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How Do Black Female Athletes Perceive, Negotiate, and Reconcile the Social Expectations of Femininity?

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How Do Black Female Athletes Perceive, Negotiate, and Reconcile the Social Expectations of Femininity? HOW DO BLACK FEMALE ATHLETES PERCEIVE, NEGOTIATE, AND RECONCILE THE SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS OF FEMININITY? A Thesis Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE by Amanda D. Manu August 2017 Thesis Approvals: Dr. Michael Sachs, Thesis Advisor, Department of Kinesiology Dr. Lois A. Butcher-Poffley, Department of Kinesiology Dr. Leeja Carter, Assistant Professor; Director, PEAK Program, LIU-Brooklyn © Copyright 2017 by Amanda D. Manu All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT Faced with a unique oppression due to their racial and gender identity, a great disservice has been done to Black female athletes (BFAs) within the sporting literature as they have historically been silenced and rendered invisible, either in failure to include them in research, or in fragmenting their identities along racial or gender lines, thus presenting incomplete and inaccurate representations of their experiences. Employing a theoretical framework grounded in Black feminist standpoint theory, this study explored BFAs’ conceptualizations of femininity and microaggressions, as well as how their racial, gender, class, and athletic identities affect them within and outside of sporting environments. This study sought BFAs at 83 Division I institutions, asking them to complete a survey including the Bem Sex Role Inventory-Short (BSRI-S), the Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS), and the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (BRIAS). Six BFAs opted-in to a qualitative interview. These BFAs presented multiple interpretations of femininity, discussed experiences with microaggressions, and spoke to how they navigated various contexts given their racial, gender, and athletic identities. While identifying hardships of being BFAs on college campuses and Black women in the United States, interview participants also discussed how their ability to withstand the unique mistreatment of BFAs and Black women left them feeling empowered and resilient. Implications for practitioners and researchers are also included. INDEX WORDS: Black Female Athletes, Femininity, Black Womanhood, Black Feminism, Standpoint Theory, Intersectionality, Microaggressions iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For this journey: God. For the patience and positivity, for willing me over the finish line, and for believing me capable of accomplishing this and much more: Dr. Michael Sachs, Dr. Lois Butcher-Poffley, Dr. Leeja Carter! For reading and re-reading this thesis, long discussions about everything and nothing, the necessary and unnecessary distractions, the support, and the love: Sadé Manu, Colin Blake, LeTia Green, Anthony Rivera, Thomas Beauford, III, Jennifer Hodge, Annike Sprow, Tequilla Williams, Lamine Gueye, Miriam Merrill, Jen Ciaccio, Aisha Bhimla, Victor Espinoza, Ahmed El-Razi. For the vulnerability, honesty, candidness, and trust: B2, C3, E5, F6, H8, I9. For participating: All Black female athletes. For the Oglesby-Snyder Grant: The Association for Applied Sport Psychology. For the Dr. Carole A. Oglesby Endowed Scholarship: Dr. Carole Oglesby, Deborah Slaner Larkin, Temple University. For the tools: Dr. Sandra Bem, Dr. Janet Helms, Dr. Kevin Nadal. For caring more than required: Dr. Besenia Rodriguez, Dr. Allyson Brathwaite-Gardner, Dr. Sheri-Ann Cowie, Dr. Dionne Nickerson. For keeping me sane: Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. For the inspiration: Zadie Smith. For literally everything: Marion Fontaine. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................2 Research Questions ..................................................................................................3 Limitations ...............................................................................................................3 Delimitations ............................................................................................................4 Definition of Terms..................................................................................................4 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................10 Theoretical Foundation ..........................................................................................11 Race and Gender Stereotypes and Black Womanhood..........................................13 Hegemonic Femininity...........................................................................................20 Whiteness ...............................................................................................................22 Microaggressions ...................................................................................................25 3. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................26 Research Design.....................................................................................................26 Participants .............................................................................................................26 v Instrumentation ......................................................................................................27 Procedure ...............................................................................................................29 Data Analysis .........................................................................................................30 Bias Statement .......................................................................................................31 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................................33 Bem Sex Role Inventory-Short (BSRI-S) ..............................................................33 Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS) .............................................36 Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (BRIAS) ......................................................37 Qualitative Interview .............................................................................................38 Femininity ..................................................................................................39 Microaggressions .......................................................................................49 Navigating Identities ..................................................................................58 Being BFAs ................................................................................................63 Being Black Women ..................................................................................67 Discussion ..............................................................................................................72 Implications for Practitioners .....................................................................89 Implications for Researchers......................................................................90 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................................................94 Summary ................................................................................................................94 Conclusion .............................................................................................................96 Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................97 vi REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................98 APPENDICES A. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW .......................................................................113 B. REMS SCORES BY PARTICIPANT, ATHLETIC CONFERENCE, AND SPORT .............................................................................................................115 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. BSRI-S Mean, Median, Standard Deviation vs. Bem’s Sample ………………. 35 2. REMS Mean and Standard Deviation vs. Nadal’s Sample………………….…. 37 3. BFAs’ BRIAS Scores ……..……....…………………………………………… 38 4. Description of Participants……………………………...........………………… 39 5. REMS Scores by Participant……..……....…………………………………… 115 6. REMS Scores by Athletic Conference…………………………….......……....116 7. REMS Scores by Sport……………………………..…...…………………… 116 viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION “The most disrespected person in America is the Black woman. The most unprotected person in America is the Black woman. The most neglected person in America is the Black woman.” – Malcolm X Black women’s position in the United States within a “matrix of domination characterized by intersecting oppressions” (Collins, 2000, p. 23) has historically resulted in experiences of social, political, and economic exclusion and inequality due to their racial, gender, and class identities (Brown & Keith, 2003; Geronimus, 2001; Geronimus, Hicken, Keene, & Bound, 2006; Hall, Everett, & Hamilton-Mason, 2012; Woods-Giscombé & Lobel, 2008). As a result, they
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