The History and Future of Narragansett Bay

Capers Jones

Universal Publishers Boca Raton, Florida USA • 2006

Universal Publishers Boca Raton , Florida USA • 2006

ISBN: 1-58112-911-4

Universal-Publishers.com

Table of Contents

Preface ...... ix Acknowledgements ...... xiii Introduction...... 15 Chapter 1 Geological Origins of Narragansett Bay...... 17 Defining Narragansett Bay ...... 22 The Islands of Narragansett Bay...... 23 Earthquakes & Sea Level Changes of Narragansett Bay...... 24 Hurricanes & Nor’easters beside Narragansett Bay ...... 25 Meteorology of Hurricanes...... 26 Meteorology of Nor’easters ...... 27 Summary of Bay History...... 28 Chapter 1 References ...... 30 Chapter 2 Animal and Plant Life beside Narragansett Bay circa 8000 BC...... 31 The Pleistocene Extinction ...... 31 A View of Narragansett Bay in 8000 BC ...... 34 Chapter 2 References ...... 38 Chapter 3 First Arrivals at Narragansett Bay circa 8000 BC...... 39 The Bering Land Bridge ...... 39 Clovis & Pre‐Clovis Arrivals ...... 41 Arrivals by Boat...... 41 Pre‐Clovis Sites...... 44 Chapter 3 References ...... 48 Chapter 4 Pre‐Colonial European and Asian Visitors to Narragansett Bay ...... 49 Legendary Visitors to North America...... 49 The Piri Reis Map of 1513 AD ...... 52 Chronological Survey Possible of North American Visitors ...... 57 Bronze‐Age Scandinavians circa 1700 BC...... 57 Phoenicians & Celts circa 800 BC...... 58

Visitors from India circa 500 BC...... 60 Hui Shen & Buddhist Missionaries circa 458 AD...... 61 Brendan the Navigator circa 530 AD...... 61 Leif Ericsson & the Viking Settlement circa 1000 AD...... 62 Bishop Eric Gnupsson circa 1117 AD...... 66 Prince Madoc of Wales circa 1170 AD...... 66 Paul Knutson circa 1355 AD ...... 67 Henry Sinclair circa 1398 AD...... 68 Chinese Admiral Zhao Wen circa 1421 AD...... 69 Christopher Columbus in 1492 AD ...... 71 John Cabot circa 1497 AD...... 71 Amerigo Vespucci circa 1498 AD ...... 73 The Corte Real Brothers circa 1501 & 1502 AD...... 74 The Anglo‐Azores Syndicate circa 1503 AD ...... 74 Sebastian Cabot circa 1508 AD...... 75 Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 AD...... 75 Estevan Gomez in 1525 AD ...... 76 Luiz Vasques de Ayllon circa 1526 AD...... 77 John Rut in 1527 AD ...... 78 Basque Fishermen circa 1530 AD...... 79 Samuel de Champlain in 1604 AD...... 80 Henry Hudson in 1609 AD ...... 81 Adriaen Block in 1614 AD...... 81 Captain John Smith in 1614 AD ...... 82 Thomas Dermer in 1619 AD ...... 82 Summary of Early European Voyages...... 83 Chapter 4 References ...... 85 Chapter 5 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 8,000 BC to 1500 AD...... 87 Narragansett Bay from 15,000 BC to 12,000 BC ...... 87 Narragansett Bay from 12,000 BC to 8,000 BC ...... 87 Narragansett Bay from 8,000 BC to 4,000 BC ...... 87 Narragansett Bay from 4,000 BC to 2,500 BC ...... 88 Narragansett Bay from 2,500 BC to 1,500 BC ...... 88 Narragansett Bay from 1,500 BC to 1,500 AD ...... 88 Pre‐Historic Fishing & Hunting beside Narragansett Bay...... 90

The History and Future of Narragansett Bay v Pre‐Historic Plant Gathering beside Narragansett Bay...... 96 Pre‐Historic Agriculture beside Narragansett Bay ...... 96 Pre‐Historic Wampum beside Narragansett Bay ...... 99 Pre‐Historic Indian Medicine beside Narragansett Bay...... 100 Pre‐Historic Shelters beside Narragansett Bay...... 102 Pre‐Historic Pottery & Artistic Objects beside Narragansett Bay...... 103 Pre‐Historic Sports & Recreation beside Narragansett Bay...... 104 Pre‐Historic Marriage & Family Life beside Narragansett Bay ...... 105 Pre‐Historic Funeral Customs beside Narragansett Bay...... 106 Pre‐Historic Warfare beside Narragansett Bay...... 107 Emergence of Modern Indian Tribes beside Narragansett Bay ...... 107 Summary of Indian Life beside Narragansett Bay from 8,000 BC to 1,500 AD ...... 110 Chapter 5 References ...... 111 Chapter 6 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 1500 AD to Today...... 113 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 1500 to 1600...... 114 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 1600 to 1700...... 117 The Pequot War of 1637 ...... 120 The Mohegan and Narragansett Conflict of 1643...... 122 King Philip’s War of 1675...... 123 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 1700 to 1800...... 132 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 1800 to 1900...... 135 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 1900 to 2000...... 139 Indians beside Narragansett Bay from 2000 to Today...... 144 The Future of Rhode Island Indians...... 146 Chapter 6 References ...... 148 Chapter 7 The Colonization of Narragansett Bay...... 151 Prelude to the Settlement of Rhode Island & Narragansett Bay...... 151 Puritan Beliefs & Conflict with the Church of England ...... 154 Colonization of Massachusetts from 1620 to 1630...... 157 Colonization of Massachusetts, Connecticut, & Rhode Island from 1630 to 1640...... 158 Roger Williams & the Founding of Providence in 1636 ...... 161 Anne Hutchinson & the Founding of Portsmouth in 1638 ...... 164

William Coddington & the Founding of Newport in 1639 ...... 167 The Naming of Rhode Island circa 1636 to 1647...... 169 Colonization of Rhode Island from 1640 to 1650...... 170 Samuel Gorton & the Founding of Warwick in 1641...... 171 Massachusetts Invades Rhode Island in 1643 ...... 172 The First Charter for Rhode Island in 1644 ...... 174 Colonization of Rhode Island from 1650 to 1660...... 175 Colonization of Rhode Island from 1660 to 1670...... 179 The Royal Charter of 1663...... 179 Colonization of Rhode Island from 1670 to 1680...... 180 Rhode Island Colonies After 1680 ...... 182 Chapter 7 References ...... 185 Chapter 8 The Economic History of Narragansett Bay...... 187 The Indian Economy of Narragansett Bay before 1600: Agriculture, Hunting, Fishing, & Crafts...... 189 The Colonial Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1600 to 1650: Subsistence Agriculture, Hunting, Fishing, & Fur Trade...... 193 The Colonial Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1650 to 1700: Plantation Agriculture, Land Development, Trading, Shipbuilding, Slavery, & Piracy ...... 197 The Colonial Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1700 to 1750: Plantation Agriculture, Ship‐Building, Horse Breeding, Paper Money, Smuggling, Rum, & Slavery ...... 200 The Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1750 to 1800: The American Revolution, Shipping, Textiles, & Slavery...... 204 The Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1800 to 1850: Manufacturing, Steam, & Commerce...... 209 The Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1850 to 1900: Civil War Military Supplies, Manufacturing, Tourism, & Boat Construction...... 215 The Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1900 to 1950: The Decline of Manufacturing & the Advent of a Service Economy...... 220 The Economy of Narragansett Bay from 1950 to 2000: Big Government, Big Education, Big Healthcare, Big Pensions, Big Corruption, Big Houses, & Big Taxes in a Very Small State...... 225

The History and Future of Narragansett Bay vii Chapter 8 References ...... 234 Chapter 9 The Economic Future of Narragansett Bay...... 237 Five Problems Caused by Natural Factors that can Affect the Future of the Bay...... 238 Problem 1: Hurricanes Striking Narragansett Bay...... 238 Problem 2: Future Shortages of Gasoline, Fuel Oil, Electricity, & Natural Gas .... 241 Problem 3: Future Shortages of Drinking Water ...... 243 Problem 4: Pollution of Fresh & Salt Water...... 244 Problem 5: A Major Epidemic Striking Narragansett Bay ...... 246 Ten Economic Problems that can affect the Future of Narragansett Bay ...... 248 Problem 1: State & Local Government Pension Plans ...... 249 Problem 2: Escalating School Budgets & Declining Student Populations ...... 250 Problem 3: Escalating Coastal Real Estate Values near Narragansett Bay...... 252 Problem 4: High Property Taxes in Coastal Communities ...... 254 Problem 5: High Rhode Island Income & Sales Taxes...... 256 Problem 6: Pros & Cons of Property Tax Relief for the Elderly ...... 258 Problem 7: Overstaffed Governments & High Salary Levels ...... 260 Problem 8: High Rhode Island Health Care Costs...... 262 Problem 9: Declining Rhode Island Health Care Availability...... 262 Problem 10: Rhode Island’s Expensive Welfare Programs...... 264 Summary of Future Natural and Economic Problems ...... 265 Chapter 9 References ...... 267 Chapter 10 Summary of 10,000 Years beside Narragansett Bay...... 269

Preface

In 2000 my wife and I moved to Narragansett, Rhode Island. We knew that the property we bought had once been part of a large farm: that was evident from the beautiful old stone walls that crossed the fields. We also knew that the farm had been started in 1659. That was evident from a sign on a neighbor’s gate which had also been part of the same farm. Never having lived in Rhode Island before the year 2000, I knew very little about the State and its history. I knew casual facts about the State and had visited several museums, but my knowledge was superficial. In 2005 I visited the Pequot Museum in Ledyard, Connecticut. The exhibits there that started with the last glaciers and continued to the present made me want to learn more about the geology and history of the State of Rhode Island since Narragansett Bay is only 35 miles from the museum. The many films and exhibits at the museum showing the early interactions between the Pequots and the settlers, and the devastation of the Pequot War caused me to start doing research on the Rhode Island Indian tribes of the Narragansetts, Wampanoags, Shawmuts, Nipmucs, Niantics, and others. When looking on the web and doing research about Rhode Island, I quickly found a great many interesting facts about Rhode Island that I had never heard of before. These facts were not deliberately being kept secret, but they were not general knowledge and they appeared only in specialized articles and books dealing with geology, paleontology, and local history. Some of the more intriguing facts included:

• The islands of Block Island, Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket were attached to the mainland as recently as 15,000 years ago and could once be reached on foot. • Narragansett Bay was a large fresh water lake for several thousand years before becoming the current salt water Bay. • The Narragansett Bay region has had major earthquakes in the near past, and might very well have them in the near future. • Large animals such as American lions, saber‐tooth tigers, and mammoths were found in Rhode Island 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. • Many petroglyphs around Narragansett Bay indicate possible Viking visits to the region a thousand years ago. Some petroglyphs may indicate even older visits or visits by other cultures such as Celts or Phoenicians. x Capers Jones • The fame of Giovanni da Verrazzano as the first known European to visit Narragansett Bay in 1524 is widespread. But Estevan Gomez, the second European to visit in 1525, is almost unknown. • The first four founders of Rhode Island towns, Roger Williams (Providence), Anne Hutchinson (Portsmouth), William Coddington (Newport), and Samuel Gorton (Warwick) were frequently at odds and had many serious disputes. At one time William Coddington attempted to split Newport from Rhode Island and join it to Massachusetts. • Shortly after Rhode Island was settled Connecticut claimed all of the western part of Rhode Island up to the shore of Narragansett Bay, while Massachusetts claimed all of the eastern part including the islands in the Bay. The existence of Rhode Island as an independent state was in doubt for more than 25 years while these claims were being fought. Boundary disputes reached the U.S. Supreme Court several times, and the final boundary with Connecticut was not resolved until 2004 and indeed there are still adjustments being made. • In the 1700’s Rhode Island was a major slave‐holding state and built most of the slave ships of the era. The percentage of slaves in South County rivaled Virginia and the Carolinas. But in Rhode Island about a third of the slaves were captured Pequot, Narragansett, and Wampanoag Indians rather than Africans. • Rhode Island prospered during the Civil War. Rhode Island factories supplied most of the uniforms, tents, and other cloth items for the Northern armies as well as many weapons. • During World War II a classified “college” for educating German prisoners of war was set up in Rhode Island at Fort Getty and Fort Wetherill near the village of Jamestown and on the mainland at the present campus of the University of Rhode Island marine biology school. Hundreds of volunteer German prisoners studied history and politics at these Rhode Island schools. • The Narragansett Indian tribe is the only tribe in the United States, out of 565 federally recognized tribes, that is barred from building a casino on reservation land. The tribe was deprived of this right in 1996 by a single Rhode Island politician without any debate or public referendum at all. • The Narragansett Bay region faces some serious problems that might affect its future economy: hurricanes, water and fuel shortages, and very high taxes are issues that need to be considered carefully.

As these interesting but obscure facts began to accumulate, it occurred to me that a book about the “unknown” history of Rhode Island might be of interest. Of course these topics are common knowledge to historians and specialists, but somehow they seldom seem to show up in books aimed at a general reading audience.

The History and Future of Narragansett Bay xi Having moved to Rhode Island from Acton, Massachusetts I had read an interesting book called “Ceremonial Time” by John Hanson Mitchell (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1984). This book was a 15,000 year history of one square mile in the adjacent town of Littleton, Massachusetts. My book begins only 10,000 years ago instead of the 15,000 years that Hanson had started with. The reason for the truncation of 5,000 years is because Narragansett Bay was only created about 10,000 years ago. It seemed appropriate to start when the Bay itself was first formed. Because Hanson’s book covered a precise area of one square mile, he was able to discuss some specific families and settlements in detail. My book covers a much larger area around both sides of Narragansett Bay. It would be about 50 miles if one drove from Narragansett all the way around to Sakonnet Point on the opposite shore. Of course on a clear day you can see across the Bay from Narragansett to Sakonnet, so the distance as the seagull flies would only be about ten miles. As I studied Rhode Island history it soon became apparent that the North American Indians living beside Narragansett Bay had suffered many misfortunes as a direct result of European settlement. New communicable diseases were brought to North America by the settlers so many Indians died from diseases to which they had no immunity. As more and more Europeans arrived, Indian land became tempting targets for acquisition, often by unscrupulous means. Finally, relations between the Indian tribes and the Rhode Island and Federal government have often been adversarial. That tendency continues to the present day. While examining the economic history of the Narragansett Bay region, it also became obvious that Rhode Island and the Bay region are facing some serious issues that might damage the future economy of the Bay. Some of these issues are natural in origin, such as hurricanes and water shortages. Others are man‐made, such as very high property taxes and an alarming State pension program. As a result of considering the recent economy of the Narragansett Bay region, it seemed appropriate to include 15 future problems that need serious analysis and hopefully solutions if the Bay region is going to continue to have a strong economy.

Acknowledgements

Thanks, as always, to my wife Eileen for her help during the research and writing of this book. The internet has made it very easy to do research that once might have taken months or years. Some of the web sites and materials on the web were very helpful. I particularly enjoyed reading the fascinating geological history of Jamestown, Rhode Island on the Jamestown municipal web site. Many of the geological facts cited here came from the Jamestown web site. The Houghton Mifflin encyclopedia of American Indians had scores of interesting and well researched articles and is highly recommended. The New England Antiquities Research Association (NEARA) was an excellent source for information dealing with the pre‐history of Rhode Island, and I received helpful tips from James Egan and Jim Lynch, who are NEARA officers. The tribal web sites of the Narragansetts, Pequots, Wampanoags, and other Indian tribes were useful in their own right, and also had links to many other useful web sites. In particular, Lee Sultzman’s fascinating short histories of 240 American Indian tribes was both very useful and extremely well written. I suspect Lee Sultzman has written more about North American Indians than almost any other author. William O. McLoughlin’s excellent book, Rhode Island – A History, was both helpful and entertaining. This book deserves to be widely read since it is so comprehensive. Carl R. Woodward’s book entitled A Plantation in Yankeeland gives some fascinating and little‐known facts about Roger Williams during his days at Smith’s Castle in Wickford. Patricia E. Rubertone’s book entitled Grave Undertakings – An Archaeology of Roger Williams and the Narragansett Indians provides a unique perspective on Roger Williams life and some important information about Narragansett tribal life in the days after Europeans began to settle in Rhode Island. Dr. Leonard Lardaro, an economist at the University of Rhode Island, has a very interesting web site devoted to Rhode Island economic issues. He is also a frequent contributor to the Providence Journal. The web site of the Rhode Island Policy Analysis Organization (RIPolicyAnalysis.org) contains an eclectic mixture of thoughtful essays and occasionally harsh statements about Rhode Island governments at all levels. This web site also has links to more than a dozen related web sites so it is a convenient starting place for those finding their way around interesting web sites dealing with Rhode Island and Narragansett Bay. Thanks to Rebekah Galy for her fine work in producing the camera‐ready copy.

Introduction

The Narragansett Bay is one of the most beautiful places on the East Coast of the United States. The Bay was created only about 10,000 years ago when the Atlantic Ocean broke through a glacial moraine and changed an older fresh‐water lake into the modern Bay. Not long before that, Block Island, Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket were all attached to the mainland. This book examines the formation of Narragansett Bay and the animals, plants, and people who have lived beside the Bay since it came into being. The book also discusses some of the lesser known legends associated with the European discovery and settlement of Narragansett Bay. Giovanni da Verrazzano’s visit in 1524 is well known but many voyages before and after Verrazzano’s are not well known at all. Since prehistoric times there were many Indian communities who lived beside the Bay. Because the Indian communities were here long before the European settlers, the book discusses Indian history from the formation of the Bay 10,000 years ago through today. The book discusses not only the Indian tribes of the prehistoric and colonial eras, but also their more recent history including the Narragansett Tribe’s exclusion from the terms of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act. The first English settlers of Rhode Island were expelled from Massachusetts because they were too liberal for the Puritans. The early history of Narragansett Bay includes many disputes with Massachusetts and also with Connecticut. The Rhode Island founders also quarreled among themselves. Disputes between Roger Williams, William Coddington, Samuel Gorton, and Anne Hutchinson are a fascinating but obscure part of Rhode Island history. From examining the history of the Bay region, and especially the economic history, the book also examines some problems that might affect the future economy of the Bay such as hurricanes, water shortages, and high property taxes.

Chapter 1

Geological Origins of Narragansett Bay

Narragansett Bay as we know it today is comparatively recent in geological terms. Indeed the Bay may have taken its present form only about 10,000 years ago. The shape of the Bay was formed when glaciers scoured out the East and West channels about 17,000 years ago. But so much water was tied up in glaciers that the area around today’s Narragansett Bay was either above ground or a fresh‐water lake for several thousand years. Although the Bay itself is recent, the underlying rocks of the Bay are much older and have traveled thousands of miles over many millions of years. Much of New England and all of Rhode Island were once located in the Southern hemisphere not far from the South Pole. It is interesting to consider the older geological origins of Narragansett Bay before dealing with the Bay as it exists now. About 565,000,000 years ago a chain of volcanoes near the south‐eastern edge of a super‐continent called Gondwana spewed forth huge amounts of lava and debris. This volcanic arc was called Avalonia by geologists. At that time, Gondwana comprised the current continents of Africa and South America, as well as the land masses that became Antarctica and India1. Another super continent north of Gondwana was called Laurentia. Laurentia was later to become the main portion of the United States, but not for some millions of years. The Avalonian mass of lava and basalt from the volcanic eruptions formed a curved chain of islands perhaps 1000 miles long from north to south and several hundred miles wide. Near the middle of the southern edge of this huge volcanic arc was the place that eventually would become the State of Rhode Island. At that time, of course, there was no Narragansett Bay. Millions of years and many other geological processes would take place before the Bay was formed. Not only parts of New England originated in Avalonia, but also parts of Ireland, England, Wales, Spain, Portugal. Indeed, parts of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and New Brunswick were part of Avalonia2. About 500,000,000 years ago parts of Laurentia began to move away from Gondwana. At about the same time, Avalonia also separated from Gondwana and began to move as well. Eventually Avalonia would join with Laurentia, and this combination would become the bulk of the North American continent, as well as portions of Mexico, Canada, and Greenland. 18 Capers Jones Another volcanic island arc called the Taconic was also moving toward Laurentia and collided with it about 465,000,000 years ago. The collision triggered volcanoes and mountain building, and is the origin of the current Taconic Mountains in upstate New York. Somewhat later Avalonia followed the Taconic and collided with the east coast of Laurentia. This movement took perhaps 40,000,000 years to complete. When Avalonia and Laurentia collided, parts of Laurentia were subducted or drawn down below the surface. The collision also caused many volcanoes and the creation of the northern portion of the Appalachian mountain chain, which of course was much higher than today’s Appalachian Mountains. About 400,000,000 years ago the Avalonian collision with Laurentia had placed what was later to become Rhode Island onto the eastern seaboard of Laurentia. However Laurentia itself was moving back toward Gondwana. About 350,000,000 years ago Laurentia and Gondwana collided to form a huge super continent called Pangaea, which then contained all of North and South America plus Africa and parts of Europe and parts of Asia as well. Around 300,000,000 years ago the collision of Laurentia and Gondwana to form Pangaea had caused a depression in the area that was later to become the Narragansett Bay. But at that time the area was thousands of miles from what was later to become the Atlantic coast and was originally not under water at all. Indeed the Atlantic Ocean as we know it today would not even be created for about another 100,000,000 years. Around 200,000,000 years ago Pangaea began to split apart. This split separated Africa and Europe from North and South America. As the two continental groups moved apart, the Atlantic Ocean was formed in the ever‐growing trough between them. Parts of the Avalonian arc separated from North America and later formed Ireland, Wales, and portions of Portugal, Spain, France, Holland, and Germany. At the same time, portions of the African coast were also pulled away and became attached to North America. Thus current Long Island was once attached to Africa3. An interesting botanical mystery was uncovered in the 19th century and discussed in the National Geographic book Our Continent4. The forests and plants of the Eastern Appalachians more closely resemble the forests and plants of East Asia than they do of either Europe or the American West. At least 50 different families of plants are found both in the Appalachians and also in China and Japan. Examples of these plants include hickory, magnolia, witch hazel, Virginia creeper, ginseng, and skunk cabbage. Some animals also share this curious double heritage of the Appalachians and Asia. For example, salamanders are found in both places. At one point in time, probably during the Cenozoic about 60,000,000 years ago, the Appalachians and parts of Asia were either joined or so close together that this distribution could easily occur. Apparently as the glaciers advanced and ebbed in North America and East Asia, the common plant

The History and Future of Narragansett Bay 19 species could migrate south or north and thus survived. In Europe, there are fossil remains of similar plants but seemingly they perished during one of the ice ages. One of the first indications of the similarities of plants between Asia and Appalachia was brought on by a Narragansett Bay native: Commodore Matthew Perry. When Commodore Perry returned from his 1853 voyage to Japan, he brought many samples of Japanese plants and trees which allowed botanists to note the striking similarities of plants between Japan and the Eastern Appalachians. Once the Atlantic Ocean was formed, Rhode Island was finally located more or less where it is today on the Eastern seaboard of North America. However, the area that was to become Narragansett Bay was still solid ground and above the level of the ocean. Indeed it was still probably located more than 50 miles from the actual coast. In the fullness of time, perhaps 150,000,000 years, erosion wore down the Appalachian Mountains by several thousand feet. The sediment was carried down hill and downstream to build up a large coastal plain along what are currently Connecticut, Rhode Island, and portions of Massachusetts. Comparatively recently, about 80,000 years ago, the earth entered a period of ice ages with several waves of intense glaciation5. At their peak, glaciers extended as far south as New York City and as far East as Block Island. All of Rhode Island was covered by ice that may have been as thick as one mile in places, and at least several hundred feet thick over the entire state. These huge glaciers contained so much of the earth’s water that sea levels may have been 400 feet lower than today’s levels. This lowering of the sea levels pushed the coastline out perhaps 25 to 50 miles further East than the present coastline. Thus the area that was to become Narragansett Bay was located inland until fairly recent times. Because part of the land comprising the bay had been depressed by geologic folding, there was a large fresh‐water lake located near the current mouth of the Bay. This lake may have stretched from the current mainland out as far as Block Island, and hence been perhaps 20 miles by 10 miles in size. (This is at least 100 times larger than Worden Pond, which is the largest natural lake in modern Rhode Island.) The fact that glaciers were present near Narragansett Bay is demonstrated by a train of boulders that originated in Cumberland, Rhode Island at a place called Iron Mine Hill. The unique iron ore from this hill was scraped away by glaciers and carried all the way to the Atlantic. As the glaciers melted, chunks of iron ore were left behind to form a continuous train all the way from Cumberland to the southern end of Narragansett Bay where they are still found today6. The path of the glacier from Cumberland to the Bay is visible from Route 295 when traveling south. The spot where the Newport Bridge becomes briefly visible in the distance is more or less a sightline along the path of the last glacier. When a final wave of glaciers reached the area of Narragansett Bay around 17,000 years ago they carved out the three main channels of the Bay: the East and West

20 Capers Jones passages and the so‐called Sakonnet river (which is actually a salt‐water channel leading to Mount Hope Bay). These final glaciers were so extensive that when they began to melt, the stone and gravel that the glaciers carried with them were left behind to form Block Island and portions of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket. The melting glaciers also left behind the rocks and rubble that make up the 30 smaller islands in Narragansett Bay. One of the interesting creations of the melting of the final glaciers is an arc of huge boulders and low hills called the Charlestown moraine. (A moraine marks the end of a glacier’s advance. When the glacier starts to melt, it leaves behind mounds of rocks and dirt that had been collected by the movement of the front edge. When a glacier retreats, the boulders and dirt are left behind in the form of a line of rocky hills. As glacial melting continues, some large boulders and thousands of smaller stones drop out from the ice in random places.) The Charlestown moraine starts in Long Island and actually seemed to have created Fisher’s Island. The moraine continues through Rhode Island from Westerly to the Eastern side of Narragansett Bay. For example the hills around Westerly airport are left over deposits from the Charlestown moraine. Three enjoyable places for viewing the residue of the Charlestown moraine are the Laurel Lane and Beaver River golf courses on Route 138 and the Pinehurst golf course on nearby Route 12 all in Richmond, Rhode Island. These three golf courses are cut through the hills and boulders of the Charlestown moraine. When playing golf, it is interesting to consider that these pleasant golf courses were buried by hundreds of feet of glacial ice as recently as perhaps 15,000 years ago. All three courses have rocky hills and huge boulders called “glacial erratics” that were left behind when the glacier covering Rhode Island finally melted about 14,000 years ago. The Winnapaug golf course in Westerly is also built on the Charlestown moraine, and indeed has a very large glacial erratic in the middle of one of the fairways. Another interesting place to view glacial remnants is the new Florence Carter preserve located just off Route 112 near the Narragansett Indian reservation. This new preserve is managed by the Nature Conservancy. With more than 800 acres this is one of the largest nature preserves in the State. Several miles of beautiful hiking trails meander through glacial moraines and there are scores of glacial erratics, some of which are almost as large as a house. In addition to major landscape features such as the Charlestown moraine, the waves of glaciers created another feature of Rhode Island’s modern scenery. All of the hundreds of stone walls which are so beautiful today are built from stones left in the fields by the retreating glaciers7. The rocky soil of New England is covered with stones carried there by glaciers during the various ice ages of the past 80,000 years. In order to plow the land for crops, it was necessary to remove millions of stones from the fields. Since the stones had to be put somewhere, the best thing to do with them

The History and Future of Narragansett Bay 21 was to make stone walls. These stone walls not only helped to clear the land, but had practical value for marking property lines and also for keeping cattle or sheep penned up. The last major glacier finally melted enough to uncover Rhode Island about 14,000 years ago8. However there was still enough water frozen in the remaining glaciers to cause sea levels to be about 350 feet lower than today. Therefore the current location of Narragansett Bay was above sea level and miles from the ocean for several thousand more years. Indeed, it was possible for several thousand years to walk from the area of the current Narragansett Bay out to what later became the islands of Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, and Block Island. They were not islands until around 10,000 years ago. As the earth entered a warming period around 10,000 years ago the sea levels slowly rose to their present height. Although the exact time is uncertain, at some point about 10,000 years ago the local sea level became high enough to overflow the glacial moraines and turn Narragansett Bay from a lake into the Bay as we know it today. The same rise in sea level also separated Block Island from the mainland and created Long Island Sound. Thus for the purposes of this book, we can assume that the modern shape of Narragansett Bay originated only about 10,000 years ago or approximately 8,000 BC. It is uncertain whether the modern Narragansett Bay was created gradually or abruptly. One possible scenario is that the breach in the moraine may have been caused by the ocean surge accompanying a major hurricane. For example the huge hurricane of 1938 pushed a wall of water more than 10 feet high all the way up the Bay and into downtown Providence. It may well be that on some stormy day circa 8000 BC a huge Nor’easter or hurricane drove the Atlantic over the moraine and up the East and West channels and the Sakonnet River. Once the moraine was breached, the modern Narragansett Bay took shape more or less as it is today. If that scenario occurred, it must have made major changes in the flora and fauna living beside the Bay, and also major changes in the ecology of the coastal waters. Imagine what the creation of Narragansett Bay must have looked like to the ancestors of the Narragansett and Wampanoag Indians who might have been passing through or living near the area when the Bay was formed. There is some uncertainty about when Paleo‐Indians who are the ancestors of the Narragansetts and Wampanoags actually occupied the land around Narragansett Bay and created permanent villages. No doubt there were Paleo‐Indians near the Bay, but whether they lived there or were merely hunting in the area is ambiguous. Part of the reason for the ambiguity is because the climate at about the time the Bay was created was much harsher than today’s climate. For about 1000 years after it was formed, the climate of the Bay was still close to ice‐age averages. The vegetation near the Bay circa 8000 BC would have been somewhat similar to modern Arctic tundra. Winters would have been much longer and colder than they are

22 Capers Jones today. Indeed it is likely that Narragansett Bay was frozen for several months each winter. No doubt there would have been several warm months, but the growing season for local plant life would probably have been less than three months instead of today’s five months. Such a short growing season is not conducive to permanent settlements that use gathered plants or agriculture as major sources of food for winter. Thus for fairly long periods before and after the creation of Narragansett Bay, the area would probably have been more suited for seasonal hunting than for permanent settlement. The icy winters and the short summers would have made year‐round living difficult. Also, the tundra and spruce forests did not contain much edible food themselves, nor did they provide a bountiful environment for many animals, other than wandering animals such as mammoths and caribou. By about 5000 BC as the earth continued to warm and the glaciers continued to shrink, the climate around Narragansett Bay became more or less the climate that we have in the 21st century. Once the climate warmed up to modern levels, Narragansett Bay became a very attractive place for permanent settlement. Indeed archeological evidence indicates continuous settlement from about 5000 BC forward.

Defining Narragansett Bay There is some debate as to where Narragansett Bay stops and the Atlantic Ocean begins. However a natural line of demarcation used in this book runs from the outlet of the Narrow River (Pettaquamscutt) on the west coast, past Beavertail lighthouse on Conanicut Island, past the tip of Brenton State Park at the southern end of Newport, and then over to the southern tip of Sakonnet Point in Little Compton on the eastern mainland. This line of demarcation is visually appealing, since when standing on the shore everything north of the line looks like an enclosed Bay, while everything to the south or east looks like the Ocean. A somewhat larger definition of Narragansett Bay would use the tip of Point Judith as the western terminus of the Bay but also use Sakonnet Point as the eastern terminus. A straight line connecting these two points would have the Atlantic Ocean to the east and south, and enclosed waters to the west and north. This larger definition of Narragansett Bay adds several miles of water on the western shore and increases the overall area of the Bay. But when standing at the Point Judith lighthouse, this larger definition does not look as much like a Bay as the former and smaller definition. The author and many others who live along the Bay prefer the smaller definition that aligns itself with the East and West passages. Assuming these two demarcations, the physical dimensions of Narragansett Bay are approximately the following, as taken from the Save the Bay web site9. The width of the Bay from east to west is about 10.8 miles (statute miles; not nautical miles). The length of the Bay north and south is about 24 miles using the smaller definition, 26 miles using the larger.

The History and Future of Narragansett Bay 23 The surface area of the Bay is about 94 to 147 square miles, and the shoreline runs for about 256 miles which is quite a lot of Bay shoreline in a state as small as Rhode Island. The deepest point of the Bay is about 184 feet but the average depth is only about 26 feet. The East Passage averages close to 40 feet in depth, and so it is the preferred route for large ships approaching Newport or Providence. The tides in the Bay run between three and four feet. It takes about 20 minutes for the tides to move up the Bay from the mouth to Providence. The drainage watershed surrounding Narragansett Bay is about 1,853 square miles in size. Although the Bay is located mainly in Rhode Island, over half of the watershed is in Massachusetts. The upper portion of Narragansett Bay is actually an estuary with fresh water entering from several rivers, of which the Pawtuxet, the Blackstone, and the Taunton are the largest. The average temperature of the water in the Bay is about 69 degrees Fahrenheit in summer and just above 32 degrees in winter. From time to time during very cold winters, much of the upper Bay will freeze and sometimes the lower Bay also has significant mounts of ice. Indeed two winters ago as this book is written there was some difficulty in supplying food and heating oil to Nantucket because the harbor had frozen over and remained icy for almost a month. But 10,000 years ago this ice might have been solid for almost five months of the year.

The Islands of Narragansett Bay There are about 30 islands in Narragansett Bay ranging from small rocky mounds up to Aquidneck Island which is more than 27,000 acres in size10. Acquidneck Island is the site of Newport, Rhode Island and also the home of the Naval Post Graduate School. Aquidneck is large enough to also include the towns of Middletown and Portsmouth, north of Newport. Aquidneck Island is connected to the mainland by several bridges, which are very scenic but tend to have quite a bit of traffic during the summer months. Two other islands in Narragansett Bay are large enough to have communities of year‐ round residents: The second largest island in Narragansett Bay is Conanicut Island, which is the site of the village of Jamestown. Conanicut Island is the terminus of two important bridges, or three if you count the somewhat decrepit remains of the old Jamestown Bridge which as this book is written still has not been torn down after several years of debate and discussion. The Pell Bridge (named after former Senator Claiborne Pell) connects Jamestown to Newport. The Pell Bridge is a famous landmark, and at night its lights are visible from many miles away. The smaller Jamestown‐Verrazzanno Bridge connects the island to the eastern shore of the mainland, with the terminus being about halfway between the town of Narragansett and the Village of Wickford. (The Jamestown‐Verrazzanno Bridge is named for Giovanni da Verrazzanno, who sailed into Narragansett Bay in 1524 and anchored near Newport for several weeks.)

24 Capers Jones The third island with a year‐round community is Prudence Island, located off the coast of Bristol in the northern end of Narragansett Bay. Unlike Conanicut and Aquidneck Islands, Prudence Island does not have a bridge to the mainland and is therefore only reachable by ferry from Bristol or by private boat. Much of Prudence Island is conservation land with a very large herd of white‐tailed deer. Prudence Island is also known to have one of the largest collections of deer ticks in Rhode Island, so the Lyme disease is prevalent. Casual visitors to Prudence Island should take cautions to use tick repellant and wear protective clothes. Some of the other islands in Narragansett Bay using both English and Indian names include Coaster’s Harbor Island (Woonachasett), Cornelius Island in Wickford Harbor, Dutch Island (Quotenis), Dyer Island, Fox Island, Goat Island (Nomsussmuc), Gould Island (Aquopimokuk), Green Island, Hope Island, Lime Rock, Patience Island adjacent to Prudence Island, Rabbit Island, Rose Island (Cononckonoquit), and Whale Rock. Whale Rock is the site of a lighthouse that was completely blown away in the hurricane of 1938. Whale Rock is now a prominent and visible landmark because the circular cement base of the lighthouse still remains and can be seen from both the ocean and the entire southern end of the Bay. The beauty of the Narragansett Bay region has made it a popular area surrounded by many villages and towns. Starting on the western side of the Bay and moving around to the east, can be found the town of Narragansett, the Village of Wickford, the town of East Greenwich, Warwick (home of Rhode Island’s T.F. Green Airport), on the western side. Providence (Rhode Island’s capitol) is north of the Bay. East Providence, Barrington, Bristol, Tiverton, and Little Compton run down the eastern side of the Bay. Located on islands in the Bay itself are the communities of Portsmouth, Middletown, and Newport on Aquidneck Island, and Jamestown on Conanicut Island. Cities and villages adjacent to Narragansett Bay have a combined population of about 750,000 in 2005 with Providence being the largest Rhode Island City, and second only to Boston in New England.

Earthquakes & Sea Level Changes of Narragansett Bay As this book is written in 2005, the geology of Narragansett Bay is by no means static. One thing that can change the scenery abruptly is a major earthquake. Although New England does not have earthquakes often, it has had several major quakes in the past and might well have major quakes in the future11. In 1638 a major earthquake rattled Rhode Island and all of New England. Other quakes were felt in 1658, 1727, 1732, 1755, 1783, 1791, 1848, and 1860. In February of 1883 a large earthquake was felt throughout the region, and the epicenter was probably located near Narragansett Bay.

The History and Future of Narragansett Bay 25 In 1925 a magnitude 7 quake rattled New England and Rhode Island, with an epicenter near the St. Lawrence River. An even bigger quake of magnitude 7.2 occurred in 1929 with an offshore epicenter. Other quakes occurred in 1940, 1944, and 1963 in New England, and were felt beside the Narragansett Bay. Two local quakes centering on or near Narragansett Bay occurred in 1965 and 1967, and both were strong enough to rattle dishes from Bristol to Narragansett. The most recent noticeable earthquake was of magnitude 5.2 and occurred in 1973. Given the average intervals of earthquakes felt beside Narragansett Bay, it should be time for another one quite soon. Although small quakes have occurred often since 1755, most have not caused any serious damage. This is both good news and bad news. The bad news is that the comparative lack of recent serious earthquakes in Rhode Island and New England has led to laxness in building codes and to a general unprepared ness by both State and local governments. For example, most of the tall buildings in Providence and elsewhere around the Narragansett Bay region are not safe from earthquakes since they were not required to be. Thousands of office buildings and thousands of homes are also at risk from a major regional earthquake. Also at risk are major bridges such as the Verrazzano Bridge between Jamestown and Newport, the Jamestown Bridge, the Mt. Hope Bridge, and scores of smaller bridges throughout the region. Not only could an earthquake itself cause structural damages, but if the epicenter is located offshore, which is quite likely given the history of earlier earthquakes, it is possible that a tsunami might also occur. When Narragansett Bay was formed 10,000 years ago the sea levels were several hundred feet lower than today because so much water was tied up in glacial ice. As the glaciers melted, sea levels gradually rose and indeed formed the Bay itself. In 2005 as this is written, average sea levels are continuing to rise at a rate of perhaps one foot every 100 years. However, global warming may accelerate that rate. Given the amount of water still tied up in the polar caps and extant glaciers around the world, it is possible for an additional 25 to 50 feet of sea level rise to occur in what might be an alarmingly short time period of only a few hundred years or less. If so, then the shape and population of the Bay will change dramatically.

Hurricanes & Nor’easters beside Narragansett Bay The New England coastline, including Narragansett Bay, has been a focal point for some very strong storms for thousands of years. Hurricanes occur primarily in summer, while nor’easters occur primarily in winter. To the people who live beside Narragansett Bay, both kinds of storms can do serious damage when they occur. However the origins of hurricanes and nor’easters are not the same, as will be discussed.