Guide of Good Practices for Occupational Radiological Protection in Plutonium

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Guide of Good Practices for Occupational Radiological Protection in Plutonium Not Measurement Sensitive DOE-STD-1128-2008 December 2008 DOE STANDARD GUIDE OF GOOD PRACTICES FOR OCCUPATIONAL RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION IN PLUTONIUM FACILITIES U.S. Department of Energy AREA SAFT Washington, D.C. 20585 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. DOE-STD-1128-2008 This document is available on the Department of Energy Technical Standards Program Web Site at http://www.hss.energy.gov/nuclearsafety/techstds/ ii DOE-STD-1128-2008 Foreword This Technical Standard does not contain any new requirements. Its purpose is to provide a guide to good practice, update existing reference material, and discuss practical lessons learned relevant to the safe handling of plutonium. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) health physicists may adapt the recommendations in this Technical Standard to similar situations throughout the DOE complex. The Standard provides information to assist plutonium facilities in complying with Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 835, Occupational Radiation Protection. The Standard also supplements the DOE 10 CFR 835 Implementation Guide, DOE Orders, and DOE standard, DOE-STD-1098-2008, Radiological Control, (RCS) and has as its sole purpose the protection of workers and the public from the radiological hazards that are inherent in plutonium storage and handling. This Standard has been updated to include provisions in the 2007 amendment to 10 CFR 835. This amendment updated the dosimetric terms and models for assessing radiation doses, both internal and external. Of particular interest for this Standard, the biological transportability of material is now classified in terms of absorption types; F (fast), M (medium) and S (slow). Previously this was classified in terms of material class; D (days), W (weeks) and Y (years). Throughout this Standard, discussions of previous studies describing the biological transportation of material in the body will continue to use D, W and Y, as appropriate. Discussions of other requirements which have not amended their dosimetric terms and models (e.g., DOE Order 5400.5) continue to use the older terminology. This Standard does not include every requirement applicable to every plutonium facility. Individuals responsible for implementing Radiation Protection Programs at plutonium facilities need to be knowledgeable of which requirements (contractual or regulatory) are applicable to their facility. Copies of electronic files of this Technical Standard may be obtained from either the DOE Radiation Safety Home Page Internet site (http://www.hss.energy.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/radiation/ts.html) or the DOE Technical Standards Program Internet site (http://www.hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/techstds/standard/standard.html). iii DOE-STD-1128-2008 This page intentionally left blank. iv U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY GUIDE OF GOOD PRACTICES FOR OCCUPATIONAL RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION IN PLUTONIUM FACILITIES Coordinated and Conducted for the Office of Health, Safety and Security U.S. Department of Energy DOE-STD-1128-2008 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………... 1-1 1.1 PURPOSE AND APPLICABILITY………………………………………….. 1-1 1.2 DEFINITIONS………………………………………………………………... 1-2 1.3 DISCUSSIONS……………………………………………………………….. 1-2 2.0 MANUFACTURE, PROPERTIES, AND HAZARDS……………………………... 2-1 2.1 MANUFACTURE OF PLUTONIUM……………………………………….. 2-1 2.2 NUCLEAR PROPERTIES…………………………………………………... 2-5 2.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES……………………………… 2-9 2.4 RADIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON HUMANS………………………………... 2-16 2.5 RADIATION EFFECTS ON MATERIALS…………………………………. 2-20 2.6 OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS………………………………………………. 2-24 2.7 STORAGE AND CONTAINMENT…………………………………………. 2-31 3.0 RADIATION PROTECTION……………………………………………………….. 3-1 3.1 REGULATION AND STANDARDS………………………………………... 3-1 3.2 RADIATION PROTECTION PROGRAMS…………………………………. 3-2 3.3 RADIOLOGICAL CONTROL ORGANIZATIONS……………………….... 3-13 3.4 STAFFING AND STAFF QUALIFICATIONS……………………………… 3-15 3.5 INSTRUMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS……………………………….. 3-16 3.6 RADIATION SAFETY TRAINING…………………………………………. 3-25 3.7 RADIOLOGICAL RECORDS……………………………………………….. 3-27 3.8 ALARA AND OPTIMIZATION……………………………………………... 3-27 3.9 CONDUCT OF OPERATIONS………………………………………………. 3-33 4.0 CONTAMINATION CONTROL…………………………………………………… 4-1 4.1 AIR CONTAMINATION CONTROL……………………………………….. 4-1 4.2 SURFACE CONTAMINATION CONTROL………………………………... 4-6 4.3 PERSONNEL CONTAMINATION CONTROL…………………………….. 4-19 4.4 PERSONNEL DECONTAMINATION……………………………………… 4-24 5.0 INTERNAL DOSIMETRY…………………………………………………………. 5-1 5.1 INTERNAL DOSE EVALUATION PROGRAM……………………………. 5-1 5.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERNAL HAZARDS……………………… 5-8 5.3 SCOPE OF BIOASSAY PROGRAM…………………………………………5-9 5.4 ESTABLISHING BIOASSAY FREQUENCY………………………………. 5-15 5.5 ADMINISTRATION OF A BIOASSAY PROGRAM………………………. 5-18 5.6 MODELING THE BEHAVIOR OF PLUTONIUM IN THE BODY………... 5-22 5.7 INTERPRETATION OF BIOASSAY RESULTS…………………………… 5-25 5.8 DOSE ASSESSMENT……………………………………………………….. 5-29 5.9 INDICATOR AND ACTION LEVELS……………………………………… 5-35 5.10 RESPONSE TO SUSPECTED INTAKES…………………………………… 5-37 ii DOE-STD-1128-2008 CONTENTS – (Continued) 6.0 EXTERNAL DOSE CONTROL……………………………………………………. 6-1 6.1 DOSE LIMITS………………………………………………………………... 6-1 6.2 RADIATIONS IN PLUTONIUM FACILITIES……………………………... 6-5 6.3 RADIATION DETECTION AND EVALUATION………………………….. 6-19 6.4 EXTERNAL DOSE REDUCTION…………………………………………... 6-33 7.0 NUCLEAR CRITICALITY SAFETY………………………………………………. 7-1 7.1 REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS………………………………………. 7-2 7.2 CRITICALITY CONTROL FACTORS……………………………………… 7-3 7.3 CRITICALITY ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE………………………………… 7-8 7.4 CRITICALITY ALARMS AND NUCLEAR ACCIDENT DOSIMETRY….. 7-10 7.5 RESPONSIBILITIES OF HEALTH PHYSICS STAFF……………………... 7-16 7.6 DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY PLUTONIUM VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS STUDY…………………………………………………………. 7-18 8.0 WASTE MANAGEMENT………………………………………………………….. 8-1 8.1 POTENTIALLY CONTAMINATED WASTES…………………………….. 8-1 8.2 AIRBORNE WASTE…………………………………………………………. 8-5 8.3 SOLID WASTE………………………………………………………………. 8-8 8.4 LIQUID WASTE …………………………………………………………….. 8-14 9.0 EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT…………………………………………………... 9-1 9.1 EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT IN DOE…………………………………... 9-1 9.2 SPECIFIC GUIDANCE ON EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT FOR PLUTONIUM FACILITIES………………………………………………….. 9-3 10.0 DECONTAMINATION AND DECOMMISSIONING…………………………….. 10-1 10.1 REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS………………………………………. 10-1 10.2 DESIGN FEATURES………………………………………………………… 10-6 10.3 DECONTAMINATION AND DECOMMISSIONING PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS……………………………………………………………. 10-9 10.4 DECONTAMINATION AND DECOMMISSIONING TECHNIQUES…….. 10-9 10.5 DECONTAMINATION AND DECOMMISSIONING EXPERIENCE…….. 10-10 11.0 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………. 11-1 APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY……………………………………………………………. A-1 APPENDIX B: PLUTONIUM IN DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY FACILITIES……… B-1 APPENDIX C: FACILITY DESIGN…………………………………………………… C-1 iii DOE-STD-1128-2008 FIGURES 2.1 Principal Modes of Plutonium Production by Neutron Irradiation of Uranium……….. 2-2 2.2 Atom Ratio of 241Am to 241Pu (t=0) Produced by the Beta Decay of 241Pu as a Function of Time Since Chemical Separation…………………………………………. 2-9 2.3 Neutron Energy Spectra of Plutonium-Beryllium and Plutonium-Boron Neutron Sources Compared with a Fission Source……………………………………. 2-10 2.4 Hazards in Low-Exposure Plutonium Handling………………………………………. 2-27 6.1 Absorbed Surface Dose Rate from Plutonium Dioxide as Measured with an Extrapolation Chamber………………………………………………………... 6-6 6.2 Energy Dependence of Various TLD-Albedo Dosimeters…………………………….. 6-23 6.3 Response of Electrochemically Etched CR-39 Used in Nuclear Track Dosimeters as a Function of Neutron Energy ………………………………………… 6-23 6.4 Fixed Nuclear Accident Dosimeter Used at Hanford to Help Assess Doses from Criticality Accidents……………………………………………………………... 6-28 6.5 Neutron Energy Spectra as Measured by the Multisphere Spectrometer at 50 cm from Plutonium Metal, PuO2, and PuF4 Sources……………………………….. 6-32 6.6 Reduction in Photon Dose Rate with Various Shielding Materials at a Distance of 3 cm from a 100-gram Disk of Plutonium Oxide………………………… 6-37 6.7 Reduction in Neutron Dose Rate for Various Slab Shields for Plutonium Tetrafluoride Sources…………………………………………………... 6-38 6.8 Reduction in Neutron Dose Rate for Various Slab Shields for Plutonium Oxide Sources………………………………………………………….. 6-39 iv DOE-STD-1128-2008 TABLES 2.1 Isotopic Composition of Three Grades of Plutonium: Heat Source, Weapons, and Reactor…………………………………………………………………………….. 2-3 2.2 Uses and Availabilities of Plutonium Isotopes………………………………………... 2-4 2.3 Radioactive Decay Properties of Selected Isotopes and Decay Products, Excluding Spontaneous Fission………………………………………………………...2-6 2.4 Specific Activity Decay Heats of Selected Isotopes…………………………………... 2-7 2.5 Allotropic Forms of Plutonium Meta………………………………………………….. 2-11 2.6 Solubilities and Properties of Selected Compounds…………………………………… 2-14 2.7 Common Biokinetic Models for Plutonium and Americium………………………….. 2-20 2.8 Potential Hazards or Damage to Materials from Exposure to Radiation……………… 2-22 2.9 Hazards of Chemicals Used in Processing Plutonium………………………………… 2-28 2.10 Storage Recommendations for Plutonium Metal and Dioxide………………………… 2-33 4.1 Surface Contamination Values, dpm/100 cm2 ……………………………………………………………………… 4-3 5.1 Urine Bioassay Goals for 239Pu………………………………………………………… 5-4 5.2 Fecal Bioassay Goals for 239Pu………………………………………………………… 5-5 5.3 In Vivo Lung Measurement Bioassay Goals for 241Am as an Indicator of Aged Weapons Grade Plutonium…………………………………………………………….. 5-6 5.4 Example Plutonium Isotope Mixtures Immediately Post-Separation, wt%.................... 5-10 5.5 Activity Composition
Recommended publications
  • Absorbed Dose in Radioactive Media Outline Introduction Radiation Equilibrium Charged-Particle Equilibrium Limiting Cases
    Outline • General dose calculation considerations, Absorbed Dose in Radioactive absorbed fraction Media • Radioactive disintegration processes and associated dose deposition – Alpha disintegration Chapter 5 – Beta disintegration – Electron-capture transitions F.A. Attix, Introduction to Radiological – Internal conversion Physics and Radiation Dosimetry • Summary Introduction Radiation equilibrium • We are interested in calculating the absorbed dose in a. The atomic composition radioactive media, applicable to cases of of the medium is – Dose within a radioactive organ homogeneous – Dose in one organ due to radioactive source in another b. The density of the organ medium is • If conditions of CPE or RE are satisfied, dose homogeneous c. The radioactive source calculation is straightforward is uniformly distributed • Intermediate situation is more difficult but can be d. No external electric or handled at least in approximations magnetic fields are present Charged-particle equilibrium Limiting cases • Emitted radiation typically includes both • Each charged particle of a given type and photons (longer range) and charged energy leaving the volume is replaced by an particles (shorter range) identical particle of the same energy entering • Assume the conditions for RE are satisfied the volume • Consider two • Existence of RE is sufficient condition for CPE limited cases based • Even if RE does not exist CPE may still exist on the size of the (for a very large or a very small volume) radioactive object 1 Limiting cases: small object Limiting
    [Show full text]
  • Nuclear Radiation 1. an Atom Contains Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
    Nuclear Radiation 1. An atom contains electrons, protons and neutrons. Which of these particles a) are outside the nucleus b) are uncharged c) have a negative charge d) are nucleons e) are much lighter than the others? 2. Complete the table below. Name Symbol Charge What is it? Alpha particle β -1 Gamma ray An electromagnetic wave 3. How is an ionised material different from a material that is not ionised? National 5 Physics: Waves & Radiation 1 Absorption of Radiation 1. The figure below shows a Geiger tube used to detect radiation from a radioactive source. thick lead plate 0 4 2 5 start counter stop ON OFF reset Geiger tube radioactive source The following measurements were made using the apparatus above. Counts in 300 seconds Readings Average 1 No source present 102 94 110 2 Source present at fixed distance from tube a) No lead plate present 3466 3420 3410 b) Thick lead plate present 105 109 89 c) Aluminium sheet in place of the 1834 1787 1818 thick lead sheet a) Complete the table by calculating the average readings. b) Why are the readings on each line not the same? c) What can you say from the table about the effect on the radiation of: i. The lead plate? ii. The aluminium plate? d) Why is it possible to say from the readings that: i. gamma radiation is emitted by the source? ii. alpha and beta radiation might be emitted by the source? e) What further tests could you make using this arrangement to find out whether or not the source emits alpha radiation? National 5 Physics: Waves & Radiation 2 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Copyright by Arthur Bryan Crawford 2004
    Copyright by Arthur Bryan Crawford 2004 The Dissertation Committee for Arthur Bryan Crawford Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Evaluation of the Impact of Non -Uniform Neutron Radiation Fields on the Do se Received by Glove Box Radiation Workers Committee: Steven Biegalski, Supervisor Sheldon Landsberger John Howell Ofodike Ezekoye Sukesh Aghara Evaluation of the Impact of Non -Uniform Neutron Radiation Fields on the Dose Received by Glove Box Radiation Workers by Arthur Bryan Crawford, B.S., M.S. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin December, 2004 Dedication I was born to goodly parents Harvey E. Crawford and Johnnie Lee Young Crawford Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Sheldon Landsberger for his vision in starting a distance learning program at the University of Texas at Austin and for his support and encouragement on this quest. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Steven Biegalski, for his support and encouragement even though the topic area was new to him. I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee for finding the time to review this dissertation. To the staff of the Nuclear Engineering Teaching Laboratory I say thank you for your kindness and support during those brief times that I was on cam pus. A special thanks to my past and present group leaders, David Seidel, Eric McNamara, and Bill Eisele and my Division Leader, Lee McAtee, at Los Alamos National Laboratory, for their support in being allowed to use time and material resources at the Lab oratory and for financial support in the form of tuition reimbursement and travel expenses.
    [Show full text]
  • Development of Chemical Dosimeters Development Of
    SUDANSUDAN ACADEMYAGADEMY OFOF SCIENCES(SAS)SGIENGES(SAS) ATOMICATOMIC ENERGYEhTERGYRESEARCHESRESEARCHES COORDINATIONCOORDII\rATI ON COUNCILCOUNCIL - Development of Chemical Dosimeters A dissertation Submitted in a partial Fulfillment of the Requirement forfbr Diploma Degree in Nuclear Science (Chemistry) By FareedFadl Alla MersaniMergani SupervisorDr K.S.Adam MurchMarch 2006 J - - - CONTENTS Subject Page -I - DedicationDedication........ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... I Acknowledgement ... '" ... ... ... ... ... ... '" ... ... ... ... '" ... '" ....... .. 11II Abstract ... ... ... '" ... ... ... '" ... ... ... ... -..... ... ... ... ... ... ..... III -I Ch-lch-1 DosimetryDosimefry - 1-1t-l IntroductionLntroduction . 1I - 1-2t-2 Principle of Dosimetry '" '" . 2 1-3l-3 DosimetryDosimefiySystems . 3J 1-3-1l-3-l primary standard dosimeters '" . 4 - 1-3-2l-3-Z Reference standard dosimeters ... .. " . 4 1-3-3L-3-3 Transfer standard dosimeters ... ... '" . 4 1-3-4t-3-4 Routine dosimeters . 5 1-4I-4 Measurement of absorbed dose . 6 1-5l-5 Calibration of DosimetryDosimetrvsystemsvstem '" . 6 1-6l-6 Transit dose effects . 8 Ch-2ch-2 Requirements of chemical dosimeters 2-12-l Introduction ... ... ... .............................................. 111l 2-2 Developing of chemical dosimeters ... ... .. ....... ... .. ..... 12t2 2-3 Classification of Dosimetry methods.methods .......................... 14l4 2-4 RequirementsRequiremsnts of ideal chemical dosimeters ,. ... 15 2-5 Types of chemical system .
    [Show full text]
  • The International Commission on Radiological Protection: Historical Overview
    Topical report The International Commission on Radiological Protection: Historical overview The ICRP is revising its basic recommendations by Dr H. Smith Within a few weeks of Roentgen's discovery of gamma rays; 1.5 roentgen per working week for radia- X-rays, the potential of the technique for diagnosing tion, affecting only superficial tissues; and 0.03 roentgen fractures became apparent, but acute adverse effects per working week for neutrons. (such as hair loss, erythema, and dermatitis) made hospital personnel aware of the need to avoid over- Recommendations in the 1950s exposure. Similar undesirable acute effects were By then, it was accepted that the roentgen was reported shortly after the discovery of radium and its inappropriate as a measure of exposure. In 1953, the medical applications. Notwithstanding these observa- ICRU recommended that limits of exposure should be tions, protection of staff exposed to X-rays and gamma based on consideration of the energy absorbed in tissues rays from radium was poorly co-ordinated. and introduced the rad (radiation absorbed dose) as a The British X-ray and Radium Protection Committee unit of absorbed dose (that is, energy imparted by radia- and the American Roentgen Ray Society proposed tion to a unit mass of tissue). In 1954, the ICRP general radiation protection recommendations in the introduced the rem (roentgen equivalent man) as a unit early 1920s. In 1925, at the First International Congress of absorbed dose weighted for the way different types of of Radiology, the need for quantifying exposure was radiation distribute energy in tissue (called the dose recognized. As a result, in 1928 the roentgen was equivalent in 1966).
    [Show full text]
  • Radiation Glossary
    Radiation Glossary Activity The rate of disintegration (transformation) or decay of radioactive material. The units of activity are Curie (Ci) and the Becquerel (Bq). Agreement State Any state with which the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has entered into an effective agreement under subsection 274b. of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended. Under the agreement, the state regulates the use of by-product, source, and small quantities of special nuclear material within said state. Airborne Radioactive Material Radioactive material dispersed in the air in the form of dusts, fumes, particulates, mists, vapors, or gases. ALARA Acronym for "As Low As Reasonably Achievable". Making every reasonable effort to maintain exposures to ionizing radiation as far below the dose limits as practical, consistent with the purpose for which the licensed activity is undertaken. It takes into account the state of technology, the economics of improvements in relation to state of technology, the economics of improvements in relation to benefits to the public health and safety, societal and socioeconomic considerations, and in relation to utilization of radioactive materials and licensed materials in the public interest. Alpha Particle A positively charged particle ejected spontaneously from the nuclei of some radioactive elements. It is identical to a helium nucleus, with a mass number of 4 and a charge of +2. Annual Limit on Intake (ALI) Annual intake of a given radionuclide by "Reference Man" which would result in either a committed effective dose equivalent of 5 rems or a committed dose equivalent of 50 rems to an organ or tissue. Attenuation The process by which radiation is reduced in intensity when passing through some material.
    [Show full text]
  • Removal of Plutonium from Plutonium Hexafluoride--Uranium Hexafluoride
    United States Patent n?) [in 3,708,568 Golliher et al. [45] Jan. 2,1973 [54] REMOVAL OF PLUTONIUM FROM 2,843,453 7/1958 Connicketal. .23/332 PLUTONIUM HEXAFLUORIDE- 3,165,376 1/1965 Golliher.. .23/337 URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE 3,178,258 4/1965 Cathersetal 23/337 MIXTURES 3,423,190 1/1969 Steindler et al .23/326 [75] Inventors: Waldo R. Golliher; Robert L. Har- Primary Examiner—Carl D. Quarforth ris; Reynold A. LeDoux, Jr., all ol Assistant Examiner—F. M. Gittes Paducah, Ky. Attorney—Roland A. Anderson [73] Assignee: The United States of America as represented by the United State: [57] ABSTRACT Atomic Energy Commission This invention relates to a method of selectively [22] Filed: Oct. 20,1970 removing plutonium values from a fluid mixture con- [21] Appl. No.: 82,508 taining plutonium hexafluoride and uranium hex- afluoride by passing the mixture through a bed of pel- [52] U.S. C! 423/6,423/19, 252/301.1 R letized cobaltous fluoride at a temperature in the [51] Int. CI COlg 56/00 range 134° to 1,000° F. to effect removal of plutonium [58] Field of Search 55/74; 252/301.1 R; 23/332, by the cobaltous fluoride. 23/326, 337, 344, 352; 423/19, 6, 11, 251, 258 [56] References Cited 3 Claims, No Drawings UNITED STATES PATENTS 3,615,267 10/1971 Golliher et al. 23/343 3,725,661 3 4 REMOVAL OF PLUTONIUM FROM PLUTONIUM recovered. The cobaltous fluoride can then be HEXAFLUORIDE-URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE processed for reuse by contacting with gaseous MIXTURES hydrogen at a temperature in the range 400° to 500° F.
    [Show full text]
  • Emergency and Combat First Aid» Module № 1 Emergency and Combat First Aid Topic 7 Means of Mass Destruction
    Ministry of Health of Ukraine Ukrainian Medical stomatological Academy It is ratified On meeting department Of accident aid and military medicine «___»_____________20 __y. Protocol №_____ Manager of department DMSc ., assistant professor __________К.Shepitko METHODICAL INSTRUCTION FOR INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS DURING PREPARATIONS FOR THE PRACTICAL LESSON Educational discipline «Emergency and Combat First Aid» Module № 1 Emergency and Combat First Aid Topic 7 Means of Mass Destruction. First Aid. Weapons of mass destructions. Lesson 10 Radiations chemical accidents .First Aid Сourse ІІ Foreing students training dentistry Faculty Training of specialists of the second (master) level of higher of education (название уровня высшего образования) Areas of knowledge _______ 22 «Health protection»_________ (шифр и название области знаний) Specialty ________222 «Medicine», 221 «Stomatology»________________ (код и наименование специальности) Poltava 2019 The relevance of the topic: Military action in modern warfare will be carried out with high activity and limit tension. They cause great losses in the army and among the population, the destruction of potentially dangerous objects, energy centers, waterworks, the formation of large zones of destruction, fires and floods. The main form of countering in the war, is armed struggle - the organized use of armed forces and weapons to achieve specific political and military objectives, a combination of military actions of varying scales. To conventional weapons, the application of which may cause losses among the population are missiles and aerial munitions, including precision munitions volumetric detonation of cluster and incendiary. Have the greatest efficiency high precision conventional weapons, which provide automatic detection and reliable destruction of targets and enemy targets with a single shot (trigger).
    [Show full text]
  • System Studies of Fission-Fusion Hybrid Molten Salt Reactors
    University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 12-2013 SYSTEM STUDIES OF FISSION-FUSION HYBRID MOLTEN SALT REACTORS Robert D. Woolley University of Tennessee - Knoxville, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss Part of the Nuclear Engineering Commons Recommended Citation Woolley, Robert D., "SYSTEM STUDIES OF FISSION-FUSION HYBRID MOLTEN SALT REACTORS. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 2013. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/2628 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Robert D. Woolley entitled "SYSTEM STUDIES OF FISSION-FUSION HYBRID MOLTEN SALT REACTORS." I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, with a major in Nuclear Engineering. Laurence F. Miller, Major Professor We have read this dissertation and recommend its acceptance: Ronald E. Pevey, Arthur E. Ruggles, Robert M. Counce Accepted for the Council: Carolyn R. Hodges Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School (Original signatures are on file with official studentecor r ds.) SYSTEM STUDIES OF FISSION-FUSION HYBRID MOLTEN SALT REACTORS A Dissertation Presented for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree The University of Tennessee, Knoxville Robert D.
    [Show full text]
  • 11. Dosimetry Fundamentals
    Outline • Introduction Dosimetry Fundamentals • Dosimeter model • Interpretation of dosimeter measurements Chapter 11 – Photons and neutrons – Charged particles • General characteristics of dosimeters F.A. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry • Summary Introduction Dosimeter • Radiation dosimetry deals with the determination • A dosimeter can be generally defined as (i.e., by measurement or calculation) of the any device that is capable of providing a absorbed dose or dose rate resulting from the interaction of ionizing radiation with matter reading R that is a measure of the absorbed • Other radiologically relevant quantities are dose Dg deposited in its sensitive volume V exposure, kerma, fluence, dose equivalent, energy by ionizing radiation imparted, etc. can be determined • If the dose is not homogeneous • Measuring one quantity (usually the absorbed dose) another one can be derived through throughout the sensitive calculations based on the defined relationships volume, then R is a measure of mean value Dg Dosimeter Simple dosimeter model • Ordinarily one is not interested in measuring • A dosimeter can generally be considered as the absorbed dose in a dosimeter’s sensitive consisting of a sensitive volume V filled with a volume itself, but rather as a means of medium g, surrounded by a wall (or envelope, determining the dose (or a related quantity) for container, etc.) of another medium w having a another medium in which direct measurements thickness t 0 are not feasible • A simple dosimeter can be
    [Show full text]
  • Absorbed Dose Dose Is a Measure of the Amount of Energy from an Ionizing Radiation Deposited in a Mass of Some Material
    Absorbed Dose Dose is a measure of the amount of energy from an ionizing radiation deposited in a mass of some material. • SI unit used to measure absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). 1J • 1 Gy = kg • Gy can be used for any type of radiation. • Gy does not describe the biological effects of the different radiations. Dosimetric Quantities Quantity Definition New Units Old Units Exposure Charge per unit mass of --- Roentgen air (R) 1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg Absorbed dose to Energy of radiation R gray Radiation absorbed tissue T from absorbed per unit mass (Gy) dose radiation of type R of tissue T (rad) 1 rad = 100 ergs/g DT,R 1 Gy = 1 joule/kg 1 Gy = 100 rads Equivalent dose to Sum of contributions of Sievert Roentgen tissue T dose to T from (Sv) equivalent man different radiation (rem) HT types, each multiplied by the radiation weighting factor (wR) HT = ΣR wR DT,R Effective Dose Sum of equivalent Sievert rem doses to organs and (Sv) E tissues exposed, each multiplied by the appropriate tissue weighting factor (wT) E = ΣT wT HT 1 Radiological Protection For practical purposes of assessing and regulating the hazards of ionizing radiation to workers and the general population, weighting factors (previously called quality factors, Q) are used. A radiation weighting factor is an estimate of the effectiveness per unit dose of the given radiation relative a to low-LET standard. Weighting factors are dimensionless multiplicative factors used to convert physical dose (Gy) to equivalent dose (Sv) ; i.e., to place biological effects from exposure to different types of radiation on a common scale.
    [Show full text]
  • Export Control Handbook for Chemicals
    Export Control Handbook for Chemicals -Dual-use control list -Common Military List -Explosives precursors -Syria restrictive list -Psychotropics and narcotics precursors ARNES-NOVAU, X 2019 EUR 29879 This publication is a Technical report by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s science and knowledge service. It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process. The scientific output expressed does not imply a policy position of the European Commission. Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication. Contact information Xavier Arnés-Novau Joint Research Centre, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy [email protected] Tel.: +39 0332-785421 Filippo Sevini Joint Research Centre, Via Enrico Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy [email protected] Tel.: +39 0332-786793 EU Science Hub https://ec.europa.eu/jrc JRC 117839 EUR 29879 Print ISBN 978-92-76-11971-5 ISSN 1018-5593 doi:10.2760/844026 PDF ISBN 978-92-76-11970-8 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/339232 Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2019 © European Atomic Energy Community, 2019 The reuse policy of the European Commission is implemented by Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39). Reuse is authorised, provided the source of the document is acknowledged and its original meaning or message is not distorted. The European Commission shall not be liable for any consequence stemming from the reuse.
    [Show full text]