ArabCivilWar, whichwa The historical context of the 135 134 132 131 certainly preoccupiedPseudo-Methodius.That since conversionresultedinspecific taxexemp financial obligations. apparently througha on thenon-Muslim populationofMesopotamia, so taxes inkind.What ismore,th monetary taxwasanadditional burdenforthenon- Mell northern Mesopotamia intheyear686/687CEwhichJohnbarPenk 2.3. 46–7. 46–7. 133 See Daniel C. Dennett, Sebastian Brock, “North Mesopotamia in the Late Seventh Century: Book XV of John Bar Penk SeeBrock, “Syriac Views,” 19; idem, Sebastian P. Brock, “Syriac Sources for Seventh-Century History,” Apocalypse Apocalypse ē ē , seeAnton Baumstark, “Eine syrische Weltgeschichte des siebten Jahrh.s,” or

The burdensome taxationprobablyrefersto The historicalcontextofthe Summary ofWorldHistory 133 Thereformdetermined afixedtaxoffourdinars XIII.4. XIII.4. XIII.2–4. Furthermore, Reinink proposes that that proposes Reinink Furthermore, XIII.2–4. 135 vaticinium exeventu Conversion and the Poll Tax in EarlyIslam in Tax the Poll and Conversion Hightaxationincreasedth 131 Theplagueandfamine probablyre

Apocalypse isdetermined bytheevents of theSecond e polltaxincreasedby400percent. 2 (1976): 34; Reinink, “A Concept of History,” 181. History,” of “AConcept Reinink, 34; (1976): 2 9 (1987): 51–74 (at 68–71). For ada (at68–71). 51–74 (1987): 9 s foughtoutinthe680sandearly . 132 Apocalypse

–thatChristianswouldselltheir children tomeet their 31 caused canbefoundinPseudo-Methodiuswhere ng thelastyear-week,notablyfamines, plagues, tions. Thefearofwidespreadapostasymost is whyhemarkedly seekstoconvincehis e probabilityofChristia urban population, whichearlierhadpaidtheir in the rage and raving of the Midianites in in ofthe the Midianites rage andraving in much sothatPseudo-Methodiusclaims – ʿ Abd al-Malik’staxreforms oftheyear (Cambridge: HarvardUniversityPress, 1950), ted but still useful overview ofthe overview stilluseful ted but fer tothecataclysmic eventsin 134 Römische Quartalschrift Römische ā 690s.Impressions aboutthe per capita yē Allthisputgreatpressure depictsvividlyinhis ns convertingtoIslam, Die Syrische Apokalypse . Themovetoa ā y ē ’s Fitna Apocalypse Rī 15 (1901), (1901), 15 š Mell , the R Rī ē ī ,” š š

CEU eTD Collection relig f 142 141 140 139 138 137 136 theses concerning reform no savior,” before theLast Roman Emperor istoawake.This in hisApocalypse.Thispropositionislocatedatthevery concept ofthebegettingFather. does notbegetandHeisbegotten.”This statement unambiguously deniestheChristian prophetic mission(Qur’an9:33)anddivineunity standing traditionoffiguralim his reignwas.Heinstitutedapurelyepigraphi recently emphasized how revolutiona media were, firstandforemost, coinage,ep through variousmedia, entailedashiftintheca the notionof politico-religious legitimacy. Thisrhetoric, whichadvanced Islamic proclamations consolidate hispowerassoleca the eschatological temptation toaposta audience thatconversiontoIslam Raby, Jeremy Johns (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 59–87. 59–87. 1992), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: JeremyJohns Raby, 104 and idem, idem, Seealso 127–38. 2005), Peeters, (Louvain: Molendijk Early ChristianFear of Conversion to Islam,” in Blair, “What is the Date of the Dome of the Rock?” in Dateofthe isthe Rock?” Dome of Blair, “What 1–18. Thomas(Leiden: Brill,2003), David in ed. Iraq, ‘Abbasid Scholarship Lifeand Church at PortrayalIdolaters Near East,”Heart Islam– Christian of Christians A Themethe Islamic the in of the in Rule. in (esp. 165). On the subsequent development of this polemic Friends, ed. H.L.J. Vanstiphout, K. Jongeling, F. Leemhuis, G.J. Reinink (Groningen: E. Forsten, 1986), 163–175 about Scripts, Scriptures and Languages in the Near East in beiPseudo-Methodios,” Metapher einersymbolischen DieGestaltung Muslime. igural iconography of the gold gold the of iconography igural For an analysis of the decorative arts and for an argument dating the Dome of the Rock to the 692, see Sheila Sheila see 692, tothe Rock the of Dome the dating anargument for and arts decorative ofthe ananalysis For See Holyand, Seeing Islam SeeReinink, “Legende zum römischen Endkaiser,” 106. Crisis World a to Witnesses Howard-Johnston, see Gerr in apostasy Pseudo-Methodius, issue of Onthe SeeApocalypse Apocalypse ious policy. See further Reinink, “Legende zum römischen Endkaiser,” 105. 105. zumEndkaiser,” See römischen “Legende further ious policy. Reinink, s. Moreover, theDome oftheRockwas constructedduringhisreign. Taxation wasonlyoneofvariousreforms that 141

140 XIII.6.4. XIII.6.4. Die Syrische Apokalypse needstobeunderstoodin IX.9, where Arabs are considered to be pagan tyrants. SeeGerrit J. Reinink, “Tyrannen und ʿ Abd al-Malik’s intentions to buildthisedifice ontheideologically charged , 551–9, where he considers the background and quality of of and quality the background considers he where , 551–9, solidus

agery. . See 139 (CSCO 541), 53–4, n.XII,1(1). n.XII,1(1). 541), (CSCO 53–4, liph, hedesignedareligiousrh

amounts toarelapseintopaganism amounts Pseudo-Methodiusrelatesasi supra ry the monetary reformthat 138 tize, asforetoldin2Thess2:3. Thiscoinagewasdecorated thepolemic contextof Cultures ofConversion , 505–7. Previously, Previously, , 505–7. n.105. n.105. Bayt al-Maqdis. igraphy, and architecture. Howard-Johnston has igraphy, andarchitecture.Howard-Johnstonhas 32 , c, aniconiccoinageth presented to J.H. Hopsers by his Pupils, Colleagues and “Die syrischen Wurzeln der mittelalterlichen Legende,” Legende,” mittelalterlichen der Wurzeln syrischen “Die (Qur’an 112)containi it J. Reinink, “Following the Doctrineit “Following ofthe Demons. J.Reinink, liphate’s attitudetowardsChristianity.Such claim, whichstates that topos , see Barbara Roggema, ʿ Abd al-Malik carrie heartofthedramatic narrative,right ʿ Abd al-Malik had imitated Justinian II’s new Justinian hadimitated Abd al-Malik ʿ Abd al-Malik’s Jerusalem al-Malik’s Abd , ed. J.N. Bremmer, W.J. van Bekkum, A.L. ʿ etoric thatwascen Abd al-Malik’s religio-political ʿ milarly aggressiveproposition Abd al-Malik initiatedlaterin 137 136 with inscriptionsaboutthe

at brokewiththelong- andtoafailure toresist ng thephrasethat“God Scripta signa vocis: Studies “theChristianshave 142 ʿ Abd al-Malik’s shift in in shift Abd al-Malik’s “Muslims as Crypto- Therearevarious d out.Inorderto . Vol. 1, ed. Julian Julian 1,ed. Vol. tered around CEU eTD Collection links it to his exegesis of 2 Thess 2:7, see Reinink, seeReinink, of Thess2:7, 2 ittohis exegesis links “A Pseudo-Methodius’ useofthemotif ofMount Methodius wasaresponse tothe cons 149 148 147 146 145 144 143 restoration period.Hisvariousre Jewish Templewasconsideredtobe regarded theconstructiononTempleMountth Christian reproach inthe writi apocalyptic literature associated withPseudo site of Christ’scrucifixion disputes theMuslim correlated withpolitical intentions directedagains contradict eachother.Theanti-Christian the HolySepulchre. Temple ofSalomon hadoncestoodandbypositioningit Jewish andtheChristian faithsbybuildingaMu the same time, thetemplemight havefunctione Jerusalem inordertostrengthenhispolitical location oftheTem of t literary by Arabic sources Amikam Did “Why Elad, 44– 1971), andUnwin, Allen George (London: C.R. Barber Jovian. would be overruled by the Last Roman Emperor just asJulian’s anti-Christian policies were overturned by Emperor Julian’s paganismto bethe typological Jewish temple was associated with the pagan Emperor o in AD 614–638,” Temple Mount “The Mango, Cyril Ceremonies, Pilgrimage Brill,(Leiden: 1999), 147–163. (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1992), 33–58. Raby, Jeremy Johns (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 1–16. 1–16. 1992), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: JeremyJohns Raby, World Crisis World and Howard-Johnston, 246–7 Year “The 1000,” Magdalino, 131.Seealso Demons,” the of Doctrine f the Jerusalem f Rock the in the Dome of SeeAlexander, SeeReinink, “Following the Doctrine of the Demons,” 133 and SeeReinink, “The Romance of Julian,” 78–81; idem, Reinink, “ Did “Why Elad, See Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to aWorld Crisis Ignaz Goldziher, by was originally proposed interpretation This Concept of History,” 181–6; idem, 181–6; ofHistory,” Concept Apocalypse he MuslimSources,”he in Thus, IagreewithReinink,whoha In sum, Christians intheconqueredte In sum, Christians , 498, 512. 512. , 498, IX.9. Reinink shows how this motif depends on the the on motif depends this shows how Reinink IX.9. Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine 144 ʿ ple Mount.Hemight haveattempted todivertthe Abd al-Malik,” 48–52 and idem, and 48–52 al-Malik,” Abd Itisimportant torecognize that Bayt al-Maqdis.

ngs ofAnastasiusSinai. nskij Vostok nskij ,” Die Syrische Apokalypse Xristia form antecedent of the Ishmaelites’ idolat oneofthedeedsAntichrist. s challengedChalcedoniansaswellnon-Chalcedonians truction of this temple andits anti-Christian challenge. ʿ Abd al-Malik’sJerusalem , 498. Regarding the symbolic potential of the Temple Mount, seeMount, Temple ofthe potential the symbolic Regarding , 498. Die Syrische Apokalypse , 204–6. Cf. 2 Thess 2:4. Additionally, the attempt to rebuild the attemptrebuild the to Additionally, Cf. 2Thess 2:4. , 204–6. s persuasivelyarguedthatthe ʿ Bayt al-Maqdis. al-Maqdis. Bayt polemic behindtheDome oftheRockprobably Abd al-Malik Build the Dome of the Rock? A Re-Examination the Dome theRock? al-Malik Build of Abd authorityoverhissouthArabiancompetitors. rritories werehardpressedduringʿ Golgothabeingthecenterofworld 33 -Methodius onefinds anotherwitness tothe 2, No. 8 (2001): 227–41. 227–41. (2001): 8 No. 2, Julian. In all likelihood, Pseudo-Methodius considered considered Pseudo-Methodius In all likelihood, Julian. t Muslim rivals. Medieval Jer attempt toappropriate this hill.Apartfrom slim templeonthetopofplacewhere d asasymbolicclaimtosupersedeboththe 6 and tentatively supported with a reexamination of the the of areexamination with supported tentatively 6 and e workof demons, sincetherebuildingof (CSCO 541), xxiii–xxiv; Reinink, “Following the the “Following Reinink, xxiii–xxiv; 541), (CSCO Der edessenische Muslim Studies Muslim idem, “Early Christian Reactions to the Building the to Reactions idem,Building “EarlyChristian so thatitrosehigherthantheChurchof Cave of TreasuresCave of 148 these twomajor interpretations donot ʿ Abd al-Malik’s Jerusalem Itislittlesurprising thatAnastasius usalem andIslami . (CSCO 541), 32, n.IX,8(2). Vol. 1, ed. Julian Raby, Jeremy Johns ry. Accordingly, Ishmaelite 145

. Vol. 2., ed., S.M. Stern, tr. idem,

‘ 149 Pseudo and how Pseudo-Methodius

Apocalypse ofPseudo- ḥajj c Worship. Holy Places, - Methodius’,” from Meccato . Vo Abd al-Malik’s Witnesses toa l. 1, ed. Julian Julian ed. l. 1, 147 and the 39; idem, 143 At 146

CEU eTD Collection McGinn, McGinn, abdicate inJerusalem. Thisla pagans, defeattheuncleanpeoplesofNorth, of greatprosperity and peacethat prophetess ofTibur.Thetextcontai apocalyptic traditions into apropheticcompilation Emperor Methodius Without goingintotoo much detailonthepaganantecedents ofthe 153 152 151 150 Möhringhasrecently arguedthatthepassage which hecalls the Constans-Vaticinium, goesback earlier material takenfrom year 1022 asanapproximate dateofcomposition. Tiburtine Sibylis1047,the apocalyptic motifsandschemes weretakenfrom He When itcomes toChristianapocalypticthought TheConstans-Vaticinium 2.4. propagates passiveconsentforthenotionofaRoman reconquest. more from its audience thanitsconsent. does istoplacecontemporary tr and announcingtheliberat which herepelstheideologica both fiscallyandideologically.Asaresult,Ps outcome. Cf.n.19. In the end,the real protagonist in On the dating, see Möhring, seeMöhring, dating, the On the of content ofthe Forasynopsis Cf.Brandes, “Endzeitvorstellungen und seeMcGinn, attitudes; active rather than passive propagate tend to Generally, apocalypses The

Visions of the End topos isderived from theSibylline oracular tradition. , onethesisneedstobeaddressedhere Latin TiburtineSibyl , 18–21. , 18–21. Der Weltkaiser der Endzeit various prophetictraditions. ion throughtheRoman In emperor. year towhichth the apocalyptic drama isdivine grace,

st emperorisnamed Constans. l provocationbyforetellingthe ibulations intoan eschatological scheme whichdemands nothing Latin Tiburtine will lastfor112 years.He isamedievaltextthatcombines various oracularand ns themotif ofalastemperor w Lebenstrost,” 35–6. Fo 150 Pseudo-Methodiusdoes notincite rebellion.Herather e earliestmanuscrip eudo-Methodius com 34 , 32–3. , 32–3. , see Möhring, DerWeltkaiser der Endzeit to a now-lost fourth-century prototype. This toanow-lostfourth-centuryprototype.This and attheadventofAntichristhewill itmust notbeforgottenthatnumerous , namely, thenotionthatLastRoman attributed tothelegendary RomanSibylor 153 llenistic andRomanoracleliterature. However, itisclear that this textuses referring to thelast r anintroductionto Christian Sibyllinism, see willupholdorthodoxy, convertthe 152 impeding endofAraboppression which alone predeter The effect,whatPseudo-Methodius t dates.Möhring ho issaidtousherinaperiod posed aSyriacapocalypsein terminus antequem Apocalypse emperor, Constans, Visions of the End, 32. mines theultimate

proposes the proposes the , 28–32. , 28–32. of Pseudo- of this 151

CEU eTD Collection χεῖρα sign. Arguably, AthanasiusofAlexandria Caesarea as thefulfillment ofPs68:32 saying: when ChristianitygainedafootholdinEgyptand could alsobeexplainedbyarefe 161 160 159 158 157 156 155 154 lost GreekarchetypewhichhecallstheTheodosian Sibyl. Thislostarchetypewasredactedin Baalbek, doesnotcontainthismotif. is nodirectevidenceforanysuchclaim. An older versionoftheLastRoman Emperormotif. Ho circumstantial evidence. Itallowsforthepossib of Ethiopia. motif originatedintheearlyf apocalypses Latinfactions playatleastasimportant arole. apocalyptic texts theArabswere the emphasis on theIshmaelites changedcontinuously. AsIwillshow below,insome Greek on thismatter. Moreover, intheByzantine recep knowledge abouttheMuslims whichcouldhave common pagans. explained byPseudo-Methodius’markedconcernto the absence ofanyexplicitme proposition hasbeenthesubjectofsom Cf. 32; CSCO, 1977), 53,Möhring, 133.See Ibid., 42, 44. It is clear that an essential precondition for the Parousia is conversion of the Gentiles. Cf. Lk Cf.Lk 2:30- Gentiles. ofthe for isconversion the Parousia precondition essential an Ibid., 44. 42, It isclearthat Robert W. Thomson, ed., 137D (Eusebius, MPG20, Forinstance in Forinstance in the See see ibid., 42–4. augmentation ForMöhring’s Concerning the various viewpoints, see ibid., 39–42. Acts 13:47 Magdalino, “The History of the Future,” 5.

160 αὐτῆς supra supra Möhring arguesthatPs68:32bestfitsthehist In hiseditionoftheOracleBaalbek Thus,Möhringproposesthattheintroduction τῷ n.136. . Thus, the rapid spread of Christianity in the early fourth century invited eschatological speculations.

θεῷ 161 Last Daniel Last . . See Möhring,. See 155

Althoughthislineofargument isreasonable,atbest,itpresentsonly 156 Diegesis Danielis Diegesis Thefact that theIshmaelites arenot mentioned ItisdoubtfulwhethertheLatinWest Athanasiana Syriaca, Vol. 4. Expositio In Psalmos In Expositio 4. Vol. Syriaca, Athanasiana ; see chapter 3.4.5. ; see Historia ecclesastica Der Weltkaiser der EndzeitDer Weltkaiserder

ourth-century eschatolog Der Weltkaiser der Endzeit ntion oftheIshmaelitesand rence tomore potentthreats. ; seechapter 3.4.1. seen as the greatestmenace, interpretedthespreadof Christianityasaneschatological e debate. e ,II. 1.13):Eusebius here quotesPs 68:32: Αἰθιοπία earlyChristianSibyltext,theso-called , Alexander arguesthat the 35 “Ethiopiastretches out herhand unto God.” 154 ility thattheConstans-Vaticinium presentsan tion historyoftheLastRoman Emperormotif challenged theauthorityofPseudo-Methodius Ethiopia. Thiswasappreci Möhring’sstrongestar , 42, , 42, n.213. wever, itneedstobeke , 43, n.215. n.215. , 43, portraytheArabsasnothingmore than of Ps68:32intotheLastRoman Emperor orical contextoftheearlyfourthcentury ical excitement relatedtotheconversion priortotheCrusadeshadanyprofound 158 on theuseofPs68:32in Thus,neglecting the Ishmaelites . CSCO 386 (Leuven: Secréteriat du 157 while in other Byzantine expressis verbis text isbasedonanow- guments are basedon pt inmind thatthere ated byEusebiusof Oracle of

προφθάσει canbe Latin 159

CEU eTD Collection on thisissue. seventh century? Intheend, seventh century? Constans (r.337–350)ordiditoriginateintheh fourth-century prophetic 166 165 164 163 162 Roman Emperor became stronglyassociated be derivedfrom theConstans-Vaticinium. U victorious fightagainsttheIshmaelites an Pseudo-Methodius unambiguouslytestifyingfor hi apocalyptic tradition. As Iwillshowbelow,nume Methodius itwashis Emperor eschatological rulerscanbefoundinthe provided thesourcematerial forthemedieval TiburtineSibyls. same time, theTheodosian Sibylwastransmitte the Eas judge the the judge arguments the numerous Considering 36–7. Lebenstrost,” und Tradition Apocalyptic among others, Alexander, “Byzantium and the Migration of Literary Works,” 66–7, n.35; idem, Antichrist) kills thelast entire motif of the Last Roman Emperor is a later adaptation taken from the Pseudo-Methodian tradition. tradition. taken from Pseudo-Methodian the motif LastRomanEmperorentire of isa the later adaptation Constans defeating Gog and Magog in the of Gog and Magog with Alexander the Great is not attested prior to the seventh century. Therefore, the motif of of the abdicating Last Roman Emperor, who personifies the Cf. Alexander, “The Medieval Legend of the Last Roman Emperor,” 14–5 (Appendix). the of Legend 14–5 Medieval (Appendix). LastRoman “The Emperor,” Cf. Alexander, See Alexander, There is, however, a dominant trend toward considering Pseudo-Methodius the real genius behind the motif. See SeeOracle ofBaalbek Alexander, tern Roman Empire into the The questionremains: Didthe Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius topos oritsessential functions of ultimate imperial restoration and abdication. Oracle of Baalbek 164 Butevenifthemotif oftheLastRo Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine , 163, n.44; Wortley, “The Literature of Cata of Literature “The Wortley, n.44; , 163, emperor from Heliopolis ( 20–1 (lines 180–203). Indeed, the very idea that the “the ruler of perdition” (i.e., the (i.e.,the ruler ofperdition” “the that the idea thevery (lines Indeed, 180–203). 20–1 Apocalypse textattributingthelastemperorship , 48–68, 136–8. 136–8. , 48–68,

evidence thatcomes downtous thatmade this to be the earliest instancethat advances the Last Roman Emperor motif. Oracle ofBaalbekintheyearsbetw Latin Tiburtine Sibyl Latin topos d theintegrationofGogandMagogmotif Oracle ofBaalbek, thereis notraceoftheLastRoman βασιλεὺς , 163, n.44. In a note Alexander points out that the combination oftheLastRoman Emperororiginateinanow-lost withthepseudonymous Syriacwriter. 36 ltimately, theeschatological motif of theLast

ἀπὸ katech rous Byzantineapocalypses wereattributed to d tothe LatinWest, whereitstranslations (see also the next note)and the stateof the evidence I man Emperor didnot originatewithPseudo- eat ofpolemic discourseattheendof s authority.Furthermore,thenotionof

topos Ἡλίου must be a later interpolation, or alternatively, the oralternatively, must alaterinterpolation, be ō n strophe,” 16–7; Brandes, 16–7; strophe,” . anintegralpartofthesubsequent

πόλεως to Constantinethe 162 While the motif of consecutive does notallowforafinalword ) seems utterly remote from the motif) seems remotefromutterly the een 502and506.Atthe “Endzeitvorstellungen Great’s thirdson, 166

163 165 Byzantine Byzantine

cannot cannot CEU eTD Collection Rein introductory study of this fragment, see Reinink, “ studythis fragment, see Reinink, of introductory 97) and by Francisco J.Martinez into English (Martin Pseudo-Methodius; see asiatique the authormighthavebeenamonk in From theexceptional status whichEdessaandits In th 170 169 168 167 Martinez argued for alatethirt into the cityof Edessa,forG the textreads: “He[i.e., theAntichrist] willre that thistextwascomposed inoraroundEdessaderivesfrominternalevidence.Onesectionof us isafragmented versionof this text; thetit drama andthelanguagecloselyrese composition wasrevisedintoanEdessanadaptation. As mentioned above,the TheEdessanApocalypse 3.1. implications of stru I advancevariousconclusionsrega is followed byatablein whichIjuxtapose the mo of tensourcesIstudythechanges 162–71. 162–71. the fragment with Edessan Cf.Reinink,“ Theresemblance isso great that The text has been translated by Harald Suermann into German (idem, Edessan Apocalypse ink, “The Romance of Julian,” 81–6; idem, “The81–6; Julian,” ink, of Romance is chapter Iinvestigate thereception histor However, anevenmore important question , sér. 11, No. 9 (1917): 415–71 (esp. 415–452). 415–452). (esp. 415–71 (1917): 9 No. sér. 11, , Der edessenische ctural modification. 226 (f. 102v.). I follow here Martinez, “Easte Martinez, here Ifollow (f. 102v.). 226 François ApocalypsePseudo-Methodius of

Nau ‘ od hasblesseditandkeptit,nor Apocalypse wasrapidlydisseminated andwithinyearsofits Pseudo-

François , “Révélationsetlégendes. eenth-century origin, Reinink ar 3. and particularitiesof its subsequentdevelopment. Myanalysis rding the change intopical focus and imagery aswell the mbles thatofPseudo-Methodius. 33. 33. Methodius’,” RECEPTION HISTORY RECEPTION Nau identified this text asthearchetype text this identified Nau one ofthefourmonasteries mentioned. Die SyrischeApokalypse le andthebeginningsec Der edessenische ign overallthe earth.Hewillnotenter, however, 37 y oftheLastRoman Empe

ez, “Eastern ChristianApo ez, tifs associated withthe LastEmperor. Finally, monasteries isgrantedhe , see Suermann, is thatofthedate 167 Methodius rn Christian Apocalyptic,” 236 (f. 102v.). 102v.). 236 (f. Apocalyptic,” Christian rn Thegeneralscheme oftheend-time

‘ the (CSCO 541), xli. Foracomparison of Pseudo Die geschichtstheologische Reaktion Die geschichtstheologische into those four monasteriesinto thosefour….” . –Clement. – Andronicus,” Jou gued foralateseventh-century Die geschichtstheologischeReaktion - Methodius’,” tion aremissing. Thenotion 168 Whathascomedownto ofcomposition.While calyptic,” 232–46). For an an For 232–46). calyptic,” of theSyriac ror motif. On the basis re onecaninferthat 170

31–45.further See Apocalypse of , 87– rnal rnal 169 ,

CEU eTD Collection Sebastian P. Brock Kirchen,” christlicher Ära indensyrischen in Datierung nach Handschriften ‘ , 245 and Suermann, Suermann, Chronicles, and 245 232 Apocalyptic,” “Eastern Christian an impending imperial restorationalive. rule oftheIshmaelites waspromptly prolonged toa Emperor hadfailedtoappearin691asprophesy additional three andahalfyears.Arguably,thisincrease wasnecessarybecause theLast Roman half years,asanextensionofthelasty can besupportedifoneunderstandsthemention of 177 176 175 174 173 year oftheIncarnationas the Incarnationstartedon1September 9BCande Byzantine erathecreationofworldwasfixedat revised versionoftheAlexandr from whichdatedoesthenumber count? half-year periodneedstobeaddedtheobs Edessan Apocalypseistheyear692. thesis about an increaseofSyriacapo arrives atAG 1003, whichis Edessan chronologytheyearofIncarnatione author calculatedthenumber have passedthentheking of theGreekswillgoout….” The textreads:“When theseyears,whichlast date. o Mesopotamia,” 69–74. 69–74. Mesopotamia,” 172 171 Pseudo- Han J.W. Drijvers, “Christians, “Christians, J.W.Drijvers, SeeHan also 230–41. Rock,” the of f the Dome Regarding the chronological of “ Reinink, SeeReinink, “ Reinink,

Forthe arguments,see Martinez, “Eastern Ch Edessan Apocalypse Edessan Apocalypse 171 Methodius’,” Professor Perczel’sabove-cited Thegreatestdifficultyofthedatingrevolves Der edessenische Der edessenische (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1971), esp. 160–75 and, more recently, Hubert Kaufhold, “Zur Die Syrische Apokalypse , ed. George A. Kiraz (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2008), 283–337. 283–337. Press, 2008), Gorgias NJ: (Piscataway, Kiraz A. ed. George , 34–8. 34–8. 222 (f. 98r.). 222 (f. 98v.). Translation by István Perczel

‘ ‘ Pseudo Pseudo Die geschichtstheologische Reaktion Die geschichtstheologische

equivalenttoAD691/692. starting point,thentheyear7 694 withtheincarnati (f. 98v.). (f. 98v.). Alternatively, seePalmer, - - ian era and finalized in the seventh century. According to the ian eraandfinalizedintheseventhcentury.Accordingto Methodius’,” Methodius’,” (CSCO 541), xli-xlii and idem, “ idem, and xli-xlii (CSCO541), 176 Syrian writers,see Ludger P.Bernhard,

calypticism inthelateseventhcentury. translation draws attention to thefactthatten-and-a- 175 177 Thus,accordingtoReinink,onepossibledate forthe ear-week (mentioned inPseudo-Methodius)byan ristian Apocalyptic,” 218–9 and Reinink, “ Reinink, and 218–9 ristian Apocalyptic,” 38, n.59. Hoyland, by is followed He 36–7. cure number 694,resultingin704.5.Thequestionis: OnepossibilityistheByzantine era, which wasa 38 one weekandahalfafte ed byPseudo-Methodius.Therefore,the70-year quals AG309.Ifoneadds694tothisdate nded on31August8BC.Ifthetexttakes the one and a half year-weeks, i.e., ten and a the oneandahalfyear-weeks,i.e.,ten Malphonow-Rabo d-Malphone: Studiesin Honor of 1September 5509,sothatthefirstyearof 73.5-year rulein order tokeep thebelief in around thepeculiarmention oftheyear694. on ofChristinmind. Accordingtothe 172 , 86 (lines 18–20). (lines 86 , 173 Reininksupposedthattheanonymous . ForMartinez’s transl 04.5 referstotheyearAD695/696. Thisdate fits wellwith Reinink’s Early Christian Reactions to the Building tothe Building Early ChristianReactions The Seventh Century inthe West-Syrian Die Chronologie der syrischen

Se r [the]694years,will and Muslims in Northern eing Islam , 268, n.29. 174 ation, see Martinez, ation, seeMartinez, Der edessenische Hisargument

CEU eTD Collection (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 165–80. 165–80. Brill, 1992), (Leiden: 183 182 181 180 179 178 God’s .After that theAntichristwillarrive sending forththeuncleanpeoplesofNorth,w time for Christianstorevert to before usheringina208-year-longperi Liberator or Victorious Emperor willmove out from foedrivingthembackintothedesert.The theArab of theLastRoman Emperor from theemperor connecting him withmotifs reminisc additional ideologicalsupporttothenotionthat imminent clearly referstothe colt Constantine’s mother, Helena. imperial hands. meanings. First, itemphasizes th bridle which ismade from thenails of theTrue Cross. moves outinordertodefeat theArabswhena the Roman Emperor. First,thetypo This datewouldprovidethe Magdalino, “The History of the Future,” 4–28 4–28 n.234, Future,” of the “TheHistory 83; Magdalino, see Möhring, theyear 1000, of importance the 1000. On number Apocalypse eight months” period which is mentioned in connection with the unclean peoples of the North; see “The Suermann, Drijvers, No legendary LastRoman Emperorissaidtofinallyarrive. Itfrom. clear is entirely 208 where derives not the number 19:30–41. Lk 11:2–11, Mk Syriac inthe originates theme that this out ultimately point andReinink Suermann Regarding the location of the True Cross, see There are more possible dates to consider. See Möhring, Edessan Apocalypse twithstanding its unknown origin, there is no reason to not take this number literally. number this literally. to take reason there is no not origin, twithstanding itsunknown Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius Romanceidem,of Julian,”82–3; There are twoimportant developments inth The otherimportantdevelopment inthe Helena Augusta. The Mother of and the Legend of Her Finding of the True Cross Die geschichtstheologische Reaktion , 224 (f. 101r.). The year 208 together with the year 694 mentioned earlier seem to converge onto the the onto seem converge to earlier theyear mentioned with 694 together year 208 The 101r.). (f. , 224 adventus 180 Second,itreferstothelegendary of theRoman emperorinto thisvery ci 222–3 (ff. 98v.–99r.). 98v.–99r.). (ff. 222–3 Christ rodeintoJerusalem.

181 their habitualsinfulness, whichev term logical connectionwithConstant Third, ituses the potent imager at therelicofTrueCrossandits associatedpartsarein Syrische Apocalypse inus antequem ent of ConstantinetheGreat. , isfurtherelaborated. Itissaid thattheRoman emperor od ofgeneralprosperityandpeace. , 164–5; Reinink, “ supra n.77. 39 who wouldliberatethe Christian commonwealth Edessan Apocalypse horse, neverriddenbefore,putsitsheadintoa andwillbedefeated with his son in694 and crush the Ishmaelites Der Weltkaiser der Endzeit theRomanemperor isdivinelyfavoredby This number shows similari shows This number 182 ho are–afterabriefruleannihilatedby , becauseitmarks theyearinwhich and especially idem, “The Year 1000,” 233–70. inventio See n.53. (CSCO 541), xlii, further Jan Willem is textconcerningth 179 Thisallusion is designed toprefigure the 178 Der Weltkaiserder Endzeit Der edessenische This imagery ispregnant with multiple

ty. Thus,the motif of thebridle adds foretells that a a that Edessan Apocalypseforetells oftheTrueCrossinJerusalem by y ofanever-riddenhorse,which entually triggers God’swrathin ine theGreat,onlyimplicit in is thetentative dissociation

by EnochandElijah. Only ‘ Pseudo , 113–7. , 113–7. Judas Cyriacus Legend 183 ty with the “two yearsand “two withthe ty e figureoftheLast Thisisjustenough - Methodius’,” , 58, 59, n.49, 75, 79, 79, 75, n.49, 59, 58, , 41; idem, Edessan Edessan ; see

CEU eTD Collection 186 185 184 The TheGospeloftheTwelve Apostles 3.2. Judgment. immediately followedbytheuniversalannihilationof Roman Emperor’sabdicationisportrayedasth monastic author does not agree withthisstandard interpretation. removed theAntichristcanappear.Thus, before explicit emphasisonthe fact th and slayingoftheAntichrist.Thisreversalis 695/696. Ethiopian provenancetoJustinia negates theimmediacyof theu between the liberation from the Arabdominion andthearrival of the Antichrist theauthor rulers are not to be identified. Be thatas itma Emperor is identical withthe Victorious Emperor. years willpassaftertheChristia assigns Kushite,i.e.,Ethiopian(o Golgotha inordertoabdicate then, af related revelations. based onthesynopticGospelsandbeginning of the the Drijvers narrows the date further down. He proposes the period around the year 702, that is, after the composition of Apostles, Together with the Apocalypses of Each One of Them to these two prophets. See the Instead, Antichrist. the by slain being Harris dates the the dates Harris and Enoch scheme of traditional from the deviate author the unknown what made unclear Itisequally SeeReinink, “ Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius Gospel oftheTwelveApostles It isfurthermore remarkable thatthe Last The same para-historical genealogyass ter theentireeschatological drama has 184

Der edessenische Gospel of the Twelve Apostles 186 Thesethreerevelationsareattributed totheapostles Simeon Kepha (i.e., Edessan Apocalypse

‘ and endallearthlypower.

Pseudo- and before at theRoman Empire isthe ltimate end.Thismight bedueto r Nubian)descent totheLast n II,the emperor who was antici n reconquestoftheNearEast.It Edessan Apocalypse isanearly eighth-century text that retells the story of Christ Methodius’,” 226 (f. 130.). 130.). (f. 226 ʿ mid-eightcentury, seeJames R.Harris, Abd al-Malik’s death; see HanJ.W. Drijvers, “The Gospels ofthe hardtounderstandconsideringPseudo-Methodius’ y, byintroducingarelativelylonginterim period been played out,willthe LastEmperor ascendto 40 42. Cf. Magdalino, “The Year 1000,” 253. een inPseudo-Methodiusisemployed,which Roman Emperor abdicates However,thetextdoesnotindicatethatthese this sequence ofevents e verylasthuman actioninworldhistory, attributesthe successful annihilation of the Antichrist theActswhilesupplementing itwiththree (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1900), 22. all, theParousia, andultimately the Last katech Roman Emperor. Morethan210 185 thedifficultyofattributing ItisnotclearwhytheLast ō isunlikelythatthisLast pated to ruleintheyear n andmust, therefore,be wouldimply thatthe The Gospel of theTwelve after theappearance CEU eTD Collection Mesopotamia in the Late Seventh Century,” 73. Century,” LateSeventh the Mesopotamia in geschichtstheologische Reaktion plague. cohesion. He willchasethem backintothedese Then a“man from theNorth” 195 194 193 192 191 190 189 188 187 of t Fran Institut (Damascus: Coquais Gospel of the Twelve Apostles andRelatedTexts,”in La Syrie deByzance àl’Islam EarlyIslamicTimes: the in Mesopotamia Muslims Jewsand Northern in idem, and “Christians, 213 211, 1992), Material the Literary Source 1: in East. Vol. Problems Twelve Apostles: ASyriac Apocalypse have toendureuntildivinein John theEvangelist, the earthinpeaceatendoftimes. prophecy thataman “from his[i.e., war againstLiciniusin324CEand presents aseriesof Drijvers’ convincinglydemonstrated revelation liesonthefragmented stateoftheChur Chalcedonian heresy,thatis,tothosewho“divideourLord.” Roman Emperor. I treatthelattermotif, which that Christianshavenosavior, such asthemotifofburdensome tribute, Peter), Jam promoted, for instance,by John barPenk of John “The Gospels of the Tw“The Gospelsthe of that The Second was hope strife during internal the terminate Arabdominion born out would the Evangelist, the John to isattributed apocalypse This Twelve Apostles 38–9. Twelve Apostles 34. 196–99. Apostles,” the Twelve of “The Gospels Twelve Apostles SeeDrijvers, 33–4. Twelve Apostles Twelve Apostles Twelve Twelve Apostles he he Dome ofthe Rock,” 241. Similarly, Suermann dates it to the year 700, see . Thatis whyinthe opening scene 195 The apocalypseofSimeon Kephaassignsthetr

Apostles

es, andJohn.Theapocalypsesincorporatenumerouses, elements ofPseudo-Methodius 32. Cf. 32. Apocalypse Cf. 37. tothe Syriac. Cf. not and I translation 37. refer here tothe English vaticinia exeventuthatnarratethedeedsofCons elve Apostles,” 199–200. 199–200. elve Apostles,” 193 Apocalypse describestheArabconquestandsu , 191. ç ais de Damas, 1992), 74. Cf. Reinink, Reinink, “ 74.Cf. Damas, 1992), ais de will rise,whodefeats theIshmae 189 tervention willcauseinternalst XIII.6.4. XIII.6.4. XII.3–6. strongly resembles thePseudo-MethodiannotionofLast andseveralreferencestoavict from theEarly Islamic Period,” in ā Constantine’s] seedshall rise one finds imagery reminiscent oftheRevelation of John y the issuingofth thatthesecondrevelation,i. ē 192 in in his Thelastrevelation,thatis, 187 thefearofwidespreadapostasy, R ī who wasconsidered to be also the author of the š Mell 41 , ed. A. Cameron, L.I.Conrad , ed. Cameron, A. rt, wheretheArabswill ch whichwill beovercome attheendoftimes. ē e EdictofMilan. or Summary of World History ibulations oftheChristian worldto the Early Christian Reactions to Building to the Reactions Early Christian bsequent hardshipsthatChristians lites byexploitingtheir weakened rife among theArabfactions. The Byzantine and Early IslamicNear orious emperor. Inwhatfollows, 190 up inhisplace,”whowillrule e., theapocalypseofJames, Theemphasisofthisfirst tantine theGreatsuchashis the apocalypseattributedto 191 Apocalypse be met byadevastating Thetext ends withthe , ed. P. Canivet, J.-P. Rey- (Princeton:Press, Darwin 188 , see, Brock, “North theproposition ΧΙ Suermann, .14, .14, . SeeDrijvers, Fitna .3–4. ΧΙΙΙ.3–4. Revelation . It was Die 194

CEU eTD Collection establish order and concordanestablish orderand the emphasis on his rebuilding of churches suggest that Pseudo-Methodius considered that this figure would Roman Emperor is portrayed astheemperor of allChristia 198 197 196 the LastRoman Emperormotif, whichisreduced the three apocalypses contained inthe GospeloftheTwelveApostles concerned withtheArabthreatand avoidsspec author disagrees withits conceptual implications. divine legitimacy.However, th wonders whethertheabsenceofabdication reunification. use ofthis adaptation of thePseudo-Met the interpretation that theVictorious Emperor inthe the Ishmaelites togetherwiththevariousother character that couldsuccessfullyengage theAr was stillunited. Moreover, Constantine wasasucce Miaphysite authorconsideredthetime ofConsta Arab foeallseem toconvergeontothemotif ofaConstantine descending from ConstantinetheGreat,andno prospect offinalreunification of Constantine.Providedthatthethreeshortapoc observed in the Edessan Constantine, the Pseudo-Methodian typology ofa second Gideon is dropped. The same development canbe the that while noted be Itshould 73. Mesopotamia,” Cf. Suermann, explicitly is not Church the of reunification the Although, See Drijvers,Twelve Apostles,” 20 “TheGospelsthe of There isgoo

topos 197 Die geschichtstheologischeReaktion Theessentialmotifs of isreduced to itsmilitary function andextended by thenotion of Church d reasontoidentifythe“man from Apocalypse ce inecclesiastical affairs. hodian LastRoman Emperor

. e absenceofthisimagery doesnotimply thattheanonymous of theChurches, the referenceto anultimate peaceful ruler suddenappearanceandabdicationaremissing. One Twelve Apostles , 185–6. , 185–6. 42 motifs taken from Pseudo-Methodius substantiate abs. TheimageryofaRoman emperor defeating ulating abouttheendtimes. Insum,twooutof scene ismeant toreducetheRoman emperor’s alypses areconcernedwith thesame future,the to itsmilitary function against theArabs. 1 and idem, “Christians, Jews and Muslims in Northern ns regardless of their confessional adherence aswell as 198 ntine theGreataperiod addressed in Pseudo-Methodius, the fact that the Last Last the factthat the in Pseudo-Methodius, addressed tion ofaVictoriousEmperor whodefeatsthe What iscertain isthat thetext isprimarily ssful general, whowouldbethetypeof theNorth”withman “from theseed” Gospel of the TwelveApostles portraytheVictoriousEmperor asasecond topos . Itis important to note that the promoteacurtailedform of redivivus. in whichtheChurch 196 Arguably,the isan CEU eTD Collection Methodius meaning. See reflect the W. J. intended originally Aerts, ἐψεύσθησαν Diem, A.Falaturi Franz (Stuttgart: (Greek),”BibHist, 246; Aerts,Kortekaas, thus beingcompelled touseparaph However, asanytranslation,this Greekrecension too,adapts thetext toadifferentaudience, obscure even fortheanonymous translator. oumaia ([5]6,2).Itbecomes clearthatsome ofth translator chosethereadingreminiscent ofthe rendering theterm “woodenvehicle”( ( translation systematically replaces theterm “oftheGreeks” ( 202 201 chronological data.Therefore, Considering thefact that theimminent dow the early690s, theGreektranslator hadtoaccount fortheelapseoftime whentranslatingthe attributed toanative Lycian. probably inanattempt toneglec of thetext,inpreamble, Inaddition,thetranslation employs emendations, textualadditions, andinterpretations in order torenderthetextmore 10 reads chapter V.6.9,theCodex faced withhonestattemptstokeep it comes to toponyms or thenames ofindividualsmentioned in theapocal The firstGreekredaction oftheSyriac 3.3. ( 199 200 tm t ōn R[h] For example in III.1.2 the Syriac has the city name SeeReinink, Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition SeeApocalyptic Alexander, Byzantine Concerning the choice of words Aerts has pointed to a phrase, which follows Plato, namely Rep. 413a: ā n ē ). The Greek,however, reads The firstGreekredactionoftheApocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius (syrisch-griechisch-lateinisch), mwy ō

τῆς mai Syrische Apocalypse

ἀληθείας orMūyā ōn). Incertaincases thetranslation simplifies thechoice ofwords,suchas ; see,Aerts, Kortekaas, providingvariouspossi Vaticanus syriacus 58readsmwny thereferencetoMountSinj Steiner congenial totheByzan

(CSCO 541), 13–4, n.V,6(1). 13–4, n.V,6(1). 541), (CSCO ō Thamn where theSyriacreadstenyea t theSyrianoriginof this apocalypse, whichwas,after all, Die Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodius Verlag, 1990), 125. 125. 1990), Verlag, ” inXX IV. Deutscher Orientalistentag:ausgewählte Vorträge thetranslationsintelligible. rases andterminological rewording. n rkūbē which isreminiscent of which Die Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodius Apocalypse isonthewholeafaithful translation. 202 , 54; Pablo Ubierna, “The Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius of Pseudo-Methodius Apocalypse “The Ubierna, , 54; Pablo d-qays

Tmnwn 43 “ ble interpretations, Zu einerZu neuen Ausgabe‘Revelationes’ der desPseudo- Umayyads, thusherenderedtheterm toread e names mentionedintheSyriacversionwere ō) (V.4.13)as“ship”( nfall oftheArabdominion didnotoccurin

tine audience.Immediat , which is derived from theSyriac word for “eight” ā r innorthernMesopotamia isleftout, orMūnī θάμνος d-yawn r-weeks, theGreek To givejustoneinstance,in ,“bush.” Thus,the Greek does not (CSCO 569), 569), 11. (CSCO 201 , whileth ōy among whichtheGreek ē ) with“oftheRomans” (CSCO 569),15. naus 200

ely atthebeginning ypse, ther Forinstance, the e Beinecke Syriac ) ([5]4,3).When consistently eader is , ed. W. 199

CEU eTD Collection clear which of the two authors borrow oftwo authors the clear which contains a lengthy verbatim passage of Anastasius’ work Sinai’s the secondJewishtemple byprovidingatextwhich recension. First,in[10]4.1–9thetranslatorreph that islessexplicit(butclearlyintended)throughouttheSyriac. follow (i.e.,2Thess2:1–4)refe times, passages(e.g.,[10]1)areex had committed isrephrased andsupplementeda protractedcitationof by Rom 1:26–27.Also,at Similarly, inchapterXI.6–7theSyriacargument c redaction quotesanextensive For instance,whiletheSyriacin 207 206 205 204 203 the GreekexpandsSyriacuseof biblicalcita Regardingbiblical quotations,theSyriacof Greek followsthetextofSeptuagintand Empire. Roman Empire). TheGreek reduces the exegesis according towhichthe more importantemendation canbefoundinchapterX.2,wheretheSyriacproposesaPauline burialrite detail thatinsteadofperforming proper barbarian behavioroftheuncl few examples here.Inchapter [8]4,forinstan number takenfrom Dan9:25. reads sev shared ideological agenda Saint Catherine’s monastery, therefore explaining the textual resemblance with direct personal contact and the section. omitsthis redaction Greek The See MPG 89, 1212B. Kmosko speculates about the possibl about speculates SeeMPG Kmosko 89, 1212B. Compare, for instance, the Syriac chapter Cf. Cf. Apocalypse Apocalypse Apocalypse Most importantly though,arethreeinterpola There arevariousoccasionaladditionsand 205 Disputation againsttheJews en year-weeks

[10] 6,4–5: 6,4–5: [10] V.9, X.6, XIII.2 with [5] 9, [10] 6, [13] 2. X.4, where the Syriac tells about the Jewish institutions of the priesthood, prophecy, and kingship. kingship. theand prophecy, of priesthood, Jewish institutions the Syriactells the about where X.4, ἐπ of promoting the Byzantine Byzantine the of promoting 203 ’ ἀριθμῷ possiblyreplacingtheoriginalvers 204

portion ofthisPaulinepassage, ean peoplesoftheNorthbysupplementing theSyriacwith

κυκλουμένων ed the other. See further Kaegi, katech chapterXII.5allude rs unambiguously tothefortunesofRoman Empire,afact tended inordertoclarifythefact X.1 withthe Greek versionof [10] 1. . ōn 207 katech is thepriesthood,holycros Second,inchapter[13]7–10onefindsalengthy

ἑβδοματικῶν the GreekNewTestament moreclosely.Sometimes, 44 ō Kaiseridee ce, thetranslatorputsadditionalstresson n’s meaning to referexclusivelytotheRoman and the Syriacand the closelyresembles it.Itis far from being tion inordertoprovidefurtherclarification. rases theSyriac narration s thesebarbarians prefertoeattheirdead.A emendations, amongwhichImention onlya oncerning thesexualperversitiesChristians e encounter of Anastasius with Pseudo-Methodius at Anastasius withPseudo-Methodiusencounter of e ten citesPeshitta verses freely, whilethe tions thatcanbefoundinthefirstGreek is identicalwithasectionofAnastasius s to1Tim 1:9and2Tim 3:2–4,theGreek

ἑβδόμῳ ; see Kmosko, “Rätsel,” 293–5.The Greek Byzantium and the EarlyIslamic and Conquests Byzantium

χρόνῳ ion of 70 years withthesymbolicion of70years notably thesection2Tim 3:1–5. . thatthebiblicalcitationto s, andthekingdom (i.e., of the destruction of of thedestruction 206 ,

CEU eTD Collection neue Sinai,” BibHist, 193–202. 193–202. BibHist, Sinai,” Tradition Kortekaas, resembles 209 208 refe Anastasius’ regarding information For general 231–35. interpolation andsupplement itwithabriefcommentary. eschatological repertoire ofByzantineapocalypses. derives fromthe and Elijah,whorefutearesu the verylastparagraphsofapocalypse([ addition recountingtheArabadva in unconventional form) can already be found in the inthe found form) canalready be unconventional in 134–9. 1985), Ruprecht, und Vandenhoeck (Göttingen: Kirche previous paragraphs ([14] 7–8), which deal with the exegesis of Gen 49:17, are rather shortened. n.36. Cf. Aerts, Kortekaas, ed. Klaus Belke, Ewald Kislinger, Andreas Külzer,Maria Pseudo-Methodios-Apokalypse,” in Belagerung Konstantinopels 717/718 als apokalyptisches Ereignis. Zu einer Interpolation im griechischen Text der 212 211 210 See Wilhelm Bousset, It is curious that the last paragraphs are supplemented by episodes taken from the Theauthor seems to have deliber ately adaptedthe place name ofX In translating translating In Forfurthercomparison of the Syriacand n Ausgabe,” 124–7; Möhring, [Forum ofthe]Ox.ThentheOxwillmoo greatlyandtheX Byzas, andwillbegin thefight and crush Ishmael willcross overandthefirst of Woe you,[Cityof]Byzas,thatIshmael willconqueryou. Sinceeveryhorseof islands andthoseinhabitingthecoastline. thousand seamen willcome likeanallcons will divide intothree realms: onepartwill hibernate freezing, Ishmael willtakehold ofyou.Sinc And woeyou,LandofPhrygiaandPamphylia andBithynia,forwhenitwillbe Pergamon, thethirdinMalagina. and ninth by thetenthousand.Forhe[i.e.,Ishmael] willcome outinthefirstmonth ofthe Then, allofasudden,they[i.e.,theIshmaelites] willarriveinchariotsandhorses out oftheir(lands) smashing them withoutmercy. Thenwillbefulfilledwhatis into theheartsofRomans andafter into thehearts of theIshmaelites and hewillthrow thebravery of theIshmaelites and thenGod, theLord,willtakeaway thecowardice of the Romans andthrowit Then avoicefrom heavenwillarrive andsay:“This vengeance suffices for me,” since theyare beingsmashed bytheIshmalites. , 51–60, Aerts, Kortekaas, Aerts, , 51–60, Kortekaas, ἔλαφος Die Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodius indictio , i.e.,deer, whichsupports th χειμάζειν Revelation ofJohn andheshall seize the citiesof th Der Antichrist in der Überlieferung des Judentums, des neuen Testaments und der alten Die Apokalypse des Pseudo-Methodius as “to hibernate” I follow Brandes’ recommendation. See Wolfram Brandes, “Die Der Weltkaiser der EndzeitDer Weltkaiserder Byzantina Mediterranea. Festschrift für Johannes Koder zum 65. Geburtstag Die ApokalypseDie desPseudo-Methodius nce onConstantinopleandtheensuingsiegeof717/718.Third, bsequently slainbytheAntichrist. andatthetime ofthetranslationbelongedtostandard the first Greek redaction, seeAlexander, e idea of the place producinganimal-like sounds. SeeAerts, (CSCO 570), 49–50 ([13] 9,5). 9,5). ([13] 49–50 570), (CSCO Edessan Apocalypse 14] 11–14)areinflatedbytheappearanceofEnoch having turned around they will drive them having turnedaroundtheywilldrivethem 45 them willsetuphis tentopposite toyou, the Xylokerkos gate andenter untilthe A. Stassinopoulou (Vienna:Böhlau Verlag, 2007),73, uming fireandtheywilldevastate the rences toIslam, see Andr , 97–100. , 97–100. The addition of the Enoch and Elijah motif (although motif (although Elijah and Enoch ofthe addition The 209 e he[i.e.,Ishmael] andhis seventy- e Eastfloodingthem all.Thenhe In what follows, I translate the second second the translate I follows, what In (CSCO 570),([13] 49 7,4). 210

226 (f. 103r.). 103r.). (f. 226 211 ē rolophos toread X inEphesus, theother in (CSCO 569), 9–14; Aerts, Aerts, 9–14; 569), (CSCO ē rolaphos 208 Revelation of John of Revelation Thistheme ultimately é Binggeli, “Anastasius of 212 Byzantine Apocalyptic willroar, ē rolaphos so that it it that so rolaphos , while the , while “ Zu einer ,

CEU eTD Collection μυριάδας ἵππος ἰδίων νήσους δὲ καὶ [13] 8 ἐκδίκησις τῷ κραυγάσει σε a World Crisis World a συντρίψει blasphemous Arabexclamation th defeating the Arabs. immient arrivaloftheLastEmperor, thus,fu probable thattheintroductionof to flightjustbeforetheLast city. TheretheIshmaelites arebeingbeatenbackbydivineintervention.The Arabsarebeingput they reachtheForum oftheOxlocatedalong Xylokerkos gatenorthofthe the imperial capital. They lay siege onConstan The interpolationtellsaboutth 216 215 214 213 Constantinople in the interpolation fits Theophanes’ description of the beginning of theArab causing much hardshipforthebesiegingArabs. during acoldwinter.Theophane probable thatthenarrationrefers took placeintheyears674–678andsiegeof717/ Constantinople. Therehave beentwoArabsieges of thecityinthisperiod, namely thesiegethat the Roman emperor,

· C. de Boor, ed. Theophanis ed. Boor, C.de Chronographia That is, between See

εἰς Apocalypse

πρώτῳ τὴν ἐλεύσεται

ἀρχὰς συγκόπτοντες Ἰσμαὴλ

supra

καὶ Καὶ ἀνδρείαν This interpolation isinserted at the dramatic peakof the [Deut 32:30] Then theywillbefinished off andtheirsailors will bedestroyed. written: “On «.

αὕτη , μηνὶ τὴν

Τότε

τοὺς συγκοπτόμενοι

τρεῖς n.75. n.75. οὐαί

γάρ [13] 7–10: [13] 7τότε [13] 7–10: [13] , 509–10. , 509–10. «, καὶ πύλην τῆς

συντελεσθήσονται τὴν

· καὶ τῶν

σοι ὥσπερ καὶ

στήσει ἐνάτης

Apocalypse

ἀφειδῶς

παραλίαν

ἀρεῖ

Ἰσμαηλιτῶν Ξυλοκέρκου τὸ χῶρα e (man) willchase athousand,

μὲν

πῦρ

κύρ

ὁ ἐπινεμήσεως ὑπὸ 215

.

πρῶτος

ἓν Φρυγία ιος κατεσθίον

Τότε οἰκοῦντας. [13]9 Οὐαί [13] 6 and [13] 11.

theinterpolation narratesthehi

τῶν μέρος

ὁ

βάλῃ

Roman Emperor isabouttoawakein

Θεὸς

καὶ λωτῆρες πληρωθήσεται καὶ Golden Gate.TheArabsfightth Ἰσμαηλιτῶν ree Arab armies thatadvance

αἰφνίδιον αὐτῶν

καὶ χειμάσει

οἱ to thesiegeof717/718.Thetextme Deut 32:30attheendofte

εἰς καὶ εἰσελεύσεται

s reportsthatthe at Christianshavenorescue, ἅπαντας τότε

π Πα

καρδίας

συλλαβέτω τὴ

μφυλία τὴν , 396. On the second Arab siege, see

ν ἐλεύσονται εἰς . [13] 10 . [13]

σκηνὴν καὶ δειλίαν

Ἒφεσον τὸ αὐτῶν τὰς

οἱ

καὶ ἕως γεγραμμένον σοι

46 τὰς τῶν ‘ ναῦται

216 , Τότε rther strengtheninghisdi τῶν αὐτοῦ

Βιθυνἰα

καὶ τοῦ Βύζα , τὸ ἐν

πόλεις tinople and penetrate the land wallsatthe Thatis,thedescriptionofArabsiege

Ρωμαίων Mes and twoputtenthousandsto flight.” ‘ ἅρμασι

εἰς

winter of716/717wasexceptionallycold Ρωμαίων δὲ φωνὴ αὐτοῦ Βοός

, 718. Judging from internal evidence, it is 718. Judgingfrominternalevidence,itis κατέναντί

ὅτι ἀφανισμὸν ἓτερον ·

ē τῆς · » , theprimary thoroughfarethroughthe ὅταν

·

ὁ

ἔλθῃ καὶ ἑβδομήκοντα εἷς

τότε ἀνατολῆς Ἰσαμὴλ καὶ through Anatoliaandconvergeonto

καὶ

εἰς ἐν διώξεται γὰρ

214 storical eventofthesiege στραφέντες ἐκ eir waythroughth

σου

Βοῦς ἵπποις xt wasintendedtoprefigurethe Πέργαμον

βάλῃ γενήσονται

andpriortotheawakeningof τοῦ

παχνίσῃ παραλαμβάνει , thesubsequentsection.Itis

κατακλύζων

Βύζα

Apocalypse. Followingthe βοήσει

ntions thatthesiegestarted

εἰς οὐρανοῦ

μυριοπλασίως· χιλίους

Howard-Johnston, Howard-Johnston, χιλιάδες,

τὰς , , , ἐκδιώξουσιν καὶ καὶ .

ὁ vine appointment in καρδίας σφόδρα

καὶ

τὸ Ἰσμαὴλ λέγουσα ἄρξηται

καὶ

πάσας σε

τρίτον δύο

· ἐρημώσουσιν περάσει τῶν e streetsuntil ἐξελεύσεται καὶ

μετακινήσουσι , · » αὐτοὺς

παραλαμβάνει

213 εἰς μερισθήσεται πολεμεῖν

Witnesses to Ἰσμαηλιτῶν ἀρκεῖ Ξηρόλαφος

Μαλάγινα

γὰρ

ἐκ

μοι

τῶν γὰρ πᾶς τὰς καὶ

ἡ

. CEU eTD Collection Übersetzungen forceful argument, itissupportin was carriedoutbeforethisin that first Latin translation, whichwas certainly done onthe basis of the first Greek redaction, the composition predatestheoutcome ofthesiege. with theprincipleof winter 716/717. Thebreachingthewalls did not 223 222 220 219 218 217 Cities. adopted fortheByzantineaudience capital. Theinterpolationdemonstrates howth the appearance oftheLastRoman Emperorwasearly The oldestsurvivingLatinmanuscripts the outcome wasknown. capture ofthecitycanbestbeexplainedifone that the interpolation wasfurther interpolated later on. found inthetextsuchasArabadvance intoThrace inthe year781. early eighth-centurydatefortheinterpolation. siege of716/717. Aerts, 221 Brandes, “Die Belagerung Konstantinopels,” 71. See Aerts, Kortekaas, Cf.ibid., 88. Aerts, Kortekaas, See Hoyland, Cf. ConcerningtheLatin manuscripts, see Aerts, Kortekaas, “ Schmoldt, “ Zu einer neuen Ausgabe,” 130. Cf. Brandes, “Die Belagerung Konstantinopels,” 83. What ismore, theinterpolation ismissing in In contrast,Aertsproposedalate (CSCO 569), 48–57. See also ODB s.v. Methodius of Patara, Patara, Pseudo. of Methodius s.v. Seealso ODB 569), 48–57. (CSCO Seeing Islam Die Schrift ‘Vom jungen Daniel’ und ‘Daniels letzte Vision,’” letzteVision,’” Daniel’ 173. ‘Vomund ‘Daniels Die Schrift jungen 217 Die ältesten griechischen und lateinischen Übersetzungen lateinischen und griechischen Die ältesten Thus,the Die ältestenund griechischen ultimum vaticiniumexeventu , 296–7. , 296–7.

terpolation wasinsertedinto terminus postquem g thenotionof anearlydating. whoseinterestinimperial ma go backtotheearlyeighthcentury. r date. He argues thatrefere lateinischen Übersetzungen lateinischen e apocalypticnarrativeof considers theinterpolationtobecomposed before 47 happen. Itisagenuineprophecy. Inaccordance 218 , onecanarguethatthe oftheinterpolation Thisconsiderationsuppor the Syriacas wellas inthe Latinversions. onassociated with thefate of theimperial 220 Die ältesten griechischen und lateinischen lateinischen und griechischen Die ältesten Theveryanxietyaboutthepossible the Greek. Although this is not a the Greek.Althoughthisisnota 223 tters centeredontheQueenof (CSCO 570), 48 (n.[13] 7,1ff) and 7,1ff) 48 (n.[13] (CSCO570), If true, this wouldmean that (CSCO 569), 25–8. 25–8. 569), (CSCO nces tolaterhistorycanbe 219 Pseudo-Methodiuswas is, inalllikelihood,the However,itispossible interpolation’s dateof 221 Thus,itispossible ts thethesisofan 222

CEU eTD Collection these notions,infact,conve invincible andsustainingrulers eventual destructionofanyearthlyorder,thelatter waspreoccupiedwithpromoting theimage of eschatological thoughtandimperial ideology.Wh tradition themostauthoritative is why,anapocalyptistalwaysf 226 225 224 contained. Themost popularwaytodothiswasbyusingth kingdom. Consequently,threatstothisintegritysuch reaching thisinevitablefocalpointwastomainta Kingdom ofHeavenandtheRoman Empire seemed toconverge.Whatmattered most until of Heaven. differently, theRoman Empirewas permanence andtherebylegitimizing itsexceptional Danielic eschatology fitted well with the Byzantine imperial interest inreaching theutmost 28), whichwouldlastuntil theendof time, came succession offourgreatkingdoms. Thefourthkingdom, theIronKingdom (Dan2:31–44,7:1– foundationforthis.In of Danielprovidedthenecessaryscriptural imperial ideologyandChristianeschatological Thus, inordertoresolvethis As Ihavepointedoutabove,Byzantineapo 3.4. Nicol, “Byzantine Political Thought,” 52 and Magdalino, Magdalino, and 52 Thought,” Political “Byzantine Nicol, imitationas of sacred behavior wererecognized means by whichearthly matterscould convergewith the divine.Cf. asMoseswas unquestionable. Elijah such a or of prophet authority the or asMethodius, such father church The underlying idea here is the notion of approaching the divine. Temporal and topographical proximity as well See Pseudonymity wasimportant becauseitlentauthorityan Magdalino, “The History of the Future,” was alreadybeinganticipated,orev , butstressed,instead,the extent towhichtheKingdom ofGod played downthesignificance oftheevents The onlyeschatologywhichimperial id As PaulMagdalinopointedoutyearsago,there The VisionsofDaniel 226 Thus,from theperspectiveofeschatol rge. AsMagdalinoputsit:

character inmatter ofapocal intrinsiccontradict hip. Theonlywaytoresolvethis aced thequestionofwhatauthor considered tobete .

10 en realized,intheRoman Empire. calyptic textsaree thoughthadtobeachieved.ThecanonicalBook 48 “The History of the Future,” 11–15. 11–15. Future,” the of History “The d givencredibility apocalypse. toany Theauthority ofa between thefall of theempire andthe eology couldacceptwasonewhich ile theformer stressedtheimpermanence and in the integrityandunity to beidentified withtheRoman Empire. This ion asenseoftheconvergenceRoman status inthedivineprovidentialscheme. Put astheArabinvasionshadtoberhetorically mporally theclosestrealm totheKingdom is anintrinsictensionbetweenChristian ogical focalpoint,i.e.,theParousia, ypticism wastheprophetDaniel. ssentially pseudonymous. e Danielicscheme ofsituating ity tochose. tensionisbyproposingthat ittheprophetdescribes ofthelastDanielic 225

In theByzantine

224 That CEU eTD Collection attributed toDanielor,attim of theentireByzantinehistoryth Duetothegeneric qualityoftheseapocalyps interpolations andemendations, Iconsider the 230 229 earlier, becausethedesignations motifs pertainingtothePseudo-MethodianLast emperor andisderivatives.Forabetterovervie issue ofdating,my primary willbeon focus hypothetical timeline forthesource Alexander. Hisdevotion totheissue ofdati the Apocalypse, Daniel significance. ThefivetextsIhave chosenare:the availability ofthesources(threeeleven contain material derivedfromPseudo-Methodius. or aftertheseventh century andtopredate the el Daniel apocalypsesthat DiTommaso lists. versions ofapocryphalDaniel apocal corpus, Iagree withDiTommaso thatthere is history containing,th historiography, virtuallyallapocryphalDaniel apocalypses wereattribut world. Giventhec fugacity of anychallenge tothenotionthat th historical ph Bernard McGinn and Stephen J. Stein (New York: Continuum, 1998), vol. 2, 64. vol. 2, 1998), Continuum, York: J.Stein(New and Stephen McGinn Bernard attributed to Methodius of Patara; for instance, the the ofPatara; instance, for Methodius to attributed 228 227 Ibid., 96–7. 96–7. Ibid., As I will show, atleast AsIwillshow, one Cf. David M.Olster, “Byzantine Apocalypses,” in DiTommaso, Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse In thissubchapterIexamine fiveversi enomena the framework within of

The Daniel Book ongeniality ofthe καὶ erefore, numerous

of

ἔσται, the ed totheauthorityof Vision of Daniel es, tootherauthoritiesaswell.

, 192, 224–30, passim. 224–30, , 192, is genrecontinuouslyproduced ofthevariousDanielapo Seven-Hilled Daniel s. AlthoughIwillnotbeabletoavoidcommenting onthe Book ofDaniel ypses thathavecome downtous. andDaniel vaticinia exeventu Diegesis Danielis Danielis Diegesis was attributed was toJohn Chrysostom,while other versions were 230 Heconsiderselevenofthem tohaveoriginatedin the prophetDaniel.Dueto Visions ofDanielcorpusagenre.Overthecourse 49 e Roman Empire wouldlast The Encyclopedia of ApocalypticismThe Encyclopedia of ons from among thethirteenGreek apocryphal ng willprovide essential helpinproposinga eventh century. Thus,eleven versions potentially textsarestillnotedited)andinpartbytheir successive empiresandstressing thetemporary apocalypseswerebasedonrecentByzantine no needto postulate a w Ihavecompiled atableorganizingthemain Roman Emperor narrative(Figure2).Asnoted the eschatologicalfigure Myselectionisdetermined inpartbythe Diegesis Danielis withtheChristiantheo es, whichbynaturearepronetosubsequent καὶ , and

and ἔσται . 227 228 ; seeinfra Daniel Last Last Daniel

Giventhegenericcharacterofthis , havebeenscru calypses areoftenconfusing,I ever-new apocryphalwritings , the 229 . Two of these,namely,

single prototypeforall the common interestin Pseudo-Chrysostomos logy of history, many logy ofhistory,many oftheLastRoman untiltheendof , n.232 and 296.

ed. John J. Collins, John ed. tinized byPaul CEU eTD Collection Ἀντιχρίστου co useless. This awakening emperor’s name issaidtostartwith the Ishmaelite enemy andwakesupaRoman emperorwhowaspreviouslythoughtdeadand God. Bothmanuscripts continuein Constantinople. Atamost desper chapters narratetheArabadvancethroughAnatolia Methodian source.Inthefollowing,Iuse Thus, alreadythetitleshowshow 233 232 231 various iniquities(7.1–6).Heis final destruction of theimperialcity. First, a wi called afterawildanimal (M), andhis churches rebuild,andmilitary This victory willusherinatime Ishmaelites, expelthem from thestreetsofC two sons,thisRoman emperor willarrivefrom to anyoneinparticular,theB in twomanuscripts. The 3.4.1. guide. continuously refertoDiTomm ἡμερῶν manuscript that attributes the work the that attributes manuscript isthe that this only Itis shorter. noteworthy, although same composition, a manuscript the of third 16 provides fols. 145–152 (B) has the the has (B) 145–152 fols. Times. theEnd of about and Being How He will come into nsiders ita nsiders witness of anothe Whereas manuscript Mreads Fac.Me theCod. Montpellier, titleof The in contained text to the apocalyptic Berger According Diegesis Danielis

καὶ The apocalypse openswithanattack ofth The nextthree chapters(followingBerger’ss Diegesis Danielis

περὶ

τὸ

πῶς

τοῦ μέλλει

Ἀντιχρίστου 231 or the NarrativeofDanielisanapoc

While theMontpellier manuscript (M γενέσθαι inscriptio r Daniel apocalypse;DiTommaso, kappa, kappa, about the Last Days and the Antichrist.) theAntichrist.) LastDaysand the about Methodius Father Holy of our . (Discourse

odleian manuscript (B)attributes tothe prophet Daniel.Berger, See

aso’ καὶ : weapons willbecome obsolete( followed byeitheraforeign,tall Τοῦ of greatprosperity and peace.Te ate moment (5.1–2),manus manuscript B reads

περὶ s catalogueof theapocryphal statingthatadivinevoicewi

closelythiscomposition wasassociated withitsPseudo- ἐν

τῆς

d. Nr. 405, fols. 105r–115 (M) reads: d. Nr. 105r–115 405, fols. sons willdieafter33prosperousyears. ἁγίοις

συντελείας Berger’s 1976criticaleditionofthe

πατρὸς onstantinople and enslavethe survivors(5.10–6.6). 50 Venice, Bibliotheca Marciana,

e Ishmaelitesonthe Byzantinecapital.Thefirst ) Oxford, Bodleian Library, Codex Canonicianus Nr. Bodleian Canonicianus 19, ) Oxford, Library,Codex cked man from thenorth is said to perpetrate ē

ta theeasttocapital.Theyslaughter the

τοῦ ἡμῶν andtheensuingsiegeof“Seven-Hilled” . tichometry) dealwiththegradual decay and

αἰῶνος The

Μεθοδίου Book Daniel Daniel Diegese alyptic textthathascome downtous . (Narrative about the Days of the Antichrist, Antichrist, of the Days the about . (Narrative cript Btellsaboutaforlornprayerto ) does notattribute thecomposition kappa (5.3–7).

itto“ourBishopMethodius.” of man from thesouth(M)orbya 6.14–21). Theemperor,whois Visions ofDaniel

rritories areregained, cities and ἐπισκόπου ll intervenewhichintimidates Διήγησις , 131. , 8–9. However, Marc. grec. VII 22 fols. 14– fols. 22 VII grec. Marc.

λόγος 233 Diegesis Danielis

Together withhis περὶ

περὶ as areference

τῶν

τῶν

DiTommaso ἡμερῶν ἐσχάτων

τοῦ 232 .

CEU eTD Collection still ruling intheByzantinecapital. Irene beingdeposedork to Rome asareferencetoCharlemagne’s corona Furthermore, heunderstandstheobscurenoteabout 236 235 234 argues thatoriginallytheVict ruler 741–775),andthefoul, Furthermore, Bergerproposes thatthewicked arrived fromtheEasternprovincesandhisbaptismal name startswitha 717–741). this event relates tothe removal of the unclear, though,whatthetransfer appearance oftheAntichristmight beintendedasasubstitutionof subsequent ruler.However,thefact thatC abdicating functionisnotattribut Methodian LastRoman Emperor isreducedto decay, whichculminates inthedestructionof Victorious Emperor andhislimite imperial recovery.Continuouspeaceandprospe the first half of thecomposition)lieswithth are notmentioned. (here supplementedEvangelistJohn)being bythe Antichrist, theJewishcontext, andthetraditiona The remainder ofthetext,whichmakesupalmost an enigmatic notethathe the Seven-Hilled Babylon,prophesyingitseventual foreign, foulwom Ibid., 36. 36. Ibid., 33–7. Ibid., Berger, Berger’s propositions have beenchallenged. Forinstance, CyrilMango convincingly Berger identifiestheVictoriousEmperorw It isnoteworthythattherenoabdications Daniel Diegese 234 Indeed,LeotheIsauriandoe an (B),whowillreignoverC an , 32–3. illed, Berger datesthe reafter imperial poweris orious Emperor wasintendedto

foreign woman isEmpress Irene(soleruler797–802). d 33-yearreign.Afterhisdeath ed totheVictoriousEmperor, neither isitattributed toany 236 of imperial powertoRome is

katech s fit theothertwocharacteri ōn. e defeatofthebesieging Arabsand theensuing 51 Diegesis Danielis onstantinople isbeingde tion intheyear800.Since l episodeof thetwowitn emperor fromthenorthisConstantineV(sole onstantinople (8.1).Next, theapocalypsewarns imperial capital.Thus,themotif Pseudo- ofthe transferredfrom Consta slain. Theeschatological cene inthisapocalypse.Themainconcern(of itsmilitary andgoverningfunction.The half oftheentireco ho hasthename ofabeastwithLeoIII(r. rity ensue.Allthisisdependent onthe sinking intothesea.Thesectioncloseswith translatio imperii be TheodosiusIII(r.715–717).He totheyear801whenIrenewas supposedtosuggestandhow the empiresuccumbstomoral the imperialabdication. Itis stics giveninthe text: he mposition, dealswiththe esses, EnochandElijah ntinople toRome (9.9). there isnomention of stroyed priortothe from Constantinople peoplesoftheNorth kappa, i.e.,Konon. 235

CEU eTD Collection Islam Furthermore, manuscript Mdoesnotcalltheemperorawildanimal. 241 240 239 238 237 and foreign woman (B)arenothistorical characters. fact inthe visionary tropeandhistoricalfact. interpolations. Thatiswhythecontext ofte particularly so,ifoneconsiderstheverynature hard todemarcate thelineunequivocally wher of theByzantineEmpire, notalleschatological rulers apocalypses. Despitethefactthatthese textsshow on Mango’sargument onawhole,itdoespointto Last Roman Emperor aspresentedbyPseudo-Methodius. and uselessfigure.Hoylandis drawn attention:Mangoobject Danielis arguably thesiegeof717/718. that theonlyhistoricalfactprovi reassigns ittohisimmediate successor, Leo manuscript Massigns theroleof Victorious sequence) mightrefertothe ē argues onthebasisofma Arab siege. Cf. Arab siege. only isthe siege thefact thatthis siege,and given Arab tothesame aboverefer dealt with the and Greek interpolation 288, n.1. “Beiträge Cf. 312. Wilhelm Bousset, ta Cf. Mango, “ Mango, Cf. Hoyland, see Hoyland, here; Mango with agrees Holyand 313. Ibid., “ Mango, Cf. “ Mango, SeeCyril (5.7).Thenumeric valueofthis in the the vaticinium exevetnuin , 296–7; Brandes, “Die Belagerung Konstantinopels,” 85–6. 85–6. Konstantinopels,” Belagerung “Die Brandes, , 296–7; If MangoandHoylandarecorrectthatthesiegeofConstant There is,however,oneweakpointinMango canbedatedtentativelytoth Seeing Islam Diegesis Danielis Saint Andrew the Fool Reconsidered, theFool Andrew Saint Reconsidered, theFool Andrew Saint Schmoldt, “ The LifeThe ofSaint Andrewthe Fool Reconsidered, , 299, n.127. Die Schrift ‘Vom jungen Daniel’ und ‘Daniels letzte Vision,’” 173; Hoyland, 173; Hoyland, ‘DanielsletzteVision,’” Daniel’ und ‘Vom jungen Die Schrift nuscrip Diegesis Danielis eighth Greekletter, i.e., , thenthismeans thewicked that man fromthenorthandfoul

correctinasser s tothepossibilitythatLeoIIIc zur Geschichteder Eschatolgoie.” Kirchengeschichte für Zeitschrift 239 t M, whichreads thatthe initia ded intheapocalypseis Therefore,similarly to letter is eight, which(if retranslated according toapathetical e time ofthesecondArabsiege. , this, apocalypse probablybeginning datesto the thesecond of ” 311. ” 311. ” 312. III. ThisargumentconfirmsMango’sobservation n providestheonlyhelpindiscerningbetween ting thattheseepithetsbelongtothe 52 Emperor to Theodosius III, whilemanuscript B e historyendsandprophecybegins.Thisis oftheapocalypticgenre,whichisproneto an increased interestin , 298. Provided that the the that Provided Seeing Islam,298. a crucialaspectofunderstandingByzantine ’s argument towhichHoylandhasalready theta aremeant tobehistor 241 240 thestartofasieg Agreeingonthispointisimportant , whichistheinitialofTheodosius. the Greekinterpolation, ” vista di Studi Byzantini eSlavi Althoughthiscriticism hasnoeffect Ri ould havebeenconsideredadead l letter of theliberator emperor is inople istheonlyhistorical 238 Thus,Mangoargues, the historical narrative e ofConstantinople, ical characters. Itis Diegesis Danielis Diegesis topos 20 (1900): Diegesis 2 (1982): ofthe Seei 237 ng

CEU eTD Collection mine. mine. ταλαίπωρε speculative attribution of these ch these of attribution speculative γέμον βασιλεύσουσιν The Fool for theSake of Christ 246 245 244 242 Parallel tothispassageRe Diegesis woman followedbyreferencetoandimagery from isimmediately the this figuremight indicatethat contain littlespecificationaboutherre visions. Themention ofthefoul particularity whichproposesthat caution againstthisiden because th στολὴν foul womantobeIrene. Thisview hasalreadyadvanced been by James H.Charlesworth, ed., (New York: Doubleday, 1983) Doubleday, York: (New τὸ 243 247

Daniel Diegesis §9.1–3: καὶ Cf.Rev 18:19. Cf.Rev 17:9. Berger, from Apart The woman ( Rev 17:3–4: Rev17:3–4: καύχημά [ τα

καὶ might, sinceinme emperors willreign and thescarletpurplegarm adulteries. hand, whichwasfilledwithabomina was gildedwithgold,preciousstonesandpearls.Sheheldagoldencupinher seven headsandtenhorns.Andthewoman sitting ona scarlet beast whichwas c Then the carried me awayinthe walls willsinkintothe sea. since GoddirectsHisw rulers willliveinme. will yourboasting, whichyouuttered: Woe you,Seven-HilledBabylon, ] reads asfollows: ὀνόματα Βαβυλών

e temptation isgreattoidentif σου τὴν

καὶ

καὶ γυνὴ ὃ πορφύραν

βλασφημίας, ἐλάλησας δυνασταὶ

, 247 ἀπήνεγκέν ) is said to ) issaidto be ἡ Daniel Diegese

μήτηρ

, καὶ T εἰσέρχονται

, 756 and (although more cautiously) Olster, (Borna-Leipzig: Noske, 1910), 31. 1910), Noske, (Borna-Leipzig: tification for tworeasons

λοιπὸν ὅτι velation 17:3–4and18:10read: he he Pseudepigrapha. Ap πασῶν

ἔχων

με aracteristics toEmpress Irene, see

τὸ περιβέβλημαι

” Woe” you,Seven-HilledBabylon,MotherofallCities, εἰς

woman doesnot amount tomorethantwoshortsentenceswhich ἄργυρον οὐαὶ μιαρὰ κεφαλὰς rath (towards you),whichisfull rath

this isamere literarymotif. , 36also 6,

τῶν ἔρημον historicalreviewsareusually 246

καὶ

σοὶ πόλεων

καὶ ign orcharacter.

ἐξέρχονται Ἑπτάλοφε ἑπτὰ

ent andsilveramber nothingisbutmy and καὶ

ἐν ἀλλόφυλος 244 τὸν y thefoulwoman withtheEmpressIrene.

, DiTommaso, πνεύματι

ἤλεκτρον foryourwealthandglorywillfallas καὶ

ὅτι χρυσὸν 245 overed withblasphemousnames andhad

53 κέρατα κλινεῖ “Iputongoldand and masters willcome andgogreat

Spirit intoa desert andIsaw awoman Βαβυλών καὶ tions, andthefilthythings ofher (foul and foreign), .

was dressedinpurpleandscarlet,

καὶ καὶ . First,Iexplaineda

ἄρχοντες καὶ

Θεὸς δέκα e

243

Th

τὸν

εἶδον Sara C. Murray,Sara C. DiTommaso, , οὔκ Thus,thescarcityofinformation about

ὅτι .

τὴν Daniel Book καὶ ὑάκινθον ocalypticc Literature & Literature Testaments ocalypticc

ὁ γυναῖκα ἐστιν μεγάλοι

ὀργὴν ἡ πλοῦτος

Second, themention ofthefoul

By of γυνὴ

offire.Andyourhigh more detailedthanprophetic zantine Apocalypses ἡ

hyacinthandthepearl

καὶ

αὐτοῦ The ἦν Diegesis Danielis ἐν καθημένην ἐμὴ

σου

A περιβεβλημένη μαργαρίτην ἐμοὶ Book Daniel , 138–9, , 138–9,

Study of the Life of Andreas, Revelation ofJohn

χεῖρ καὶ γέμουσαν bove theprincipleof

κατοικήσουσιν

of , ἡ

ὅτι δόξα ἐπὶ George T.

καὶ ἐν θηρίον πυρός , 65 consider the consider , 65 σου §8.1(B). Fora

, 139. πορφυροῦν

ἐμοὶ τὴν 242

πεσεῖται . Emphasis Iwould

.

κόκκινον Zervos in κοκκίνην οὐαὶ βασιλε . Vol. 1 . The

σοὶ καὶ καὶ ῖς ,

CEU eTD Collection γέμον mine. mine. πλευρῶν woman in Constantinople prophesied the sinking city.See the theof sinking Constantinople prophesied woman in attention to another possible background of the motif. Hementions Malalas who recorded anincident in 541, when a historical personbut 254 253 252 251 250 249 248 κόκκινον reasons similarly concerningthelatte passages in reference toBabylon(i.e.,Rome). sinfulness of theimperial capital, justasthe of Babylonasthegreatharlot. brief mention ofthefoulwo choice ofwordsclearlyreflecttheimagery used “ considers the revisionto have taken place sh consideration that manuscript B, which mentions the foul woman, is asubsequent revision. (However, Mango context of Constantinople being portrayed as the adulterous harlot of Rev 17. For this position might speak Mango’s ( man influence. The foul woman with Irene would imply that the narration up until her mention is a string of string a is mention her until up narration the that imply would Irene with woman foul is,however, imperial There on the capital. over who ruled adulterous harlot of Rev 17 provided the rhetorical themewhich was readily usedto accommodate thefirstwoman City.then, inalllikel Hilled If itis a laterinterpolation expressed his discontent with Empress Irene in associating her with the imagery of the vainglory and wicked Seven- Sorbonensia that23), ed.Michel alaterscribe 215. Kaplan Itispossible de laSorbonne, (Paris: 2006), Publications prosperity. It is questionable whether a possible inter Accordingly, the Victorious Emperor has already annihilated the Arab threat and ushered in a time of great L’apocalyptique byzantine Rydén,“The Andreas Salos Apocal the ismade fit into motifwhich women isalaterinterpolation foul the the that I However, do concede possibility Sibylline possible about forget not should motif, one woman of foul origin the the same concerning Atthe time, following the 3 with 17: Rev Cf.also Rev18:10: Andreas SalosApocalypse Last Daniel

καὶ βδελυγμάτων

From theGreek(seebelow) theresemblan Woe, woeyou,greatcity,m has come.

, τοῦ οὐ καὶ

μὴ νώτου

§66–68. §66–68. κεχρυσωμένη οὐαὶ Last Daniel OracleBaalbek of

ε ὕρῃ

τῆς οὐαὶ καὶ 248 [ ἄνθρωπον ‘

τὰ

Επταλόφου as aliterarymotif. ἡ

ἀκάθαρτα πόλις

χρυσίῳ 864A–864D (lines 162–191). 162–191). (lines 864A–864D au 252

]). Cf. Andreas Cf. Salos]). Apocalypse IXe siècle, andintheAndreasSalosApocalypse ἡ 21 (lines 200–4) contains an obscure reference to a woman who can not find a man inchapter eight of the

μεγάλη . Emphasis mine.

καὶ τῆς ypse,” 249–51. See chapter 3.5. 3.5. Seechapter ypse,” 249–51. 249

250 Diegesis λίθῳ πορνείας Thefoulwoman might easily , ighty city ighty ” Consequently, thewoman’s fi Βαβυλὼν r source,towhichIturnbelow. inM onastères, images,pouvoirs etsociété àByzance

τιμίῳ 251

Danielis Thesame case canbe made concerningthe respective αὐτῆς. Emphasismine. ortly after716/717.) polator reallyconsidered the Arabs to be defeated.

καὶ

ἡ ofBabylon,forinonehouryourjudgment

54 πόλις

Revelation ofJohn μαργαρίταις ihood, the potent imagery of the imperial capital as the imageryasthe imperial the potent capital the of ihood, e serious problem with this interpretation. Identifying the Identifying interpretation. this e serious problem with section (§8.2(B)): by JohnofPatmos. Therefore,Iarguethatthe

ἡ ce isobvious.Thecolors,ornaments, and

Magdalino, “The History of the the of Future,” “The History Magdalino, ἰσχυρά 864A (line 162). Furthermore, Magdalino draws Magdalino Furthermore, 162). (line 864A Diegesis Danielis Diegesis , ἔχουσα , ὅτι On thisposition,see

μίᾳ καὶ

ποτήριον

usestheharlotmetaphor in ὥρᾳ

. 254 συγκαθήσεται gure shouldnotbereadasa be apersonificationofthe 253

ἦλθεν Infact,LennartRydén

χρυσοῦν introduces thetheme

ἡ

κρίσις vaticinia ex eventu (i.e.,

ἐν Pablo Ubierna,

σου τῇ γυνὴ (Byzantina

χειρὶ 5–6. 5–6. . Emphasis ) ἐπὶ

αὐτῆς

τῶν .

CEU eTD Collection Δανιήλ Apocalypse C Alexanderdiscerned fourpart the Great.Usingsam 260 259 258 257 256 255 in ordertosafelyadvanceuptheAegean. Alexander speculates that theMuslim fleetwouldha led him todispatchanarmada fromSyria Mu eventu Attalia (ἕως Thesecondsectionof theapocalypse( apocalyps summary withanexegesisoftheverysam actual woodof shares thesame EthiopianheritageasAlexa claim thatthelastoff North behindtheCaspiangates.Furthermore, th f Methodius’ accountsofthe later revised andre-attributedtoJohn Chrysostom. conjecturing thatoriginallyth adaptation of the explicitly refers totheauthority of Daniel. The 3.4.2. , i.e., see Martha P. Vinson, tr., “L tr., Vinson, P. seeMartha the Empress, i.e., rom aKushitemother oncerning the Vision of Daniel Regarding the history and failure of this naval expedition, see the respective chapter in chapter the seethe respective andfailure expedition, theof this history naval Regarding I.e., Ps68:32,Thess 2 2:7,1 Cor 15:24. See Pseudo-Chrysostomos SeeFigure 1. The Pseudo-Chrysostomos DiTommaso, ̔tasim (r.833–842),aftertakingAmorium in838,inte Pseudo-Chrysostomos (Discourse of our Holy Father Chrysostom John which enableshimtodatethisapocalypse. Hisargument restsonthenotionthatal- inscriptio Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse titulus. e. Ittellsabout the

Ἀτταλῶν

The reads: τοῦ

the life-giving( Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius.Therefore, DiTommasomight becorrectin Daniel Book

Apocalypse ).

of 259 257

ἐν our Danielickingdoms istheRoman Empire, which,ontheonehand, Alexanderunderstandsthis andaboutAlexander’sdeedsconf

. For his overview, see ibid., 155–8, 362–3. 362–3. 155–8, seeibid., his overview, . For e motifsandlanguage e ἁγίοις Apocalypse countsam para-historical is apocalypsecirculatedunderthe

capture ofConstantinoplebythe , 157.DiTommaso refers to the apocalypse as §4.5.

ζωοποιός πατρὸς s inthetext.Thefirstsection(§§1–3)startswithAlexander

ife of St.Theodora the Empress,” in ἡμῶν e ) TrueCross. genealogyofAlexandertheGreatbeingdescended biblicalpassagesPseudo-Methodiusused. 260 255 nder theGreat,andonotherhand,possesses

Ἰωάννου which wastoadvanceon theByzantinecapital. Thus,Alexanderconcludes:“Small wonderthat Aswillbecome clear,thisapocalypse isaclose 55 is firstsectionsummarizes Pseudo-Methodius’ fromthe VisionsofDaniel). 256 , thepseudonymous authorrepeatsPseudo- ) presents the only original part of the §4) presentstheonlyoriginalpartof ong the

τοῦ ve neededtotakethenavalbaseofAttalia short passageasacrucial

nded tomove ontoConstantinople.This Χρυσοστόμου Pseudo-Chrysostomos supplements his

Apocalypse Visions ofDaniel ining theuncleanpeoplesof Ishmaelites andtheiradvanceto name ofMethodius beforebeing §2.16–3.9. §2.16–3.9. λόγος Discourses of John Byzantine DefendersofImages.

ἐκ τ Pse < because itstitle Vita of St. Theodora ῶ udo-Chrysostomos > vaticinium ex ὁράσ 258 Chrysostom <

εων > τοῦ

CEU eTD Collection 387–8. 387–8. “Rebel City”isSyracuse; see Alexander, Ishmaelites] willentertheSeven-HilledCity.” while afewlinesabovetheapocalyptistusesth 827 and829. argues that the 267 266 265 264 263 262 261 373–4. Translation English in Lives Saints’ Eight and thenwiththeallianceof“blondraces”( the letter be revealed,whomeveryonehadconsidereduseless expression “theso-calledRebelCity.” f borrowing from theGreekreda that theRomans havenorescue( composition aroundtheyear842.The secondsection since itusesthepasttense(aorist)sayingth the ArabfleetactuallytookAttalia. itself.” anonymous Byzantineapocalyptist…shouldhaveseen when in842Apodinar’s[i.e.,theMuslim of thisa Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium (1204–1330 in Byzantium Thought Political and Ideology Imperial Europe Early Medieval in Ritual and Politics Byzantiu in Rituals Inauguration Ruler's Context: in “Symbols role as Christ’s viceroy verb the of use the event, any In apocalypse. onthe influence whether itisuncertain Thus, sense. termmetaphorical a in evidence toargue for Byzantine anoin Th 269 268 rom the(nowlost)Greek original of the Alexander, Cf. Attalia see Forinformation about ODB s.v. Attaleia. Alexander, Thetextreads:

e Imperial e Imperial Office inByzantium Pseudo-Chrysostomos Pseudo-Chrysostomos DiTommaso refersto this work asthe Slavonic Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse pocalypse see DiTommaso, 261 According toAlexander,theth Theproblem with thisargument isthat lambda. Afterhisanointingasemperor Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine 267 Slavonic Daniel [13] 6. From thiscomposition, Pseudo-Chrysostomosappropriated,forinstance,the κἀκεῖ on earth. Regarding Byzantin Regarding earth. on

Apocalypse Apocalypse χρίσουσιν Apocalypse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 273–6 and Janet L. Nelson,

The

ction ofPseudo-Methodius. isbasedonaGreekoriginalthatwascomposedinSicilybetween §4.3: §4.5: αὐτὸν §5.1: ting ceremonies prior to 1204. However, Byzantine authors often used this Book Daniel Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine ἀνάρρυσις

καὶ καὶ 262 , ed. Alice-MaryTalbot(Washing , εἰς (London: Hambledon Press, 1986), 259–81. See also Dimiter Angelov, See Angelov, also Dimiter 259–81. 1986), Press, Hambledon (London:

ἡ of 268 However,thetextdoessupportAlexander’sassumption

, 62–4. , 62–4. , 76.

εἰσελεύσονται εἰσῆλθεν ird sectionoftheapocalypse( πόλις βασιλέα Itisinthiscitythatanemperor of humble originwill Slavonic Daniel Vision of the Prophet Daniel on the Emperors e coronationcustoms, see navalcommander] squadroncapturedAttalia,an ἐκείνη ). Thisphrase presents , 145–51, 504–7. 504–7. , 145–51, at “Ishmael [already]came asfarAttalia,”

where 56

Ἰσμαὴλ ξανθὰ 264 e futuretenseprophesizingthat“they[i.e.,the this term portrays ahintof termthis portrays 269 there isnoevidencesupporting theclaim that

Thus,IagreewithAlexanderondatingthe χρίω

ἡ ἐν m andthe West inthe Early MiddleAges,”ineadem,

this man willdefeat theArabs first alone, or evendead.Hisname issaidtostartwith καλουμένη

clearly meansχρίω clearly “toanoint.”There is noclear

τ ἕως ἔθνη ῇ clearly puts additional emphasis theon emperor’s additional clearly puts ) closes withtheblasphemous Arabinsult

( πόλει Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), Press, 2007), University Cambridge Cambridge: . Ἀτταλῶν 266 inthiseventathreattothecapital 265 ). After theirfinal defeat he willenter Inessence,Alexanderpersuasively

, 72–3. τ ῇ

τυραννίς

Ἑπταλόφῳ . Emphasis mine. Gilbert Dagron, Dagron, Gilbert ton, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1988), 1988), Oaks, D.C.:Dumbarton ton,

another (almostverbatim) . According to Alexander, the the toAlexander, . According §5) reproduceselements “Western,” e.g., Lombardian Lombardian e.g., “Western,” . Emphasismine. Emperor and Priest: Priest: and Emperor

. For his treatment 263

CEU eTD Collection 273 272 271 this textpresents anearly mention of thismotif. apocalyptic traditionandif thedatingof the humility or povertyoftheVictorious Emperor world.” Onefurtherimportant element intheapocalypse needsto be characterization oftheVictoriousEmperor, whois drama revolvingaroundtheAntichrist. speculating ontherelationshipbe mentioning theuncleanpeoplesofNorthmight the ultimate end totheunspecified future.IfPseudo-Chrysostomos agreesthattheRomanEmpire is power. Bynotmentioning theabdicationitseem Danielis Pseudo-Chrysostomos leavesouttheemperor’s abdicationscene.Here,asinthe peoples arementioned inconnectionwithAlexandertheGreat. time. Thisevent isaddressedatthebeginning scheme Pseudo-Chrysostomos when vaticinium abbreviated versionofthe borrowings from theGreekredactionofPseudo-Methodius. and Elijah, ruler. consolidated hisrulethisVict Rom Last Roman Emperor ( unclean peoples twice(in associa does contain the emperor’s abdication scene. Tradition Apocalyptic see Alexander, Byzantine elem certain borrowed Pseudo-Chrysostomos above) 270 Seeinfra The same argument can be made for the

Pseudo-Chrysostomos Pseudo-Chrysostomos katech e, wherehewillopenupatr e, The fourthandlastsection In sum 272 , theRoman functionisreducedto emperor’s Thiscanbeunderstoodas n.325. The motif of poverty or humility cannot be found in the ō n, thentheAntichrist’sarrival isconditiona andthefinalParousia.Thelanguage about thefallofAttalia.Thereisami , one can say that the Apocalypse

Apocalypse Apocalypse Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius tion withAlexanderthe Great( [13] 19–21)), Pseudo-Chrysostomos mentions them only once. themonce. only mentions Pseudo-Chrysostomos 19–21)), [13]

orious Emperor willmove toC §5.1: οὕτινος §1.17. While Pseudo-Methodius mentions the eschatological arrival of the ( tween theRoman Empireandtheultimate eschatologicalend §6) easure and distributes its wealth Diegesis Danielis Diegesis

fails tomention thecoming Magogattheendof ofGogand referring tothehumble origin recounts thecoming oftheAnti 271 Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse , 65–72. Another important difference is that the

τὸ ents. For Alexander’s Eng

ὄνομα Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse 57 of theapocalypse,however,wherethese unclean 273 is apermanent feature inthelaterByzantine

. ἦν said tohaveaname that“wasinferior inthe s thattheapocalypsetriestopostpone nor deviation fromthePseudo-Methodian nor deviation

andthemes usedhereareagaindirect furtherhint atthe author’s aim toavoid ἔλαττον Apocalypse defeating theArabsandrestoringimperial l on itsremoval ordestruction.Thus,not

withafewemendations suchasthe

ἐν

τῷ onstantinople andchaseawayits [8] 10) and then in connection with the the with connection in andthen [8] 10) Slavonic Daniel

270 lish translation of the translation of lish κόσμῳ Moreimportantly, though, tothepeople. oftherising christ, thedeathofEnoch . mentioned, namely, the is on the wholean , from which (as noted iscorrect then Afterhaving emperor. The Slavonic Daniel Slavonic Daniel Diegesis

, CEU eTD Collection ἐπίκυφος are restricted to the Antichrist. For the typical typical Forthe Antichrist. are restricted to the 5. principalities inthemid-ninth century,a (2) theconquestofIberianPeninsula,(3 Alexander’scomprehensive analysisdividesth eschatological sections(§§2–4):(1) 280 279 278 277 276 275 274 inscribed onhis inhabitants ofthe“Rebel City” earthquake of869. had killedhisbenefactorMichaelIIIorth Alexander datestheapocalypsetoyear867or by reworkingpoliticaleventsintoanesch apocalyptic literatureplayed (oratleastlaidcl argumentation isconvincing.Iftrue,thisin his Midianite concubine fortheirbl Jewish highpriest,whoisreported tohavejustly killedtheIs attempt tojustifyBasilI’smurder ofMichael IIIbycomparing the former withPhinehas,the Alexander engagesinambitiousspecu marked eclecticism giving“theimpression of another brief apocalypse thatbelongs tothe The VisionofDanielontheLast 3.4.3. M Antichrist differ significantly; see Alexander, seeAlexander, significantly; Antichrist differ in iscorrect Alexander However, 132–4. 281 idianites,a people Pseudo-Methodiusiden tifies witha proto- Ibid., 83–7. 83–7. Ibid., Alexander, Num 25:1–8. It might beimportant here that the blasphemy of worshipping Ba 77–83. Ibid., Alexander, Foran overview of the content

Daniel καὶ Daniel The fiveeschatological sections are:(6)Th Daniel , κολοβὸς καὶ

ἔσται Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine

ἔσται καὶ

finger,asweetvoice, §1.10–11. §1.10–11. τ ῇ §2.1–2: σημεῖα §2.1–2:

279 στάσει ἔσται Thelast(5)historicalepisodereferstoSicilianeventsin852/853. . Alexander recognizes that usually physiognomic d physiognomic that usually recognizes Alexander and the manuscriptand see situation,

ἔχων TimesandtheE (i.e., Syracuse).Thisemperor remarking that in detail the descriptions of the Victorious Emperor and the and Emperor Victorious the of descriptions the detail in that remarking

The ArabattackonRome andth τίτλωμα a Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine characterizationthe An of , 87, 94–5. 94–5. , 87, , 77. crooked nose,andacurtailed asphemy againsttheGodofIsrael. lations arguing that this section nd (4) themurder ofMichael III in867.

ἐπὶ amosaicbuiltfrom oftenminute pebbles.” Vision ofDaniel atological framework. Basedonthisargument 58

aim to)inshapingthepublic image of emperors τὸν e time devastatingConstantinopolitan ofthe terpretation wouldexemplify activerole the nd oftheWorld ) theinternalstrifeamongsouthernItalian e arrivaloftheVictoriousEmperoram

869, thatis,totheperiodshortlyafterBasilI δάκτυλον Arabian tribe. See tribe. Arabian e textintofive hist DiTommaso,

tichrist, seeBousset, tichrist, αὐτοῦ genre. raelite prince Zimri together with , orDaniel . , 88, n.35. Provided that Alexander’s thatAlexander’s Provided n.35. , 88, is portrayedas“havingsigns ἡ

escriptions in apocalyptic literature literature in apocalyptic escriptions supra n.81. The

λαλία

e sackofStPeter’s in846, stature,” 274 ′ al- Daniel Book Itischaracterizedbya pe

277 αὐτοῦ ′ or

καὶ orical (§1) and five orical (§1)andfive of

was introduced by the the by wasintroduced is a propagandist propagandist a is Der Antichrist 281

278 ἔσται ἡδεῖα andhisname is Alexander’s , 158–62, 364– , 158–62,

, for short, for ἡ 280

276 275 ῥὶς ong the

, 100–1, , 100–1, Here

αὐτοῦ

is

CEU eTD Collection I w Emperor’s function as Christ’s (i.e., the Anointed) deputy on earth. coronation ceremonial and possibly atheological consideratio possible, far-fetched. I rather suspect (asnoted above) “Western,” e.g., Lombardian or Frankish influence on the in battle very similarly tothebattle Jews fought from anarchaic form ofthe 285 284 283 282 detailed physiognomic portray of the dating of the apocalypse is correct this text might contain the oldest example (which has come down to us) of a surveyed here years. the empire towealth,prosperity,andpeace,a fulfills thefunctionsofappeari emperors, Icountonlythree.identifyonecont emperors arebeingreferredtointhe apocalypse. consider howthefigureofRomanemperor is revelation point toSibylline oracular literature. Inhis commentary, Alexanderargues possible referencetofightingbeyondtheEuphrates of EnochElijah,andfinally the Parousia. the classicaleschatologicalsequenceofcharacterization“son and abdicatesonGolgothaattheadventofAn turn annihilatedbyanangelicfigure.(10)Fina the Romans Godpunishesmankind byreleasingth peaceful years,theVictorious Emperor diesnaturally.(9) Followingthegradual moral decayof destruction oftheSeven-HilledCitythroughagreatdeluge.Afte Constantinople, chasingawaythesovereignruli Rome consolidatinghisreignbygiving and after races” pursue them toAkra. said tos Seleucid rule; see Alexander, seeAlexander, rule; Seleucid mention the duration of the Victorious Emperor’s reign. I.e., 91–4. Ibid., Alexander considers Akra to stand for a city district of Jerusalem, which functioned as a fortified quarter under Daniel καὶ ould question his interpretation concerning the emperor’s anointing. Alexander considers this motif to derive 284 , Danielis Diegesis tart with theletter Insupportofmyinterpretationis

ἔσται Knowing about Alexander’s expertise in Si expertise the about Alexander’s Knowing 285 §2.1–5, §2.15,§2.27, §3.6,§3.12–20.

and the S even-Hilled Apocalypse even-Hilled Redivivus Legend Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine Andreas SalosApocalypse lambda. HewilldefeattheIshmaelite 282 ng afterbeingthought dead,ofdef (7–8)TheVictoriousEmperor ious Emperor. Foralaterinstance, see , . Accordingly, an anointed Jewish king would defeat the Arabs Last Daniel thefactthat during the Maccabeanwars. Ifi tha lly, theLastRoman Emperormoves toJerusalem 59 inuous protagonist,theVi 283 WhileAlexandercountsat ng there.The emperor prophesies theultimate nd ofrulingforthesymbolic number of32 t themotifst of mountinga chariot ( tichrist. Theremainder of the text recapitulates portrayed.Firstofall,itnotclearhowmany What isimportant for mypurposehere isto out money tothepeopleheproceedsenter b , 90. , 90. theVictorious Emperor issaid torulefor 32 , andtheideaofbeingdiscoveredbydivine n which intended to further underline the to further Victorious underline intended n which e uncleanpeoplesoftheNorth,whoarein ylline tradition thesis. tradition his ylline I contest will not except for in alltheother Pseudo-Chrysostomos then smashes abronze idol in s andtogether withthe“blond r aruleof32prosperousand eating theArabs,ofrestoring Last Daniel nd this proposition, though ctorious Emperor, who perdition,” thekilling leastfivesuccessive Visions ofDaniel §47. , whichdoes not ἅρμα However, ), the

CEU eTD Collection arrive atthe year AD 1489. Similarly, means.the date If considers this one letzte V Bollandiana 291 290 289 288 287 286 Ishmaelites permanently outof the city. severely punished. weeks (probablymeaning 21years). Theapocalypsebegins(§1)withawarni that itwillfall to anunspecified lad( certain aboutthedateandprovenance ofthisshorttext. the most obscureapocalypse dealt withinthis thesis. καὶ Diegesis Danielis responsibility wasearlier with theeschatological functi Antichrist. Thatis,hereonefindsacleardist Rom (or 30,33)years. believed to be the date the world would end. Thus, I wonder whether this date is not a later interpolation that read arrives at theyearAD 1472. Bothyears are remarkably close to the notori Danielis Diegesis are enslaved, and onethird hide or runaway In t “twelve-year rule”motif, see motif isthe number 12, which refers to the time-span of valuethatis other closelyassoci The numeral the Great’s rule. ofConstantine time-span 109). Cf. der Eschatolgoie,” 285; John Wortley, “The The 3.4.4. Here, the text provides an exact date for the expulsion of fortheexpulsion exactdate an Here,thetext provides third one sword, by the arekilled thepeople third of one the employsimagedivision: ofatripartite text here The the Arab foe. isprobably lad this the context Seenin n.145. 190–1, undHochverrat,” “Kaiserprophetien thismotif, seeBrandes, Concerning Thetextual situation of manuscrip Forcomparison, seeFigure motif2. The 32-year refersto he following, I use Schmoldt’s critical edition: SeeSchmoldt, “ ἔστα Vision ofDanielo an Emperorwhohastofulfillhisobligation an ision,’” 190–98. 190–98. ision,’” Seven-Hilled Daniel Apocalypse ι closely follows the 88 (1970): 55–6; 55–6; (1970): 88 §2.3–9,and [13] 21,3–6. On the meaning of these numerical andthe 286 290 Atthe same time,this emperor isdefinitely notidentical withtheLast At that point, a sleeping Atthatpoint, snake( n theSeven-HilledCity DiTommaso, Last Daniel Last Daniel Seven-Hilled Apocsalpyse only implied (as inthe sequence ofthePseudo-Method

ons oftheLastRoman Emperor year toyearadhere to Annianus’era(i.e., = 25 1AM March 5493BCE), one would ibid., 127–8. See further ibid., 126–30, 354–6. 354–6. 126–30, ibid., See further 127–8. Seeibid., isconfusing. editions ts and ifone uses the Byzantinecalendar(i.e §53–4. §60, §60,

The 289 . This imagery . This resembles motif in the used μειράκιον arrior

Then,thepeoplearesaidtorevolt,forwhichthey Daniel Book Seven-Hilled Daniel Seven-Hilled W 291 AftertheexpulsionofArabsabloodyRoman

of inction betweentwoempero , orthe 60 - Emperor of the Andrew Salos Apocalypse, AlexandertheGreat’s rule. Forthe application of the the Ishmaelites, namely theye ), ng tothecityofConstantinople,prophesying 288 Alexander theGreat’slifespa Edessan Apocalypse ). Apartfrom thisnotabledistinction , 162. , 162. of abdicating toGod atthearrival of the whowill occupythecityforsome three κοιμώμενος Seven-Hilled Daniel 287 Die Schrift ‘Vom jungen Daniel’ und ‘Daniels §12.22, §12.22, values,see Bousset, “Beiträge zur Geschichte Virtuallynothingcanbestatedfor ia n eschatologicalevents. ., 1 AM = 1 September 5510 BCE), one one BCE), 5510 = 1September 1 AM ., topos Andreas Salos Apocalypse ous yearous of1492, whichwas widely

ὄφις . Thisdivisioninimperial ) appearswhochasesthe ) orignored(asinthe ated withthe Last Emperor rs whoareassociated ar 6981. It is unclear what is unclear ar 6981.It forshort, ispossibly n or alternatively to the the to alternatively n or Apocalypse [13] 7,3–5, 860B (line (line 860B ” ecta Anal Daniel CEU eTD Collection 294 293 292 the apocalypse asa prophecy which fo ( angelic coronation, whichbecame astandard im century date.Anythingearlierth proposes aneighth-orninth-centurydate. Concerningthedateofapocalypse,to has yetbeenmade. WhileSchmoldt with the arrival ofthepeoplesNorth.The erupting among hissons.Themajor ch framework, suchasthenotionofemperor’s Roman Emperorisretained.Thepseudonymous aut Golgotha. Furthermore, theunityofVictorio subsequent restoration ofimperial power, the elements arepresent: theawakening ofalib This Antichrist andtotheultimate last linesof theapocalypse briefly refer tothea surrenders hisimperial dignityonGolgotha his departurefoursonsquarrel until (aftertwelveyears) hemoves Jerusale to marked by greatbenefits forthepeople.Heha emperor rebuilds theCity, erects and orderhim waronhisenemies towage (§2.5–9) earthquake wakesa“poor lion”( civil waren (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann 1978), 751–2. 751–2. 1978), Hiersemann Anton (Stuttgart: Future End of the World: andWest East” Concerning eschatological sentiments 867–1056). SeeKlaus Wessel, “Kaiserbild,” in Cf. DiTommaso, ,” 27–8. ,” 27–8. Seven-Hilled Apocalypse Seven-Hilled Andreas SalosApocalypse sues, whichcausesmuch carnage in th 294 Seven-Hilled Apocalypse

The

Daniel Book

of §2.22–30 with with §2.22–30 event,theParousia(§2.30–33). , 130. , 130. Byzantion around the year AD 1492, see Alexander seeAlexander yearAD the 1492, around Reallexikon zur byzantinischen Kunst an thiswouldbechallenged λέων retold the Ottoman taking ofthe city andstartfightingwitheachot . 292 churches, and defeatsthe Ishm followscloselyPseudo-Methodi

neglects todealwith thedating, ange thathappensisthereve

16, no. 2 (1942–3): 497–500 and Magdalino, “ Magdalino, and 497–500 (1942–3): 2 no. 16, Andreas Salos Apocalypse πτωχὸς Seven-Hilled Apocalypse 293 amidst ahugecrowdofwitnesses(§2.10–29).The the ensuingpeace,and hisfinalabdicationon m inordertoabdicatehi Fornow,Iaminclinedto acceptalate ninth- ) ofgreatage, whom tw 61 nds outmoney andensuresprosperitypeace rrival of the unclean peoples, to the advent of the rrival oftheuncleanpeoples,toadvent poverty, hisangeliccoronation,andthecivilwar us orLiberatorEmperor andtheabdicatingLast erating emperor, hisvictoryovertheArabs, perial theme onlywiththeMacedonian the bestofmy knowle e streetsofConstantinople(§2).Asubsequent . Togetherwithhisfoursonstheaged hor integrateslater 860C–869A (lines 114–276). 114–276). (lines 860C–869A to account for the motif of the to account forthemotifof , Vol. 3, ed. idem and Marcell Restle MarcellRestle 3,ed. idem, Vol. and her. Nonetheless, this emperor shares thisinverted sequence A. Vasiliev, “MedievalIdeasthe of as well asitseventual recapture. rsal of his abdication and the rsal ofhisabdicationandthe aelites. His 30-year rule is us’ structure.Allessential s dominion toGod.Upon o angelscrownemperor dge, nostrongargument DiTommaso tentatively elements intothis The Historythe of

CEU eTD Collection ἡλικίᾳ wealth among thepeople(§§55–59).Afterhisdeath (§§48–54). Thenheushersina32-yearperiod of Victorious EmperornotonlydefeatstheArabs,but also theEthiopians,FranksandTatars After hisdiscoveryangelswillcrownhim empe 300 299 298 297 296 character andverymature. He “grey-haired, just,compassionate, dressedinpoor two pillarsinthenorthernpartofConstanti other (§§30–46).Thecarnageisstoppedbydivineintervention,whichrevealsaman standingon one underacertain“PhiliptheGreat”)gatherin context isthecontinuousstrife the “blondrace”occupiescityfor“sixorfiveyears”(§29). What seems inthis important κοιμώμενος conquered byalad(μειράκιον Thetextopenswithadivinevoiceorderingthree angelstoeachdevastateonepartof the Roman such asthe character ofthe this seventh-centurypseudonymous authority. Methodius ofPatara,thusshowingagainhowcloselythe based onnineteenmanuscripts. number ofmanuscripts. InhisdissertationSchmol The 3.4.5. DiTommaso, Muslim armies approach Constantinople and lay waste to various laywaste tovarious parts of and see ; Constantinople approach Muslim armies in apparatus For 133r–135v. fols. 101 gr Suppl. Nationalbibliothek, Österreichsiche and Vienna, 237–239. 26 fols. Holkham gr. Library, Bodleian Oxford, 201–202, fols. gr. 6 295 from follows a section the closely This passage seems This theopening section follow Ps to of motif from theGreekinterpolation Forclose textual comparison seeibid., 167–72. Namely, Marciana, Venice,Marc. Bibliotheca II fols 125 DiTommaso supplements the nineteen manuscripts known to Schmoldt with an additional six see witnesses; additional an with toSchmoldt known manuscripts the nineteen supplements DiTommaso Last Daniel Last VisionoftheProphetDaniel . ἔχοντα Last Daniel oikoumen Schmoldt, “ e

Th Diegesis Danielis ) (§§19–28).

έπὶ §47: Book Daniel

τὸν Visions ofDaniel Πολιὸν ē

δεξιὸν ,

of including Constantinople(§§1–18). Die SchriftDie ‘Vomjungen Daniel’ und

δίκαιον 299 πόδα Followingtheapparentreconquestof , 366–9.

, Danielκαὶ μέσ

ἐλεήμονα carries anailintherightleg,middle oftheshinbone.” ), whointurnwillbedefeated byasleeping snake ( with theMuslim foe,againstwh ον genre.Itparallelsnumerous passagesfrom earlierapocalypses 295

τοῦ Some ofthese manuscripts attribute the apocalypse to

καλάμου [ φορῶν , orthe ἔσται Seven-Hilled Daniel Seven-Hilled nople. According tohisphysiognomy man this is

296 ἧλον. , andthe πενιχρά 62 the respective titles of the apocalypses, see the critical seethe the apocalypses, the titles of respective Also,theapocalypseshowstypicaleclectic the Seven-HilledCityandendupfightingeach Last Daniel ror and order him todefeathis enemies. The dt met theneed foracr . 6–11, Vienna, Österreichsiche Nationalbibliothek, jur. jur. Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Österreichsiche . 6–11, great prosperityandpeace,distributingmuch clothes,roughinappearance,butgentle ‘Dan his successorrulesfor ] τ ῇ Seven-Hilled Daniel iels letzte Vision,’” 122. 122. iels letzteVision,’”

298 ὄψει Visions ofDaniel §1.17. §1.17. The“mother ofcities” issaid to be

αὐστηρόν forshort,ispreservedinagre Constantinoplefrom theArabs, om variousfactions(including , τ ῇ μῃ eudo-Methodius,three where

Apocalypse δὲ itical edition,whichhe

wereassociated with . γνώ another twelve years another twelveyears 297

πραΰν [13] 7,3–5. , ὁ μεστόν ὄφις

300

τ at ὁ ῇ

CEU eTD Collection 1060–1108), thusplacingthetextattime oftheFirstCrusade. ConcerningthedatingDiTommaso proposesan More specifically,heconsiders th gradual disintegrationofthelastDanielicEmpire givingwaytothearrivalofAntichrist. deteriorates. Agreatcivilwarand thesuccessive the LastRoman Emperors. Followingtheimperial a years beforeabdicating.Here,one tradition of the but otherforeignnationsaswell,includingthe 304 302 301 elements can certainly beidentified. considers theapocalypsetohavereacheditsfina his rightleg. supplementing thistraditionalcharacterizati from the The motifs ofangeliccoronationandmonetary traditional Itisapparentthatthistextreusesvari purpose itisimportant toappreciate the adap (§§74–85). and destruction.Thentheheav 73). Ultimately, theAntichrist arrives. Hisadvent causes thesubmergence ofthecapit which finallyallperish.Thenafoulwoman 61). Next,aninternecin before abdicatinginJerusalem the TrueCross. See motif is used. However, as noted above, the section ( section in By fromLatin West character the historical contemporary con 303 Wortley, “Literature of Catastrophe,” 8–9. ofCatastrophe,” “Literature 8–9. Wortley, Possibly a reference to the nails of Christ’s crucifixion. I do not know of any other Cf.Rev 6:14. DiTommaso, siders an early-ninth-century date, seeMöhring, Last Daniel Seven-Hilled Daniel topos 302

The Further, itisinteresting thattheVi topos , theVictoriousEmperorisrevealedat supra §4 Daniel Book ) portrays a genuine agenuine 0) portrays , theemperor’s reignlastsfor32years, n.179. n.179.

e civilwarbreaksoutam of

. Hisphysiognomystresseshispoor . Thus,thisrule ens rolluplikeapapyrus-scroll , 192. Itwould be remarkable to find such a clear reference toa near- e mention of aGreatPhiliptore canseeanothercleardistinc al. Shortlyafterwards,otherc Edessan Apocalypse 304 va Indeed,themention oftheTatars( . exeventu Inticinium contrast to DiTomasso’s dating, Möhring Der Weltkaiser der Endzeit on byanobscurenoteofhimhavinganail( 63 r istechnicallytheLa rules theSeven-HilledCity, whosehaughtiness tation ofthefollowingmotifs.Adheringto ous elements fromearlierapocalypses. For my l shapeinthethirteenth benefactions tothe Franks andtheTatars.Againadheringto ismarked by ubiquitous famines, earthquakes zantine apocalyptic literature. Yet, this is possible ifthe Yet, this ispossible literature. apocalyptic zantine ong theLast Roman Emperor’s four sonsin ctorious Emperor not bdication thefateofempire irreversibly destruction ofimperi associates the Victorious Emperor with the nails of a moment ofgreatstruggleand hardship. eleventh- ortwelfth-centuryprovenance. whilehissuccessor rules fortwelve 301 tion betweentheVictoriousand ities sharethesame fate(§§62– 303 , 311. andtheLastJudgmentensues fer toPhilippeIofFrance(r. origin andmature agewhile Alternatively,JohnWortley st Roman Emperor (§§60– people arealreadyknown Visionof Daniel century,althoughearlier only defeatstheArabs al citiessignifythe Τάταροι) andthe in which this this which in ἧλος ) in CEU eTD Collection 309 308 307 306 305 who abdicatesinJerusalemafterhavingerected rule ischaracterizedbywidespreadjoy.Next,an Ar follows who,duringhistwelve-yearreign,repair such asviolentstorms, earthquakes,andfamine The32-year reignofthisVictoriousEmpero next twodespotsarewickedemperors, whose reign ismarked bypun orthodoxy thatresultsinthe at sea.Hewillrebuild churchesand subduetransgressors andmagnates, whileupholdingastrict to “humble thesonsofHagar.” emperor from poverty,” Theapocalypticpassageope Constantinople, willnever fall toinvaders.The characteristics ofthePseudo-Methodian LastRoman Emperor. remarkable becauseitlistsmore thanfivecons world willcome toanend.Thissectionhasbeencriticallyeditedby Rydén. eschatological sectioninwhichAndreastheFool The 3.5. Crusades. Thus, Iagree with Wortley that this apocalyp unclean peoples of theNorthandeventualtemporary lossof thecapital tothe Ishmaelites. century eventssince thesedescri notion ofthecontinuou the the Empire of New Rome Generally, apocalyptic literature of literature musicdisapproves and apocalyptic games. Generally, See Mango, Cf. 18:22. Rev Rydén, “The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” 199–214. The English translations given here aretaken from Rydén. 84 Konstantinopels,” “DieBelagerung Cf.Brandes, Andreas SalosApocalypse Andreas SalosApocalypse Apocalypse Vita Andreas SalosApocalpyse

305 of StAndreasSalos

[2] 1. 1. [2] , 211 and Rydén, “The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” 251. Such disapproval can also be found in 307 s occupation ofConsta 856A 853B whowillbringprosperity andpeace totheRomans beforemovingon persecution ofJewsandaba

(line 23). (line (lines 31–2). 31–2). (lines , writtenbyacertainNikephorosin 308 ptions gobeyond Then,heissaidto restore im ns withthe prophecy that the NewJerusalem, i.e., and idem, “Kaiserprophetien und Hochverrat,” 191, n.146. und Hochverrat,” idem, “Kaiserprophetien and 64 ntinople bythe“blondr se probablygainedits ecutive imperial rulers, s. ThenagoodChristianemperor fromEthiopia n, Andreas foretells that “Godwillraise upan and previouslyassembled theTrueCrossfrom s thechurcheshispredecessorsdestroyed.His the traditional explainstohisfriendEpiphanioshowthe ab rulerbrieflyascendstothethrone.Itishe r is followed by four subsequent rulers. The r isfollowedbyfoursubsequentrulers.The n onmusical instruments. perial frontiersonlandaswell topoi Constantinople,containsan ofvaguelyalludingtothe present shapeduringthe itive naturalcatastrophes some ofwhomsharethe ace” indicatethirteenth- 306 309 Byzantium, the Byzantium, Thetextis

CEU eTD Collection 319 318 317 316 315 314 313 312 311 310 Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodius dynastic connection,andth great flood.Atthesame time, themotifs oftheab the latterittookmarked concernfortheim Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodiusontheonehand,and Andreas SalosApocalypse namely, thesecondhalf Andreas Salostothisperiod. Monacensis gr.443,might datetothe (at least partially) inearlymanuscripts. The The the LastJud the uncleanpeoplesofNorth,andadvent remainder of Andreas’seschatologicalprophecyd cities, which,however, areunable tostop the is destroyedbyahugeflood. relatives, government. war inwhichthemale Roman populationis its num Sibylline tradition. tradition. Sibylline foul woman a wasoriginally described in texts apocalyptic of Andreas Salos’” Wortley, “The Literature 4. of Catastrophe,” OracleBaalbek of 297–313 (esp. 299–308). 299–308). (esp. 297–313 “The AndreasSalosApocalypse,”232–7. For further textual comparisons between the Cyril Mango, “ Rydén, “The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” 199, 260. For Rydén’s argumentation, see idem, “The Date of the ‘Life Rydén, “The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” 199. Cf. Brandes, “Die Belagerung Konstantinopels,” 86–7, n.16 and This passage ( Cf. Isa14:13–4. Seefurther Rydén, Cf.Mt See Bousset, 10:21. Cf.Rev 17:5. This explanation for the rise of awoman to power duemale to depopulation can be found asearlyinthe as Andreas SalosApocalypse erous pieces. 313 playingmusic, andhaughtiness. gment. Andreas SalosApocalypse 311 Andreas Salos Apocalypse 21 (lines 200–2). This This parallel 200–2). (lines 21 Her reign isdepicted inthe The Life of Saint Andrew the Fool Reconsidered Fool Life the The of Andrew Saint DOP 32 (1978): 127–55. 127–55. (1978): 32 310 Thereafter,threeyoungmenaresaid 860C (lines 114–121). 114–121). (lines 860C of theseventhcentury. Der Antichrist presentsanintriguingamalgamation of e arrivalofthepeoplesNorthare

315 317 “The Andreas 249–51. Salos Apocalypse,” The imperialgovernment issaid . Mangoarguesagainsthim, pr 319 864D–865A

, 76–7. , 76–7. second halfofthetenthcentury. is rareexample ofan apo Andreas SalosApocalypse can beseen asafurther argument 314

65 Asaresultofherabom (lines 192–203)) closely parallels Rev 18:21. 318 apocalyptic imager perial capitalanditseventualdestructionbya literary motif which literary motif (at its had which roots leastin part) in the dication scene,theimportance ofanEthiopian earliest witness,contained inthe so-called rapid disintegrationofimperial power.The eals withthefateofJews,coming of Theconfusioniscause soreducedthatawoman assumes the theAntichrist, finishing withabrief noteon ,” vista di Studi Byzantini eSlavi Diegesis Danielis Ri and various to plungeintoadevastatingcivil calyptic textwhichcomes down oposing amuch earlierdate, y ofharlotry, to betransferredvarious 316 in favor of the thesis that the the the thesisthat favor of in Visions of Daniel inations, Constantinople Rydéndatesthe topoi topoi d bythe factthatthe , ontheother.From takenfrom the taken from the 312 killingof , see Rydén, 2 (1982): (1982): 2 Vita of

CEU eTD Collection (1946): 237–48. 237–48. (1946): spears they willmake intofarming implements ….” [i.e., the Romans] willbeattheblades of their Islam; rather,theemperor rises andinitiatesa narration. God doesnotawaketheVictoriousEmperor intheheat No Variousattempts have beenmade toidenti considered him tobeMichaelIII, them among successive rulers. apocalypse splitsthe multiple functionsofthe the finalreignofa apocalypse sketchesthesuccessionoffiveempe Chrysostomos Apocalypse 324 322 321 320 to contemporary historicalfigures unspecified moment. Forthisre historical narrative of theByzantine Empire I. Interms ofcontent,the advances anewinterpretationoftheLastRoman Emperor century, when theMuslim threatwas lessexigent. proposing thesafe Diegesis Danielis Apocalypse, the particularly inthe apocalypses of theearly eighth century (the first Greekredaction of the Salos Apocalypse Emperor willmove outinorder topunish the Ishmaelites for their blasphemy. Thus,the internal evidence. Thetextisovertly uninter Tradition century, see earlytenth Alexander, the datesitto Literature of Alexander 3. Catastrophe,” 323 324 Wortley, “The Wortley, Hoyland, Cf. ibid., 226, 239, 260. Alexander “TheEmperorA. Vasiliev, Mi Alexander Andreas SalosApocalypse vaticinium exeventu Itwouldbesurprising,however, The strongestargument fo , 123, 130, and Magdalino endorses a mid-tenth-century date, see Magdalino, “The Year 1000,” 245, 245, 256. 1000,” “The Year seeMagdalino, date, amid-tenth-century endorses Magdalino and , 130, 123, Seeing Islam arrior

W doesnotportrayanyimmediateArabth foul woman. tothevarious Incontrast terminus postquem , 305–7. Wortley dates the apocalyptic section to the late ninth century, see Wortley, “The see“The Wortley, century, lateninth to the section apocalyptic the dates , Wortley 305–7. - Emperor, 853C canbediscerned.What ismore, ther , the

” 45–59. ” 45–59. (lines 29–31). Cf.Isa 2:4. 29–31). (lines S Andreas SalosApocalypse ason IagreewithRydén,whodoe even-Hilled Apocalypse 323 r theposteriority of the ) andalsoinnint in theapocalypse. Rather,the whileWortley connectedthetextual descriptions withBasil if atextwhich apparently hasnointerest inthe political or of740whileassuming atenta chael III in Apocryphal Literature,” chael III inApocryphal ested initscontemporary politicalenvironment. period ofpeaceandprospe 66 Pseudo-Methodian Last Emperor anddistributes rors whoarefollowedbyagreatcivilwarand swords intosickles,and theirspearshafts and 322 integrated afactualRoman emperoratan h-century texts(Daniel

fy thefirst of thefive emperors.Vasiliev 321 Atthis peacefultime, theVictorious ). Therefore,IagreewithHoylandin Visions of Daniel of Visions Andreas SalosApocalypse isapeculiarliteraryworkinsofarasit reat, whichisanessentialnotion, e isanexceptional reversalinthe five emperors listedprovidean topos s notrecognizeanyreference of adesperatestrugglewith tive dateoftheninth-tenth Byzantina et Metabyzantina . Asshownabove,the rity, duringwhich“they καὶ dealtwithabove,this

Byzantine Apocalyptic ἔσται , comes from

the Andreas Pseudo- 320 1

CEU eTD Collection value oftheSeven-HilledC Pontus rulestheimperial capital.Notonlydoesth majority ofthemale population)perishinafiercecivilwar.Subsequent rulerships. The abdicatingArabemperor isfo that thereareonlyfiveemperors. Rather,the InordertounderstandwhyNikephoros needs tocorrect Rydén’s analysis drew up. emperors, whogradually fulfillthe duties ofthe emperor: Alexander theGreat, the wickedemperor: Constantiu Accordingly, thefive emperors signify: (1) th 327 326 325 Andreas Salos,dividesthesethreeessentialfunctionsa to itsdivinesourcebyabdicatingonMountGolgotha.Nikephoros,theauthorof will spread overthewhole world,” on theotherhand,isresponsibleforreconquestof imperial supremacy, (2)aSecondAlexander,who Gideon, orlateraNewConstantine,whodeliv above, theLast Roman Emperor combinesinone Thisinterpretationhasthebenefitofa typological elements thatthePseudo-Methodian encycloped 245. precedes three evil young men, who possibly allude to the atwelmotifs the of Great the Alexander associating with in Realizing that the emperor’s povert latter’s Basil Iisthe rise “from( poverty” Victorious Emperor. On the contrary, Wortley’s strongest argument for identifying the Victorious Emperor with is la particularly argumentation Rydén’s 239–40. 239–40. inspir actually BasilI’s did humble origin conversely, to the need due to wasmuch ’spoverty emphasized Theintrusion of Alexander the Great into this historical sequence is hard to explain. However, Rydén is correct Rydén, “The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” 238–47. See alsoAlexander, Andreas SalosApocalypse ic account of thehistory oftheRo 860B–C ity, italsofollowsRev17:9–11: y wasa standardized eschatological

326

(lines 112–3). 112–3). (lines and(5)thegoodArabianemperor: Jovian. s II,(3)thepaganemperor: . Rydénmisses oneimportant point udable for appreciating the topical nature of the poverty attributed to the tothe attributed ofthe poverty nature topical the appreciating for udable 327 ἀπὸ and,finally,(3)asecond

πενίας llowed bythreeyoungmen, who(togetherwiththe ); see Wortley, “The LiteratureofCatastrophe,” 44, passim. e this motif? Seee this motif? Rydén,“The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” Andreas SalosApocalypse e VictoriousEmperor: C 67 eschatological worklistthatPseudo-Methodius ppreciating thefragmentation ofthevarious man Empire from ConstantinetoJovian. diadochi Last Emperor motif Asreconstructed carries. ers Christiansfrom is, ontheonehand.ofEt changed thePseudo-Methodianscheme one meetthe expectation of single characterthef is seven-rule scheme resemble thenumerical ve-year reign, Ethiopian descent, and the fact that he imperial landssothat“theloveoftheLord nd distributesthema ; seeRydén,“The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” topos Jovian,whoreturnshis Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic Byzantine raises the criticalquestion of whether Julian, (4)thegoodEthiopian . Itis notcompletely true onstantine theGreat, (2) oppression andrestores unctions of(1)asecond the eschatologicalmotif. Or listsseven consecutive ly, afoulwoman from hiopian descent,and, mong threedistinct Vita imperium , 125–8. , 125–8. ofSt 325

CEU eTD Collection καὶ ἔπεσαν ‘Patria founder to be Constantine theGreat. See 330 329 328 end. the arrivalof theeschatological then, imperial powerproceeds afterits Itisnoteworthy, thatfollowingtheArab continues. Afoulwomanrules the fourthcenturyCE,andeschat parallels betweentheemperorsof encyclopedic material aboutthehistoryof Revelations ofJohn of theLastRoman Emperor motif Methodius. Nikephorosappreciatedthetypological reading ofthetwomost authoritativeapocalyptic culminating in theabdication of the Arabianempero rulers Nikephorosdistributesthedutiesof presents sevenconsecutiverulerswho aredivide The seven-rulerscheme oftheRevelationsJohn

Rome, and Sylaion (861A–861 woman. During this war the “three youngermen” ( sev this tripartite division, see division, Dagron, tripartite this in Thessaloniki) three other to cities (including transfer fromConstantinople Byzantinistik österreichischen “T Ruggieri, F. seeNethercott, Vincenzo Sylaion, general information about Sylaion, see ODB s.v. Syllaion and for an overview of the historical sources pertaining to and Sylaion with proposes an etymological consideration: Rome is associated with of The choice of threecitiesispref choice these The Gilbert Dagron mentions that at the beginning of the seventh century Rev 17:9–11: συλληφθήσεται

en rulers from Rev 17:9–10 as to refer to seven founders of various empires. Andrew considered the seventh seventh the considered Andrew empires. various of founders seven to asto refer 17:9–10 from Rev rulers en αὐτὸς Rydén , ’ (Paris: Presses Universita ’ (Paris: ὁ the eighth(king)andhebelongstoth he must stay for (only)alittle.And the kings. Fivehavefallen,oneis,theotherhasnotyetcome. Andwhenhecomes, The sevenheadsarehillsonwhich

ὄγδοός εἷς

explainedthisphenomenon bymaintainingthat ἔστιν

αἱ οὐ ἐστιν ); see Lennart Rydén, “ ,

ἑπτὰ

ὁ συληθήσεται

ἄλλος

καὶ

κεφαλαὶ . Hedidso,andhereRydénmight

ἐκ

οὔπω

36 (1986): 133–56 (esp. 134–44). There is a textual parallel to the motif of imperial of motif the parallelto is There a textual (esp. 134–44). 133–56 (1986): 36 τῶν

(will not be sacked) (Rydén emends (willnot besacked) the here text reading ires de , 1984), 324. 1984), deFrance, ires

ἑπτὰ

ἑπτά Constantinople imaginaire Constantinople ἦλθεν

peoples oftheNorthdoesimperialpower ultimately come toan

in Constantinople untilits subm ὄρη ἐστιν thefirstChristiancenturyunde andremodeled them ontothese , igured in the civil war episode (860D–861D) preceding the rise of the foul the foul riseof the preceding (860D–861D) the civil war episode in igured ZumAufbau derAndreas καὶ

εἰσίν Gilbert Dagron, Dagron, Gilbert ological dutiesofthelastemperor(s). , καὶ

Β ὅταν transfer to Rome, Thessaloniki, and ). On the question of why Nikephoros chose these cities, Rydén Rydén these cities, chose Nikephoros why of the question ). On ,

ὅπου εἰς he Metropolitan City of Syllion and its Churches,” itsChurches,” and CityofSyllion Metropolitan he

νεώτεροι ἐλθῃ

ἀπώλειαν e seven(kings)andgoesintodestruction.

ἡ the Pseudo-Methodianeschatologicalworklist 68

beast whooncewas,andnowisnot,he

Roman Empirewhichelucidatesthetypological ὀλίγον γυνὴ authors,namely, John

d intofiverulersplustwo.Among thefive Constantinople , 328. ) who fight for imperial power exalt the cities of citiesof imperialthe τρεῖς) for exalt power who fight ian emperor’s abdicationimperialbusiness the wom framework andtheeschatologicalfunctions

r. Iargue thatNikephoros combines herethe

κάθηται ὑπάγει

ispotentinexplainingwhyNikephoros αὐτὸν Salo ῥώμη .

δεῖ ἐπ Andrew of CaesareaAndrew of s-Apokalypse, an sits. Theyarealsoseven (might), Thessaloniki with thereisashiftinqualityafterthe ’

μεῖναι. αὐτῶν be correct, inorder topresent . Études surle recueildes

imaginaire §72–3. Daniel ForLast an analysis of ergence bythesea.Andeven ven-ruler scheme foundinthe r imperial benefaction,i.e.,of . καὶ καὶ

τὸ nos ” ofPatmos andPseudo- βασιλεῖς Era 329

θηρίον Sylaion.

οὐ ( d. 614) d.

συληθήσεται

66 (1968): 116. For 116. (1968): 66 ἑπτὰ ὃ

ἦν 330

interpreted the the interpreted νίκη

εἰσιν καὶ Jahrbuch der der Jahrbuch 328 Onlywith

(victory), (victory),

οὐκ · οἱ instead

πέντε ἔστιν

CEU eTD Collection encyclopedicthe natureof gradual andultim abdication marks the Not onlythat,butalsoimperial 333 331 Figure 2.Structuralcomparisonofmotifsa the original Syriac apocalypses arearrang according totheeschatological narrativesche important motifs associated w On thebasisofmyanalysissourcem imperial termination ratherthanwiththe cerem apocalypses. an argumentation here but rather refer to my arguments the the 332 Thechronological sequence of theapo Rydén, “The Andreas Salos Apocalypse,” 235. In order to understand Nikephoros’ interpretation of the interpretation Inorder to understand Nikephoros’ Vita onial abdication.Accordingly,nogoodor and its apocalyptic section. section. itsapocalyptic and ate decline of the empire.Thus Apocalypse andendingwith point following whichthereisnochance left toreverse oreven tohaltthe ed intheorderofhypo Andreas Salos Apocalypse

ith theLastRoman Emperor calypses can be disputed. Forthe sake restoration willbeutterlyimpossible. Mysenseisthatthe katech ssociated withtheLastRomanEmperor ateri it might prove crucial to investigate the relationship between relationship the investigate crucialto prove itmight 69 ōn, whichholdsbacktheAntichrist. Last Daniel al Ipresent atableinwhich Icompile themost above in which I deal with the dating of the respective respective ofthe dating in I which withthe deal above thetical timeline thatI , theabdicationmotif becomes associated with pious Roman rulerfollowstheabdication. me whichall authors fairlyfollow.The katech ō . 333 n and to better appreciate the supposedly

topos of brevity, however, I do not present present not do I however, brevity, of . Themotifs areordered established, startingwith topos 332

331

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the Ishmaelites the Ishmaelites Last Judgment characteristics characteristics Peoples ofthe destruction of Engagement Identity and Subsequent appearance appearance Abdication Aftermath Antichrist Narrative Narrative emperors emperors with and Mode of Place of Place of Context North

                  

Methodius Syr. years Jerusalem and rules from itfor 10 ½ crown on top of it Golgothaand abdicates by placing his on he erectsthe True Antichrist Cross ofthe the first signs Following The Last Roman Emperor by anangel Gog/Magog etc. released and defeated Tax exemptions forthe clergy building Church Generaljoy peace, apostates against Retaliation Prosperity and displaced ofcaptives Return The surviving Arabs are enslaved Palestine in annihilating the Arabs, who remained His sons attackfrom the West desert the into back thechasing ArabsHe defeats them dead thought He awakes from sleepafterbeing Second Jovian Second Gideon and K Descendent ofAlexanderthe Great Last Roman Emperor proposition Ishmaelite Blasphemous Gehenna him into throws Christ until in Jerusalem appears and rules Antichrist The Pseudo- ū shyat shyat / /

  

Methodius Gr. of C/ple during the siege Arab defeat Christ kills him him kills Christ Enoch and Elijah and kills appears Antichrist The Pseudo- 

enters enters

Last Judgment            R      70

eversalorder of chasing them toMecca theHe defeatsArabs the South while his son arrives from He attacks from the West, crucifixion-nails made of Christ’s associated with abridle His appearance is Second Constantine the Greatand K Descendent ofAlexander Victorious Emperor the year 694 (?) of Arab dominion, i.e., in At theend of thelastyear Every living thing perishes Jovian abdicates as a Second Greeks) mounts Golgotha, Emperor The Elijah He is slain by Enoch and (except Edessa) debauches all nations and appears Antichrist The at Mecca and annihilated by an angel Gog/Magog etc. released Gradual moral decay 208 years The Roman Empire rules Generaljoy peaceand Prosperity 12 Apostles Edessan Apocalypse Last Roman Roman Last (Kingthe of /

ū : shyat shyat       

the desert the chasing them backinto thehe defeatsArabs the people ofthe earth” allianceof“all the With Second Constantine Victorious Emperor Arab civil war an After amajorbattlein Unification of the Church Church ofthe Unification General peace rule Vigorous / / / / / / /

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the Ishmaelites the Ishmaelites Last Judgment characteristics characteristics Peoples ofthe destruction of Engagement Identity and Subsequent appearance appearance Abdication Aftermath Antichrist Narrative Narrative emperors emperors with and Mode of Place of Place of Context North

                  

Three holy men are slain slain are men holy Three Jewish reign the rule of Antichrist and On thearrival, characteristics C/ple theof flooding of Prophecy C/ple in foul, foreign woman(B) rules A tall,foreign (M)ora man lawlessly Manthe of North rules rule a peacefully aftera 33 year The Victorious Emperor dies Prosperity, peace tools agricultural as used Military equipment building Church Arabs surviving the of Enslaving (Dt 32:30) C/ple and defeats the Arabs He leadsa great exitfrom (Persia/Syria) to C/ple He arrives fromthe East believed dead God awakes him who was He has the name ofan animal two sons He has iskappa His initial Victorious Emperor C/ple on siege Arab an during Following a prayer to God Daniel Pseudo-Chrysostomos Diegesis Danielis / / /

               

“blond races” the with campaign joint ina Arabs the pursues He theHe defeatsArabs (Syracuse?) city in the Rebel revelation He is found due to divine emperor iscrowned He dead thought He appears after being islambda His initial A man of“inferior name” the Greatand Descendent ofAlexander Victorious Emperor proposition Blasphemous Ishmaelite Christ kills the Antichrist Antichrist the kills Christ Enoch andElijah are slain rules in Jerusalem The Antichrist appearsand emperor awaythe c/plitan chasing He proceeds to C/ple people to the Benefactions goes to Rome The VictoriousEmperor 71 

Last Judgment / / /

K ū shyat

                         Ph

help in a help great battle God’s with them he defeats where Palestine, them into chases he Together with the“blond races” theHe defeatsArabs (Syracuse?) Rebel city inthe revelation divine to due is found He curtailed signs inscribed on his finger sweet voice nose crooked islambda His initial Victorious Emperor local fight for the “Rebel city” a tosupport in called are Arabs Enoch andElijah are slain appears Antichrist The abdicates Emperor the Antichrist signof the the first Upon Earthquakes, famines, wars C/ple of the flooding about Prophecy annihilatedangel by an andare etc.arrive Gog/Magog A emperor rules peacefully Gradual moral decay year rule He dies a natural death after a 32- Peace, Prosperity, churchbuilding C/ple The Victorious Emperor enters emperor” isslain “another and emperor c/plitan The people to the Benefactions consolidates his power in Rome The Victorious Emperor until are Arabs pursued y sio g

nom

stature mounts Golgotha and y : καὶ Last Roman Roman Last

ἔσται

Akra

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the Ishmaelites the Ishmaelites Last Judgment characteristics characteristics Peoples ofthe destruction of Engagement Identity and Subsequent appearance appearance Abdication Aftermath Antichrist Narrative Narrative emperors emperors with and Mode of Place of Place of Context North

                  

Golgotha on Crown and Cross the witnesses erecting many by surrounded Emperor The devastating civil war His four sons wage a Jerusalem Roman Emperor goes to LastAfter yearsthe 12 He rulesfor 30years emperor one have Christians All Peace Prosperity distributed Treasuries are opened and sons four his of support with the churches He rebuilds them 32:30) pursues (Dt He defeats the Arabsand Angelic coronation an earthquake He awakes from sleepthrough dead thought and is old He poor, is name whose lion, A Last Roman Emperor C/ple the streetsof in warisfought A Roman civil Second Coming appears Antichrist The Gog/Magog etc. arrive Last Daniel Andreas SalosApocalypse Seven-Hilled Last Roman Roman Last abdicates / John        

sin and abdicates on Golgotha year before he reassembles the True Cross A time general joy of churches; years, builds A good Ethiopian emperor reigns for 12 emperor rules Anti-Christian (pagan) A son of lawlessness rulesfor3½ years Gog/Magog etc. arrive Thessal Imperial power transfers to Rome, cross A foulwoman rules, who men young three among out war breaks Civil ks into the the sea ks into     good Arabianemperor         

es, gospels; C/ple willneverC/ple falltoinvaders Following the statement that Last Judgment slain are John and Elijah, Enoch, appears Antichrist The

agricultural tools agricultural as used Military equipment Peace and prosperity poverty God raises him from up He persecutes the Jews and people to the Benefactions building Church exem tax grants years he 12 the In He rulesfor 32years achieves Then, he  oniki, Sylaion

Victorious Emperor holds orthodoxy 72 ptions great victories defeats theArabs and during her reign C/ple

reigns for 1 burns , icons, burns

 _    Ph ___

Angelic coronation He has a nail in his right leg character in gentle appearance, by rough clothes in poor dressed grey-haired,compassionate, just, y sio

___           g C/ple standing two standing on pillars C/ple

nom He is found in the north of north in the is found He ___ three parts Arabs, who are divided into factions including the He defeats allforeign Victorious Emperor fight inthe streets ofC/ple Various foreign factions Last Judgment Famines and earthquakes rules Antichrist The 32-year rule dies anatural death after a The Victorious Emperor tools agricultural as used Military equipment Prosperity distributed and opened are Treasuries       ___

y No Gog/Magog Gog/Magog No suit citiesfollow other C/ple sinksinto the sea C/ple A foul woman rules in the abdicating emperor among the four sons of Civilwar breaks out a 12-yearafter reign abdicates in Jerusalem His successor : ______

___ _

CEU eTD Collection Hippodrome. other hand,wasaccusto during triumphal were farremoved fromtheemperor’s residence would initiatetheeschatological end drama. the Greek textsmeet its audience legitimating theRoman emperorship Victorious Emperor. Onegetstheimpression emperor. Allthe personality, physiognomy,andindividualcharac the Great.The Greekapocalypses,ontheotherha portrayed asasecondGideon,Constantin sources particularlyaddress the Syriac andtheGreekapocalypsesapproachtopos Last Roman Emperor motifcanbe Based onthe material surveyed here,thefollowi 334 receive the divinegrace thatensures victor character oftheemperor understand thelateradditionsthat because theseattributeswereunde other hand,waspersistentlyintere Roman Emperorwithoutspecifyinghisindividua Muslim hegemony andconsequentlyrepliedinra century iscorrect,werecomposed inaclimat presence in the SeeFigure 2 for anoverviewofthese motifs. Furthermore, theSyriacapocalypses,provide This observationcanbeexplai CONCL USION USION Visions ofDanieldealt withhere showamarkedinterest incharacterizing the processions rom wherehe participated inwatchingthespectacles of the kathisma med toseetheemperor ofteninritualizedperfor 334 f asattempts toensuretheeschatologicalruler’s moral aptitudeto oratpubliccelebrations.TheC

typological functionsoftheLast ’s interest inlearning about the specifics of theemperor who emphasizethemature age,th sted inthepersonalattributes drawn. Firstofall,itisintr rstood asthefactorsthatdete per se ned inpartbyareferencetoproximity. Syrianauthors y and success. Wisdom, humility, andbenevolence astheliberating agentof 73 ng conclusionsregarding e ofheightenedideological polemicwiththe and thereforeunabletowitnesshisappearance that theSyriac textsarepreoccupied with nd, payspecialattentiontothemoreconcrete l characteristics.The ther abstractterms pr teristics of the Pseudo-Methodian Romanteristics ofthePseudo-Methodian e, asecondJovian,andAlexander oftheLastRomanEmperor. TheSyriac d theirdating tothevery lateseventh onstantinopolitan populace,onthe iguing toseehowdifferently the e humble origin,andbenevolent oftheLastRoman Emperor, rmined hisfitnesstorule. I Emperor inso farasheis divineprovidence,while Greek tradition,onthe the development of the omoting anidealLast mances suchashis CEU eTD Collection also much-needed qualities. qualities. much-needed also office of emperor. Dieffenbach does not neglect to mention that the emperor’s philanthropy and benevolence are (esp. 58–60), who focuses on th incumbent oftheemperorship. 336 335 of North,andultimately, abdicatin ushering inaperiodofgreatpros Pseudo-Methodius Emperor wasgraduallyredistributed among varioussuccessiveemperors. Inthe attaining authoritythroughdesc veracity oftheattributes (e.g.,initialletterofthename, literary Diegesis Danielis taken from relatedtraditions,ot primarily tothe VictoriousEmperor figure. were qualitiesthataByzantin historical reality.Forinstance,inthe caseofthe particularity: thericher themotif’s description, of Daniel fact might helpthatthe onlyspecificcharacte adaptation orinnovation.Thisistruenotonlyfor attributes butalsoforcharacters.However,the difficult tojudgewhichnewattributeisbasedon characters. abdicating LastRoman Emperor arefarlessdetail Theodosius III).Atthesame tim consider that therespective descriptions refer origin, his physiognomy, his victory over the Arabs and his prosperous 32-year rule. Rev 17 (see circumstance thatthe foul woman appear development of this motif. ofthis development th that the woman. possibility foul on I stayreserved the 2(B), 337 Thesecharacterizations are first and foremost: his arrival by divine revelation, the initial ofhis name, his poor SeeSteffen Dieffenbach, “Frömmigkeit und Kaiserakzeptanz im frühen Byzanz,” I have to emphasize again that I consider the foul woman to be, first and foremost, firstand the aliterary to foul be, woman I toagain Iconsider emphasize have that Andreas SalosApocalypse It canbeobservedthattheeschatological As aresult, Byzantine apocalypses increasingl topos withahistorical character such as Leo III. Thisdevelopment warranted the supra 337 pertain totheVictoriousEmperor. Acco

n.251), and the motif the fact that this and n.251), there wasatendency tohistoricize th thedutiesofappearingatamoment of e aspect of piety andidentifies itasacr 864A–D (lines 162–91), 162–91), (lines 864A–D

e emperor had topo 335 riptions thatfunctionedas

perity andpeace,resistingthe hers wereinspired by historical fact. Asinthe case of the g after a ten-and-a-half-year rule inJerusalem areall assigned s in connection with Constantinople, which is portrayed as the harlot of of harlot as the is portrayed which Constantinople, with connection s in e, thesubsequentfiguressuch reappearsin numerous apocalypses ( 336 rizations ofanyeschat 74 Whilesome oftheseattributeswerecertainly to LeoIII(orinthe case ofmanuscript Mto Last Daniel thehigher theprobabilitythatitrefers toa work listofthePse real historicalfactandwhichonpurelyliterary e historical figure Emprof ssess inorder tobe considered the legitimate Diegesis Danielis ed andthereforenotlikelytobehistorical y specifiedattributesand assigned them e VictoriousEmperorbyidentifyingthis rding totheexegeticalprincipleof §66–68) demonstrate thetopical character of ucial component forlegitimately holdingthe greatdistress, defeating theArabs, vaticinia exeventu arrival from theEast,etc.)while onslaught oftheuncleanpeoples asthefoulwomanor ological figureinthe udo-Methodian LastRoman therearegoodreasonsto ess Irene contributed to the to contributed ess Irene Saeculum Diegesis Danielis Diegesis . Itisextremely 47 (1996): 35–66 35–66 (1996): 47 Apocalypse of topos Visions §8.1– . The . The CEU eTD Collection 340 338 the petitioner’spleatodelayul omnipotence whichcould,intheory, intervene andchangethecosmic planinaccordancewith rewriting thehistoryoffuturemight seem the LastRoman Emperor motif mightlieareluctance tosee theworldend justyet.The notionof introduce the verylastchapters oftheeschatolog arrive differsfrom thelastRoman sovereignwho willterminate the the future:incontrastto abdicating Last Roman Emperor theapocalyptistmi Roman Empire’sexistence.Thatis,bydis exemption from thisdevelopment. cases of Daniel threat. What matters forthesepseudonymous authorsis, eschatological enddrama revolvingaroundtheunclean texts avoid speculatingabouttherelationship Chrysostomos Apocalypse Emperor from theabdicatingLastRoman Emperor, whilethe happened gradually.The to oneunspecifiedRom of John of consecutive imperial rulerships: three Daniel in isthat division asimpler parts a later follows development of principle The functions. these liebehind that and provided the inspiration for such dissociation on the basis of distinguishing the various typological characters in the dissociation of the various eschatological functions or whether it stands at the beginning of this process foul empress. Because ofthe difficulty ofdatingthisapocalypse itisimpossi the Pseudo-Methodian scheme, two interimwicked emperors, one triumvirate of quarreling despots and, finally, a 339 Cf. Magdalino, “The Year 1000,” 266–7. 1000,” 266–7. “The Year Magdalino, Cf. The Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius In this respect the the this respect In αι . καὶ

One findsanunambiguousdissociationofth The trendofdissociationmight beexplained καὶ

Last Daniel ἔστ

ἔσται. Thisdivisionbecam . What seems clear, however, is that the scheme of sevenfold division is derived from the an Andreas Salos Apocalypse d the an Emperor. an bothkeepsilentabouttheabdicati Edessan Apocalypse Pseudo-Methodian scheme, thelibe

Andreas SalosApocalypse good emperors, who divide among each does notindicateanywhere thatthere isasuccession ofemperors. timate imperial actofabdication. 338 e partofthesubseq e lectio brevior Itappearsthat thedisso isexceptional text becauseitpresents nolessthan seven 75 tinguishing theVictoriousEmperor from the doesnotexplicitlydissociatetheVictorious ical drama. Thatis,behindthefragmentation of between theRoman Empireandtheultimate lessparadoxicalifone to less numerous parts,as can be seen, for instance, in first andforemost, liberationfromtheArab ght haveattempted torewritethehistoryof e liberatingfrom would suggest that the division into seven discrete peoplesoftheNorthandAntichrist. with the authors’ intent toprolong the . 339 uent tradition, ascanbeseeninthe The Diegesis Danielis on scene. Thatis,these lasttwo rating emperorwhoisaboutto ble tosay whether itpresents alater Seven-Hilled Apocalypse otherthe eschatological functionsof 340 ciation ofthesefunctions the abdicatingfunction the

last earthlykingdom and considersthedivine and the Revel Pseudo- isan ation in CEU eTD Collection Endkaiser,” 101,n.87. römischen vomLegende die und “Pseudo-Methodius Reinink, n.X,4(9); 37, n.IX,7(3), 29–30, 541), (CSCO § the inverted sequence of Also, the phrasing in the follows theim Daniel Emperor appears ina ultimate end. In thecase ofthegradualtermin with the katech becomes utterly impossible. Inotherwords,the rather perceivedasan eventwhichmarks th abdication appearstobeincreasi narrative despite the fact that theLastRoma Moreover, theeschatological section of are saidtoassist theRoman emperor indefeatingtheArabs. of theliberatingRoman emperor arenotmentione 344 343 342 341 tradition existedwhichreplacedtheVictoriousEm his son(s). Danielis In thefirstGreekredaction and gradualdeterioration. Andreas SalosApocalypse between theVictoriousEmperor andth Edessan Daniel Kmosko, “ the with correlated had Pseudo-Methodius 2.10–14. See See Apocalypse factth the isdespite This Another instance can be found in the §61all employthe phrasing of1Cor 15:24saying: Daniel ). Several apocalypsessh Reverses oforderintheeschato An interestingobservationcanbemadeinc

, andintheSeven-HilledDaniel fragment places theimperial abdication afte Rätsel, Daniel 343 καὶ Inthecase of perial abdication ” 285–6; Alexander, Alexander, ” 285–6; ἔσται ōn andbegantosignifythegradualbut [13] 11,9–10; [13] 11,9–10; καὶ § first Andreas Salos Apocalypse 2.13–14 and and 2.13–14 ἔσται war-torn imperial capital (

at theabdication scenes in mentioning andthe as we Daniel Edessan Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius,inthe

ow anincreasingconcernaboutci . Arguably,thismotiffurthersuppor Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse ation oftheempire,onecansee ll as Byza ngly lessinstrumental for theadventof theAntichrist andis Seven-Hilled Daniel Daniel Seven-Hilled

the καὶ katech

abdication and then the arrival of Gog and Magog. ntine Apocalyptic Tradition Apocalyptic ntine Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalpyse Last Daniel

ἔσται andthe Andrew theFoolandLastDaniel theliberatingRoman emperor e emperor presidinginConstantinople ō logical timeline occur frequently.Forinstance, the 860C (lines 120–1) clearly refers to this biblical passage, which which clearly passage, biblical refersto 860C this (lines 120–1) n ( Apocalypse 223 Daniel 76 n Emperor hasalreadyabdicated.Thatis,the e watershed, after whichimperial restoration παραδώσει . 99r); abdication came tolose itsdirect association particularlyemphasize thei (f Diegesis onnection withtheVictor and d. However, in their stead the “blond races” d. However,intheirsteadthe“blondraces” peror’s sonswiththe“blondraces.”Thatis, Pseudo-Chrysostomos Apocalypse r theadventanddef καὶ Apocalypse of Andreas Salos [14] 2–3). On the use ofthis Pauline verse, see final disintegrationofimperial power.

ἔσται

Diegesis Danielis or παραδώσῃ Edessan Apocalypse,inthe §5.7–10. §5.7–10. Danielis §4.9, , 165;Reinink, 344 Thus,itcanbearguedthata Seven-Hilled Daniel Seven-Hilled vil war.Often,theVictorious a further attempt todelaythe ts thenotionofirreversible ,

Seven-hilled Daniel, τὴν is saidtobesupportedby portrayinternals

eat of theAntichrist. continuetheirpolitical §

βασιλείαν 5.10; Die Syrische Apokalypse ious Em , both of which share which of , both nternal strife that Seven-Hilled Daniel . Moreover ( §2.22, and Last and §2.22, αὐτοῦ peror’s sons. , thesons Diegesis ) τῷ , the

Last trife θεῷ 341 342 .

CEU eTD Collection Pseudo-Methodius arrangement. Allthissu end tothetetrarchy, followed byquarrelsome internal 347 346 345 Apocalypse andthefirstGreekredaction.Themotifof the two(orattimes three)witnessesfr Theapocalyptic textsexamined hereclearl elements from the subsequently lost. with ConstantinetheGreat.Theassociationof theLastEmperorwithasecondGideonwas on effectivemilitary leadershipshifted thetypol was workedout.Themotifofthebridle,re that theassociation ofthe LastRomanEmperor Alexander theGreat. continuously consideredtobetheeschatologi reversal ofanimperial rise.Inthisresp integ which wassimilarly notoriousforproducingcrises. Alexander’s empire. Also,onemight four generals(orsons). devastating civilwar.Behindthisdevelopment the descendantsofVictoriousEmperor Already in the with themotif oftheLastRoman Emperor’ssons. an alliancewiththeLatinW The Syriac, on the other hand, mentions Alexander’s four general (i.e., the Dagron, promot of Sicilian apocalypses origin that Itistelling Apocalypse rity oftheempirerity ofAlexandertheGreator Originally, Constantine the Great wa Furthermore, thenotionofsonsdevelopsin Constantinople imaginaire Constantinople [9]1.The Greek speaks ab Seven-Hilled Daniel . I Revelation ofJohn t wast inthe

then thefinal disintegration of theem ggests thattheprocessofi 346 The est, est,

, 328. , 328. which predatestheeraofCr Edessan Apocalypse diadochi strife. IfConstantineestablishe out Alexander’s four sons ( sons four Alexander’s out , butalsoin supposehereanallusiontothepre-Constantiniantetrarchy, intothePseudo-Methodian scheme. Theintroductionof ect, onecanseethat theLastRoman Emperor om 11:3–13canalreadybeseeninthe Rev wererenownedforquarre s onlyimplicitlyaddressedinthe e the notion ofa military Latinfactions.e the with notion alliance 77 quarrel among themselves, whichresultsina ference toa(re)united ogical focus awayfrom Gideonandreplacedit Last Daniel cal antitypeofavictoriousConstantineand topos might liethenotionofAlexanderGreat’s thatofConstantinetheGreatwaspreceded or 345 y showanincreasingte mperial

347 andin the with theimage offirstChristian emperor to atheme that accounts for internal strife. thefoulwoman, thenotionofsinking Itbecomes clear thatthecohesionand οἱ

τέσσαρες declinecame tobeunderstoodasa andtheAndreasSalosApocalypse pire wouldbedue diadochi usades, appearstobeconnected d orderandunitybyputtingan Gospels oftheTwelveApostles

παῖδες ). ). Church, andtheemphasis ling overtheremains of αὐτοῦ ndency tointroduce ), who inherit his rule. rule. his ), inherit who to atetrarchial Apocalypse of topos Edessan was

CEU eTD Collection Βοῦς (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1975), 404, 6–7. 6–7. 404, 1975), Gruyter, de Walter (Berlin: Historia Choniatae eschatologicaldrama. end what is meant hereis the New Rome, i.e., Constantinople. However, Constantinople plays no part in the (V.4). These mentions are adjacent to references toThes would survivetheeschatologicalfloodthat instan shape thecity’surbanplanningandou X Itisimportant torecognize that theGreeka of thecapital. seven consecutiverulersprovidefurt 355 354 352 351 350 349 devulge since “xeros” means“dry.” very name might havecontributed events. the Ox. that the Ishmaelites willenter through theXylokerkosgateandadvance asfar asthe Forum of redaction containsaninterpol would eventuallycom on JerusalemandtheNearEast,allByzantineapocal of theSeven-HilledConstantinople,and the divisionofLastRomanEm Hochverrat,” 193–5. 193–5. Hochverrat,” Felicitas Schmieder (Berlin: Brandes, Walter de Gruyte Zeit,”in mittelbyzantinischen Ξηρόλαφος preventive measure to ensure that crusading Germans Germans crusading that ensure to measure preventive Apocalypse Mango, Cf. inmind. audience aConstantinopolitan with composed City were Seven-Hilled tothe much attention devote that apocalypses the that suggests in Italso fateofthe imperial capital. lessinterested the were slightly apocalypses (although inmodified form, 353 348 ē Berger, “Das apokalyptis into motif mooing Ox was inserted The which the of to up asa walled be theXylokerkos issaid ordered to have 1203–1204) (r. 1185–1195, II Isaac Mostnotably, Inthe Syriac SeeAlbrecht Berger, “Das apokalyp The apocalypses that are presumably of Sicilian origin (i.e., origin Sicilian are of that presumably apocalypses The Last Daniel Apocalypse rolophos, thatis,theseventhhillofConsta

βοήσει ce, the X Byzantium, the Empire of New Rome As AlbrechtBergerand Wolfram Brandeshaveproperly remarked thisprophecy came to 350 ) pay only moderate attention to Constantinople. This to Constantinople. attention ) moderate pay only Asaresult,theXylokerkosgate,

κραυγάσει σφόδρα [13] 9. 9. [13] §70. Cf. §70. 348 Apocalypse ē While the Syriac rolophos waslateronregardedastheonlyConstantinopolitanremain which

καὶ ) became astandardmotif reap Diegesis Danielis§9.4–6and Andreas Salos Apocalypse

Ξηρόλοφος che Konstantinopel,” 144. e aboutintheimperiale capital. (and in its Greek redaction) t καὶ

Endzeiten: Eschatologie in den monotheistischen Weltreligionen monotheistischen in den Eschatologie Endzeiten: ὁ

Ξηρόλ

ation whichrelatesth

θρηνήσει tische Konstantinopel. Topographisches in apokalyptischen Schriften der Schriften in apokalyptischen Topographisches tische Konstantinopel. < Apocalypse does toitscharacterization as th ο 355 > her instancesofthistendency. , 207–8. , 207–8. φος Asaresultofthisapocalyptic ). tlook throughoutByzantinehistoryandbeyond.

κραυγάσει would annihilate theimperial city. 351 would not enter the city;seeJan L. van Dieten, ed. 78 pearing, forinstance,inthe the salonica, Illyria, and the Bl Illyria, the and salonica, here are references to“R ntinople, becam r, 2008), 136–7 and Brandes, “Kaiserprophetien und und “Kaiserprophetien Brandes, and 136–7 2008), r, Apocalypse

καὶ pocalypses show amarked interest inthe fate not concentrateonConstantinoplebutrather e siege of Constantinople and the prophesy e siegeofConstantinopleandtheprophesy ypses surveyedherefocusontheeventsthat Forum Bovis

τὸ Daniel

indicates, as one might expect,thatprovincial σταθόριν 349 [13] 9,4–5 ( Asshownabove,thefirstGreek καὶ ) and in εἴπῃ)and (?) e only place escaping thegreat ἔσται e associat , 868B (lines 243–54). 243–54). (lines 868B 352 association,itwassaidthat andthe(alsomentioned) and the the and om τότε ack Sea, whichindicatethat e” (V.8)and“Great Rome”

Seven-Hilled Daniel Βοῦς ed withapocalyptic Pseudo-Chrysostomos Last Daniel 354

peror βοήσει The fact of its , ed. Wolfram Wolfram , ed.

topos σφόδρα §45 ( §45 353 Nicetae into §2.3 §2.3

τότε For καὶ

CEU eTD Collection apocalyptic narrative. Byzantium, Mango, See further 94–5). the(lines Empire of New Rome cities andislands. forget aboutthepossibleinfluenceoforaculartr Roman capitalthetypologicalan Arabs arethe eschatological repetition oftheanci in thePseudo-Methodiantypological history: the GreatFlood, theinvasion oftheMi Additionally, inthe 361 360 359 358 357 356 increasingly linked.First, theemperor wassaid Muslims. Asaresult,the fateofthecapital Constantinople became thenewfocalpointofesch considered theendofworldbeing centuries. Arguably,thecentralrolethatConstantinople tradition wasamplified bytheArab prophecy came tobeunderst Constantinople wasgradually identified withtheSeven-Hilled( Rev 18:21,whichdescribestheeventualsinking sinking oftheimperial capitalin all mention the city’s ultimate submergence into thesea. The the esch a hugestonestoodinthevicinityofX See Seve to the reference the However, destruction. subsequent be found in the fifth-century Armenian Griechenland und das Meer. Beiträge eines Sy 868B (lines 243–54). See also Preger, ed. ed. SeealsoPreger, 243–54). (lines 868B Konstantinopel,” 139–46. 139–46. Konstantinopel,” the with megalopolis the Byzantine of identification (Mannheim: Bibliopolis, 1999), 127–8. 1999), Bibliopolis, (Mannheim: See Vasiliev, “Medieval Ideas of the End of the World,” 472–6. of the World,” 472–6. End ofthe Ideas See “Medieval Vasiliev, Ofcourse, Constantinople appeared in earlie Forexamples, see Wolfram Brandes,“Das „Meer“ als Motiv identif earliestpossible of the best To myknowledge Constantinopolitanarum Originum Scriptores ed. Preger, Theodor Diegesis Danielis Diegesis DiTommaso atological storiesof 360 Diegesis Danielis Infact,Muslim eschatologyfocusedonthecapital’seventualcaptureand , The §9.4–6, §9.4–6, 359 BookDaniel of Apocalypse

§ niel 12.19, 12.19, the cityanditscaptures.” ,

ood asatestimony a Daniel Da of Pseudo-Methodiustherearethreecataclysmic eventsinworld to theeschatologicalscheme wa

, 10 titype of the Great Flood. At the same time, one should not titype oftheGreatFlood.Atsame time, not oneshould Scriptores Originum Constantinopolitanarum Originum Scriptores Seventh Vision ofDaniel Seventh expeditionsagainstConstanti 2–3and καὶ framework onecaneasilyspecul καὶ dependant onitsfallintoMuslim hands.

ἔσται mposionsFrankfurt in im Dezember 1996 r apocalypses aswell.Forinstance, inthe

ē ἔσ rolophos whichcontained“thegravedhistoriesabout and theactions oftheLast Roman Emperor became ται Mango, Mango, §3.10, §4.24, 79 diantes, andfinallytheIshmaelite conquest. Seen , toarrivefromtheEastcapital( Last Daniel the sinking of various aditions whichprophesythesinkingofvarious ent Midianites,sotooisthesubmergence ofthe n-Hilled City is equivocal and might and alsoreferto Rome. City isequivocal n-Hilled ication of Constantinople with the Seven-Hilled City can Citycan the Seven-Hilled with ofConstantinople ication Seven-Hilled city, see Berger, “Das apokalyptische “Dasapokalyptische Seven-Hilled city, see Berger, of Seven-Hilled Babylon.Du atological expectations Byzan bout theultimate des in der byzantinischen apokalyptischen Literatur,” in in Literatur,” apokalyptischen in byzantinischen der 356 came toplayintheByzantine apocalyptic

§70, and Andreas and §70, Daniel SalosLast Apocalypse , which tells about the city’s wickedness and city’s and the wickedness , tellsabout which tium, the NewRome tium, the Empire of (Leipzig: Teubner, 1907), Vol. 2, 176–7 (§47). (§47). 176–7 Vol. 2, 1907), Teubner, (Leipzig: , 203. However, it was not in the focus of the 357 , andthe The development tointegrate the s, inalllikelihood,motivated by Heptalophos) City,thisbiblical nople intheseventhandeighth Andreas SalosApocalypse ate thatjustastheMuslim . Vol.2, 190 (§77). tiny ofthecapital. of bothChristiansand , ed. E. Chrysos etal. Oracle of Baalbek 361 e tothefactthat Consequently, , 203. the , 203. On Diegesis 358 14 14

CEU eTD Collection Byzantium that conditionedByzantineeschatological thought forcenturies.AsMagdalino putit: 364 363 362 apocalyptic tradition theLastRoman Emperor motif promoted “ struggle withIslam. Thatistosay,bybeco of theseventh-centuryapocalyp application of thePseudo-Me perpetuation oftheexpectationsandsentimen well-defined repertoireofapocal apocalyptists usedandreusedcertaineschatological schemes andmotifs belonged that toafairly Podskalsky putit: restoration bytheVictoriousEm the eschatologicaldeclineofRoman Empi fragment theLastRomanEmperor motifanddelaytheultimate endoftheworldbyprolonging In conclusion, itcanbeassertedthat theapoc Apocalypse and abdicate withouttheimmediate evaporation more andassociatedwithConstantinople. imperial restoration.Atthesame time,thef Victorious Emperor’sfunctionbecame increasingl apocalypse, hewould evenberevealed within thecityitself (LastDaniel emperor inConstantinople ( Danielis Magdalino, “ Magdalino, Alexander, “Byzantium andthe Mi Podskalsky, In theattempt toworkonconceptualmode Verewigung desschonRealiserten. hierarchischer Strukturen,sondernProlongation,FestigungundAusbau,kurz: Herrschaftsverhältnisse, nichtrevolutionä Im BrennpunktderErwartunglagdarum nichtdieUmkehrder §5. neverreallygotoverth 5–8) inordertofendoffthebesieging Ishmaelites, thenhewassaidtobecrowned Byzantinische Reichseschatologie Byzantinische The History of the Future the of History The Last Daniel theSeven-HilledCityoutli Seven-Hilled Daniel

thodian LastRoman Emperor gration of Literary Works,” 60. 60. Works,” Literary of gration yptic imagery. Thepersistentus tic sentiment, whichwascharac ,” 31. e factthattheworlddidnot peror wastheprotractionof , 102. Cf. Brandes, “Endzeitvorstellungen und Lebenstrost,” 58. 362 of imperialpower. Inthecaseof unction ofrepresentingth

80 ming avitalandindispensabletheme ofthe alyptic textsstudiedhereshowatendencyto ts theyevoked.Consequently,thecontinued Asaresult,theLastRoman Emperorcould §2.7,LastDaniel re Utopie alsanarchisches Korrektiv y centeredonthedefenseofcapitaland re. What mattered mostafter theimperial ls toprolongtheRoman Empire,Byzantine ved itsLastRoman Emperor. topos end withtheArabconquest.” politico-religious irredentism” e of specific motifs led to the contributedto terized byaneschatological imperial order. As Gerhard §49),and,inatleastone e Roman Empire became §47).Thatis,the the protraction Andreas Salos “In aword, 364 363

CEU eTD Collection messianic figure. At thesame time, therealsoappeartohave 366 365 the earlyByzantinea ambitious approachIhavecontri that operateinadiscourseenvironment whic additionally demonstrate thatapocalyptic Mahdī so far. Apart from thehistorical aspect, atopicalcomparison of reveal stillmoreaboutthegene for thefirst time, aMuslim redeemer figure who wouldrestore Islam toitsinitial perfection. that al-Mukht al-Ḥ Methodius, theSh the Mahd inter-religious context. investigated. Moreover,thedevelopm Victorious Emperor whohas“si the “sleeping snake”( Emperor notably, theLeonineoracles need tobeexamin for furtherresearch.Forone,itisimperativetocontinueevaluatethesourcematerial.Most Vol. 2, ed. Bernard McGinn (New York: Continuum, 1998), 248–51. 248–51. 1998), Continuum, York: (New McGinn Bernard 2,ed. Vol. Ibid., 247. See also Saïd Amir the in “IslamicApocalypticism Arjomand, anafiyya tobethe Mahd might elucidatenotonlycer W

topos. Furthermore,certainmotifs stillneedto ī ith alltheabovesaid,muchisstillleftun , the“rightly guidedone.” Justbefore the composition of the ā r’s usageofthetermMahd 366 ī ‘ supra ī Thatis,thehistorical context ofthe al-Mukht pocalyptic tradition. Seven-Hilled Daniel The Muslim equivalentofthePse n.61. ī , that is,thetrueheir totheMu

ā r, whorevoltedagainstUm sis oftheLastRoman Emperormo gns inscribedonhisfinger”( buted herebyinvest ent oftheLast tain motifs usedinByzantineapocalypsesbutmight ī waspregnantwithmessian topoi §1.17, h doesnotknowhermetic demarcation. Tothis 81 (especiallypolemic ones)arerhetorical devices been Jewish expectations forthe appearance ofa Classic Period,” in The En ed fortheircontributiontotheLastRoman mentioned. Iwillhavetoleavevariousissues Last Daniel Emperor motif needstobeconsidered inits igating the LastRoman Emperor motif in beexplained. Forinstance,themotifs of Apocalypse ofPseudo-Methodiusmight udo-Methodian LastRomanEmperor is ayyad rule,proclaimedayyad Mu slim community.Ithasbeenargued Daniel §25),andthedescriptionof the motifs associated with the tif thanhasbeenappreciated ic connotationspromoting, καὶ cyclopedia ofApocalypticism

Apocalypse ofPseudo- ἔσται §2.1)needtobe ḥammad b. 365

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CEU eTD Collection Caquot, André.“LeKebraNagastetle Brock, SebastianP.“SyriacSource ______. “KaiserprophetienundHochverrat.Apokal ______. “DieBelagerungKonstantinopels717/718als apokalyptischesEreignis.Zueiner ______. “Das‘Meer’alsMotivinderbyzantinis Brandes, Wolfram ______. Collins, John J.“Introduction: TowardstheMorphology of aGenre.” Charlesworth, James H.,ed.TheOldTestamentPseudepigrapha. ______. “NorthMesopotamia intheLate ______. “SyriacViewsonEmergentIslam.”In London: Variorum, 1992). in idem, Berlin: Walter deGruyter,2008. monotheistischen Weltreligionen als MediumantikaiserlicherPropaganda.”In Verlag, 2007. Ewald Kislinger,AndreasKülzer,Mari Mediterranea. FestschriftfürJohannesKoderzum65.Geburtstag Interpolation im griechischenText der Pseudo-Methodios-Apokalypse.”In ed. E.Chrysosetal.,119–31.Mannheim: Bibliopolis,1999. Griechenland unddasMeer.BeiträgeeinesSy 1991. Jahrhundert).” In Studies 2nd ed.GrandRapids,MI: Eerdmans, 1998. The MorphologyofaGenre Testaments française pourlesetudeséthiopiennes,1994. Paris, 24-28août1988,ed.ClaudeLepagean éthiopiennes, volumeI:Actes Penkā University Press,1982. Society yē The ApocalypticImagination:AnIntroduc , 2 (1976):17–36. ’s R ed. GautierH.A.Juynboll,9–21,1 Studies inSyriacChristianity:History,Literature,Theology Studies . Vol.1.NewYork:Doubleday,1983. . “Endzeitvorstellungen undLebenstrost in mittelbyzantinischer Zeit(7.-9. ī š Mell Varia III ē .” Jerusalem StudiesinArabicandIslam (PoikilaBizantina11),9–62.Bonn:Dr.RudolfHabeltGmbH, s forSeventh-CenturyHistory.” (1979): 1–20. de laXeconférence internatio , ed.Wolfram Brandes, s RévélationsduPseudo-Méthode.”In 85 a A.Stassinopoulou,65–91.Vienna:Böhlau Seventh Century: mposions in Frankfurt imDezember1996, d ÉtienneDelage,331–35. Studies ontheFirst 99–203. Carbondale:Southern Illinois yptische SchriftenundKaiservaticinien tion toJewishApocalypticLiterature chen apokalyptischenLiteratur.”In Endzeiten: Eschatologieinden Felicitas Schmieder, 157–200. Byzantine andModernGreek nale desétudeséthiopiennes, Apocalypticc Literatureand 9(1987):51–74.(Reprint Book XVofJohnBar Semeia Century of Islamic ofIslamic Century , ed.KlausBelke, 14: , Vol.II,51–74.

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CEU eTD Collection ______. ______. “TheRomanceofJuliantheApostateas ______. “Pseudo-Methodius:AConcep Rydén, Lennart.“ Russell, DavidS.TheMethodandMessageofJew Ruggieri, Vincenzo, F. Nethercott. “TheMetr Roggema, Barbara.“Muslims intheChristianPortrayalofIslam asCrypto-Idolaters–ATheme Richter, Siegfried G. ______. “FollowingtheDoctrineofDemons. ______. “Pseudo-MethodiusunddieLegendevom römischen Endkaiser.”In ______. “TyrannenundMuslime.DieGestaltung ______. “Deredessenische‘Pseudo-Methodius’.” 45. Apocalypses.” In Averil Cameron,LawrenceI.Conrad, I: ProblemsintheLiterarySources–StudiesLateAntiquityandEarly Islam Problems inthe Literary SourceMaterial.” Xristian Paul Rey-Coquais,75–86.Damascus: InstitutfrançaisdeDamas, 1992. christlichen Orients11.Wies the NearEast Methodios.” InScriptasignavocis:StudiesaboutScripts,ScripturesandLanguagesin Jahrbuch derösterreich in ‘AbbasidIraq,ed.DavidThom in theNearEast.”InChristians atthe Hear 127–38. Louvain:Peeters,2005. Islam.” InCulturesof Conversion,ed.J.N.Bremmer, W.J.vanBekkum, A.L.Molendijk, Abuse ofEschatology Forsten, 1986. H.L.J. Vanstiphout,K.Jongeling,F.L Philadelphia: Westminster Press,1964. Last SasanianandEarlyIslamicRule Welkenhuysen, 82–111.Leuven:LeuvenUniversityPress,1988. “Early Christian Reactions totheBuilding of the Dome of theRockin Jerusalem skij Vostok Zum AufbauderAndreasSalos-Apokalypse. , presented toJ.H.HopsersbyhisPupils,ColleaguesandFriends Studien zurChristianisierungNubiens La SyriedeByzanceàl' 2,No.8(2001):227–41(Reprintinidem, in theMiddle Ages ischen Byzantinistik baden: ReichertVerlag,2002. as, 1–18.Leiden:Brill,2003. . Aldershot:AshgateVariorum, 2005). 149–87. Princeton:DarwinPress,1992. t ofHistoryinResponse 91 eemhuis, G.J.Reinink,163–175.Groningen:E. , ed.WernerVerbeke,Daniel Islam, VII-VIIIsiècles opolitan CityofSyllion anditsChurches,”

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