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EX-COMBATANTS and the POST-CONFLICT STATE Challenges of Reintegration

Ex-Combatants and the Post-Conflict State Rethinking Political Violence series Series editor: Roger Mac Ginty, Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Manchester, UK This exciting series provides a space in which to interrogate and challenge much of the conventional wisdom on political violence. Books in the series are at the forefront of research, pushing forward new debate in the field of political violence without rehashing clichés about security, violence and ‘terrorism’. Authors from both the critical and orthodox perspectives use the book series to reappraise some of the fundamental questions facing societies on how to deal with and interpret organised violence. Many of the books in the series are comparative, draw on fieldwork, and use insights from a variety of methodologies.

Titles include: Linda Åhäll and Laura J. Shepherd (editors) GENDER, AGENCY AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE Stephen Gibson, Simon Mollan (editors) REPRESENTATIONS OF PEACE AND CONFLICT Jaremey McMullin EX-COMBATANTS AND THE POST-CONFLICT STATE Challenges of Reintegration

Rethinking Political Violence series Series Standing Order ISBN 978-0230-24376-7 You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, Ex-Combatants and the Post-Conflict State Challenges of Reintegration

Jaremey R. McMullin Lecturer, School of International Relations, University of St Andrews, UK

Palgrave macmillan © Jaremey R. McMullin 2013 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2013 978-0-230-29099-0 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the . Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the , the , Europe and other countries ISBN 978-1-349-33179-6 ISBN 978-1-137-31293-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137312938 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of . For my parents This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of Tables and Figure viii Acknowledgements ix List of Abbreviations xii Introduction: Reintegration into What? 1 1 Conceptualizing Reintegration Challenges 17 2 The Advent of the Ex-Combatant: A Critical History of 45 Reintegration 3 Namibia: Jobs for Some 78 4 : Cash for All 116 5 : Trained for Jobs that Weren’t There 157 6 : Reintegration 2.0? 197 Conclusion: ‘Like Everyone Else’ 233 Notes 251 Bibliography 292 Index 322

vii List of Tables and Figure

Tables

2.1 Estimated Combatants as Percentage of Country 64 Population 2.2 Estimated Combatant Deaths as Share of Total Deaths 66 for Selected Conflicts 2.3 Comparison of Reintegration Benefits in Mozambique, 69 Sierra Leone, the US, and the UK 3.1 Job Placement Eligibility by Combatant Group in 103 Namibia 6.1 Number of Combatants Killed as Percentage of Number 205 of Combatants Disarmed 6.2 Number of Weapons Collected as Percentage of Number 205 of Combatants Disarmed C.1 Comparative Summary of Beneficiaries and Costs 234 C.2 Monetary Value of Reintegration Assistance 234

Figure

5.1 Power Point Slide, ‘Lessons from Sierra Leone: 175 Three Targeting Options’

viii Acknowledgements

First, I would like to thank Roger Mac Ginty, Harriet Barker and every- one at Palgrave Macmillan for their advice and patience with this book, and Jennifer Welsh and Jane Boulden, who supervised the doc- toral thesis from which this book is adapted. The field research I conducted was generously supported by several grants. The Department of Politics and International Relations at Oxford helped to fund two separate trips to , in part through its Cyril Foster and Related Funds. The Warden and Fellows of New College at Oxford supported my research by trusting me very early on in my doctoral career with a Junior Research Fellowship. The UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the Marshall Aid Commem- oration Commission funded my research while I was a Marshall Scholar at Oxford. At the Marshall Commission, Mary Denyer, Natasha Bevan, Catherine Reeve, and Lisa Rothenberg deserve special thanks. The Department of Operations, Peacekeeping Best Practices Unit, funded and facilitated research in Liberia in 2007, and the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of funded research in Liberia in 2009 and New York City in 2011. The University of St Andrews funded several trips to New York and Washington, DC. I am indebted to each and every person who agreed to be inter- viewed for this book. I could not have written it without their insights and their willingness to share their time and experience with me. Locating and contacting interviewees was a task made easier by the kindness of several people over many years. Angela MacIntyre set up meetings at the Institute for Security Studies in . Everyone there was immensely helpful to the planning of my subsequent research in Namibia and Mozambique. Monica Koep of USAID in performed bighearted detective work on my behalf to iden- tify the ministers involved with the various assistance programs for ex- combatants there. Anthea Zervos and Sophie Raseman of the National Vision for Sierra Leone met with me in New York and to share names and phone numbers. Debbie Palmer and Mark White of DFID helped me locate additional Sierra Leonean contacts. Salomão Mungoi and Jacinta Jorge of Propaz in Mozambique set up interviews with ex-combatants in Moamba and at AMODEG headquarters in

ix x Acknowledgements

Maputo, and Salomão was kind enough to act as both driver and trans- lator during most of these encounters. Most of all, I would like to thank Ana Leão for sitting down with me in Pretoria to share work and contacts in Mozambique that had taken her months to compile. Special thanks go to the UNDPKO’s OROLSI/DDR Section and UNMIL/RRR for their invaluable assistance in Liberia in 2007 and 2009. At the DDR Section in New York, Ayaka Suzuki has kindly included me in a few of the Section’s review missions, and Simon Yazgi and Christopher O’Donnell accompanied me on two missions (to Liberia and , respectively). Thanks also to Lotta Hagman, Elizabeth Kissam, Nikolai Rogosaroff, Sergiusz Sidorowicz, Carolina Gasiorowski, and Bruno Donat in New York. In , special thanks to Andrea Tamagnini, Theresa Krafft, Doris Kleffner, Hanna Matti, and Sofia Warttmann for facilitating my two visits there. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank those who gener- ously provided accommodation whilst I was in the field: Neil and Ian Rankin and their family in Johannesburg, Rob and Karen Moffett in Windhoek, and Herb Treger in . In Washington: Rob Coppedge, John Colleran, Brett Bunkall, and Stefania Lucamante and Bill Erb. And in New York, for housesitting and couch-surfing gigs too numerous to count while I was collecting data and writing, very special thanks to Chelsea Clinton and Marc Mezvinsky, Dan Kaufman, Gabriel Saffioti, Margaret Ryan and Steve Evangelista, Hilary Saccomano and Ryan Lawson, Amber Tamblyn and David Cross, Martin Barna, Patrick McGinnis, Julie Gallucci, Jon Barrett, and Jason Schechter. And to the friends farther afield who put me up while I was completing chapters: Jordon Nardino, Meredith Masters and Stephen David Coy, and Oleg and Heather Nodelman and their adorable girls, Bodhi and Savannah. Thanks also to Tyler Kunz for providing the soundtrack to my chapter writing. I am extremely grateful to all those who helped to acquaint me with the scenery and people of Namibia, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, and Liberia, especially Jennifer Lalley and Dave van Smeerdijk in Windhoek, and Nicole Goldin and Mark Rorich in Maputo. I would like to thank Ryan Piers Williams and Arthur Boutellis for fascinating and insightful conversations about veterans and DDR (Ryan for his insights into American vets and Arthur for his experience and knowledge about DDR in Africa). Both have influenced my thinking on the subject and acted as occasional sounding boards for ideas during coffees and meals in New York. Thanks also to Neta Crawford who sug- gested texts and frameworks that were extremely helpful in connecting Acknowledgements xi the world of DDR to veterans across different contexts. My thesis examiners, Michael Pugh and S. Neil MacFarlane, gave much appreci- ated early advice. I am also grateful to Alpaslan Özerdem and Sukanya Podder for inviting me along to a workshop discussion at the University of York in 2008 that was incredibly formative – thanks to them and to the other participants that day: Krijn Peters, Josh Hart, and João Gomes Porto. I owe a debt of gratitude to all of my colleagues at St Andrews, but I would especially like to single out those who either read draft chapters or else contributed ideas: Ali Watson, Gurchathen Sanghera, Michelle Burgis-Kasthala, Jeffrey Murer, and Chris Ogden. Thanks also to my present and former colleagues in the Center for Peace and Conflict Studies, especially Oliver Richmond, Andy Williams, Ian Taylor, and Caron Gentry. I would never have found time to write without the unfailing support of the School of International Relations office staff and so a special thank you to all of them – Lynne Dalrymple, Gillian Fleming, Wendy Boyter, and Mary Kettle. Chris Bradley generously and foolishly agreed to edit early chapter drafts. He is a fine editor, a gifted writer, and a great friend. Any mis- takes, however, are entirely my own. Finally, I would like to thank all of my family and friends for their love and support. List of Abbreviations

AAs Assembly Areas ACLU American Civil Liberties Union ACODERMO Associação dos Combatentes desfavorecidos da Renamo (Mozambique) ADEMIMO Mozambican Association of Disabled Soldiers AfD Arms for Development Program (Sierra Leone) AFL Armed Forces of Liberia AFRC Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (Sierra Leone) AMODEG Mozambican Association of the War Demobilized ANC African National Congress () APC All People’s Congress (Sierra Leone) BPD Banco Popular de Desenvolvimento (Mozambique) CAFF Children Associated with Fighting Forces CAII Creative Associates International, Inc. CCF Ceasefire Commission (Mozambique) CCFADM Joint Commission for the Formation of the Mozambique Defence Force CCN Council of Churches of Namibia CDF Civil Defense Forces (Sierra Leone) CEIP Community Education Investment Program (Sierra Leone) CEP Community Empowerment Project CER Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches Internationales () CIA Central Intelligence Agency (US) CIVPOL Civilian Police (United Nations) CoD (Namibia) CORE Reintegration Commission (Mozambique) CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement CRP Community Reintegration Programme (DFID, Sierra Leone) CWC Community Welfare Committee (Liberia) DBC Development Brigade Corporation (Namibia) DDA Department for Disarmament Affairs DDR Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration DEP Delayed Entry Program (US)

xii List of Abbreviations xiii

DFID Department for International Development (United Kingdom) DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations DRC Democratic of the Congo DSRSG Deputy Special Representative to the Secretary-General EC European Commission ECOMOG Monitoring Group of the Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EDTRP Emergency Demobilization and Transitional Reintegration Project (Burundi) ELCIN Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia EPS Sandinista People’s Army (Nicaragua) ES/NCDDR Executive Secretariat of the NCDDR (Sierra Leone) EU European Union FAA Angolan Armed Forces FADM Mozambique Defence Force FAM Forças Armadas Moçambicanas FDI Foreign Direct Investment FLS Front Lines States FMLN Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional (El Salvador) FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique FSLI Food Supply for Local Initiatives (Liberia) FTR Family Tracing and Reunification Program GDP GoSL Government of Sierra Leone GPA General Peace Agreement (Mozambique) GTZ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit () HoFO Head of Field Office ICCs Interim Care Centers (Sierra Leone) ICG International Crisis Group ICISS International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty ICJ International Court of Justice ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IDDRS Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Standards IDMP Integrated Diamond Management Program (Sierra Leone) xiv List of Abbreviations

IDP Internally Displaced Person IFIs International Financial Institutions ILO International Labour Organization IMATT International Military Advisory and Training Team (Sierra Leone) IMF International Monetary Fund IMT Interim Management Teams (Liberia) IOM International Organization for Migration IP Implementing Partner IPA International Peace Academy IRIN Integrated Regional Information Network (United Nations) IRS Information and Referral Service (Mozambique) JIU Joint Implementation Unit (Liberia) JMAC Joint Mission Analysis Cell (United Nations) JROTC Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (US) LAC Legal Assistance Centre (Namibia) LEEP Liberian Emergency Employment Program LICUS Low Income Countries under Stress Trust Fund () LIIP Labor-Intensive Infrastructure Program (Liberia) LMA Action LNP Liberian National Police LURD Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy MDRP Multi-Country Demobilization and Reintegration Program MDTF Multi-Donor Trust Fund MET Ministry of Environment and (Namibia) MILOBs Military Observers (United Nations) MINUGUA United Nations Mission for the Verification of Human Rights in Guatemala MLRR Ministry of Lands, Resettlement, and Rehabilitation MODEL Movement for Democracy in Liberia MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de MRP Military Reintegration Program (Sierra Leone) MSA Monthly Subsistence Allowance (Liberia) MTU Motorcycle Taxi Union NaCSA National Committee for Social Action (Sierra Leone) NAMPOL Namibian Police NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization List of Abbreviations xv

NCDDR National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (Sierra Leone) NCDDRR National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (Liberia) NCRRR National Commission on Resettlement, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction (Sierra Leone) NCWE National Committee on the Welfare of Ex-Combatants (Namibia) NDC Namibia Development Corporation NDF Namibian Defense Force NGO Non-Governmental Organization NLWVA National Liberation War Veterans Association () NNLVA Namibia National Liberation Veterans Association NODEFIC Norwegian Defence International Centre NPFL National Patriotic Front of Liberia NPRC National Provisional Ruling Council (Sierra Leone) NR Nicaraguan Resistance NSHR National Society for Human Rights (Namibia) OAU Organization for African Unity ODA Office for Disarmament Affairs OHCHR Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights ONS Office of National Security (Sierra Leone) ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America ONUMOZ United Nations Operation in Mozambique ONUSAL United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador OP/BP Operational Policy/Bank Procedures (World Bank) ORF Open Reintegration Fund (Mozambique) OROLSI United Nations Office of Rule of Law and Security Institutions OSD Occupational Skills and Development Program (Mozambique) PBC Peacebuilding Commission PBF Peacebuilding Fund PPD Plantation Protection Department (Liberia) PF Provincial Fund (Mozambique) PLAN People’s Liberation Army of Namibia PPC Pearson Peacekeeping Centre () PRC People’s Redemption Council (Liberia) xvi List of Abbreviations

PRIDE Post-Conflict Reintegration Initiative for Development and Empowerment (Sierra Leone) PROPAZ Promotion of Peace (Mozambique) PRSP Reduction Strategy Paper PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder QIP Quick Impact Project RB Reinsertion Benefit (Sierra Leone) RENAMO Resistencia Nacional Moçambicana RFI Request for Information (Liberia) RPTF Rubber Plantation Task Force (Liberia) RRR Reintegration, Rehabilitation and Recovery Section (Liberia) RRR Emergency Repatriation, Resettlement, and Reconstruction Committee (Namibia) RSLAF Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces RSS Reintegration Support Scheme (Mozambique) RUF Revolutionary United Front (Sierra Leone) SADF South African Defense Force SFF Special (Namibia) SGDN Secrétariat Général de la Défense Nationale (France) SIDDR Stockholm Initiative on Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration SIPE Socio Economic Integration Programme for the Ex-Combatants (Namibia) SLA Sierra Leonean Army SLPP Sierra Leone People’s Party SNDC Swedish National Defence College SRP Sinoe Rubber Plantation (Liberia) SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General (United Nations) SSR Security Sector Reform SWAPO South West African People’s Organization SWAPOL South West African Police SWATF South West African Territorial Force TCC Technical Coordination Committee (Sierra Leone) TDRP Transitional Demobilization and Reintegration Program (Greater Great Lakes) TEP Training and Employment Program (Sierra Leone) TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission TSA Transitional Safety Net Allowance (Sierra Leone) ULIMO United Movement for Democracy in Liberia List of Abbreviations xvii

UMCOR United Methodist Committee on Relief UN United Nations UN GAR UN General Assembly Resolution UN SCR UN Security Council Resolution UNAFEM UN Development Fund for Women UNAMA UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan UNAMSIL UN Mission in Sierra Leone UNAVEM UN Angola Verification Mission UNDP UN Development Programme UNDPKO UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (also DPKO) UNGA UN General Assembly UNHCR UN High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF UN Children’s Fund UNIDIR UN Institute for Disarmament Research UNIOSIL UN Integrated Office for Sierra Leone UNITA União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola UNITAF Unified Task Force () UNMIL UN Mission in Liberia UNOCI UN Operation in Côte d’Ivoire UNODC UN Office on Drugs and Crime UNOHAC UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs UNOSOM UN Operation in Somalia UNOWA UN Office for West Africa UNPOL UN Police UNSC UN Security Council UNTAC UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia UNTAG UN Transition Assistance Group (Namibia) USAID United States Agency for International Development VA Department of Veteran’s Affairs (US) WAFF Women Associated with Fighting Forces WFP World Food Programme YRTEP Youth Reintegration Training and Education for Peace Program (Sierra Leone) ZANU-PF Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front

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