the time, however, he suffered from ill 239–266; Hans Schleier, Geschichte der deuts- Besht’s circle of Hasidim and their disci- health, and though he moved to Vienna, chen Kulturgeschichtsschreibung (Waltrop, ., ples became charismatic leaders in he was too weak to dedicate himself fully 2003), vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 879–892; Otto Wittner, numerous communities in the regions of to this position. With his wife and young Moritz Hartmanns Leben und Werke, 2 vols. , Subcarpathian Rus’, and Belo- (Prague, 1906–1907). russia, attracting admirers and curious in- son, Ludo (later a well-known historian), —Wilma Iggers he was largely supported by Jewish phi- dividuals, particularly young schol- lanthropists. Hartmann was distressed by ars unable to satisfy their spiritual needs the Prussian victory of 1866 and even HASIDISM by traditional methods of scholarship. more by the unification of Germany that [To treat the historical rise, beliefs, and prac- experienced dramatic political was engineered by Bismarck in 1871. tices of the movement known as Hasidism, changes during the 1700s, culminating in Although Hartmann was the grandson this entry includes five articles. The first is a the last quarter of the century with that of the famous Prague El‘azar Fleck- historical overview that describes the devel- country’s partition among the surround- eles, and despite the fact that many of his opment of the movement and its geographic ing absolutist states; at the same time, the friends were , he was alienated from expansion from the late eighteenth century autonomous Jewish community began his religion. It is said that at the age of 13 to the present. The second article surveys Ha- to weaken, making way for new sources he threw his tefillin into a field of grain sidic teachings and literature. It is followed of religious inspiration and authority. by the side of the road. In his youth, by a description of the distinctive features of Hasidism prospered and spread against he was one of a small group of German- everyday life among Hasidim and successive the background of the collapse of the old speaking literati, both Jewish and gentile, articles on music and dance in Hasidism. For social order, a collapse that saw the aboli- who idealized the Czech past and identi- further and related discussion, see also en- tion of the Council of Four Lands in fied with Czech culture. The question for tries on specific Hasdic dynasties and leaders; 1764; the loss of faith in traditional insti- him remained whether he was Czech or ; Mysticism and Mystical Lit- tutions of community leadership, includ- German. It is not known if Hartmann erature; and Piety.] ing the rabbinate, which were increas- converted to Christianity. He was married ingly identified with the interests of the in a Christian church but was buried in Historical Overview Polish nobility; and many manifestations the Jewish cemetery in Vienna. Hasidism is a movement of religious re- of social and interclass tensions. These Hartmann’s writings included lyric and vival with a distinctive social profile. Orig- were further compounded by a religious– satirical poetry, novels, journalistic re- inating in the second quarter of the eigh- ethical crisis due to the remnants of ports, and lively descriptions of the regions teenth century, it has continued to exist Sabbatian messianism and , as and inhabitants he visited, most notably without interruption up to the present well as the weakened position of the rab- expressed in his Tagebuch aus Languedoc day. Its ideological and historical origins bis, many of whom were suspected of ow- und Provence (Diary from Languedoc and are generally associated with the figure ing their posts largely to their wealth and Provence; 1858). The volume Kelch und and unique teachings of Yisra’el ben contacts with authorities. Schwert (Chalice and Sword) glorifies the Eli‘ezer (1698/1700–1760), known as the Despite attempts by Misnagdim (oppo- Hussites and expresses regret over their Ba‘al Shem Tov (Master of the Good nents) to vilify Hasidism and describe its downfall. Published in Leipzig in 1845, it Name; abbreviated Besht), his self-aware- leaders as ignorant and corrupt, most or- was banned in Austria. ness as a leader of his people, and his ac- dinary people rejected these charges and The brilliant satire Reimchronik des tivities as the purveyor of a new reli- considered Hasidic leaders, the tsadikim Pfaffen Mauritius (Rhymed Chronicle of gious message. The emergence and rapid (lit., “righteous ones”), to be superior spir- the Priest Mauritius)—Mauritius being expansion of Hasidism, coupled with the itual figures. The weakening of the au- the Latin form of Hartmann’s own first feelings of identification it continues to thority of communal institutions pro- name—was published anonymously in arouse, have helped it to withstand per- vided an opportunity for the leaders of 1849; it deals with the failure of the sistent opposition and become a central Hasidism, thanks to their personal pres- Frankfurt parliament and that of the phenomenon of in the tige and moral position. While originally Hungarian revolution. Bruchstücke revo- modern era—one of the most prominent they had intended not to replace the old lutionärer Erinnerungen (Fragments of Rev- features in the religious, social, and expe- institutions but only to reinforce and be- olutionary Memories), concerned with the riential world of East European Jewry. come part of them, they essentially ap- 1848 revolution, appeared in 1861. Hart- The beginnings of Hasidism may be propriated powers that had previously mann also used his fictional works to traced to spontaneously formed, elitist been held by the community. highlight the fight for freedom from po- groups of Torah scholars and kabbalists in Beginning in the late eighteenth cen- litical oppression and economic injustice; the southeastern region of the Polish– tury, Hasidism experienced processes of for example, his Erzählungen eines Unsteten Lithuanian Commonwealth, particularly transformation and institutionalization (Tales of a Restless Man; 1858) concerns in the province of Podolia. In the genera- that changed its historical character. As it the fates of refugees and exiles. He also tion following the death of the Besht, his penetrated all corners of Eastern wrote lyric poetry in the tradition of the admirers called themselves Hasidim (Heb., and split into numerous subdivisions, it Austrian poet Nikolaus Lenau. more properly Ôasidim)—a highly charged grew into a popular movement that ap- term applied previously to individuals pealed to the masses and not only to the • Hillel J. Kieval, Languages of Community: The Jewish Experience in the Czech Lands (Berkeley, recognized in the community as excep- elite. It garnered supporters in all classes 2000), pp. 65–94; Margarita Pazi, “Der Reim- tionally pious or as kabbalists, who were of traditional society, whatever their edu- chronist des Frankfurter Parlaments,” Jahrbuch as such allowed to adopt certain distinc- cation or socioeconomic positions. Each S des Instituts für deutsche Geschichte 3 (1973): tive ritual practices. Members of the such group was headed by a tsadik (also R L

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MS3 known as or admor [Hebrew acro- main groups comprising ultra-Orthodox bred by a popular ethos that was reflected nym for “our master, our teacher, and our society: Hasidim and Misnagdim or, as in a literature of customs, ethics, and rabbi”]), who represented a new type of the latter are often called today, Litvaks homiletics, profoundly shaped by kabba- religious leadership. They enjoyed a sta- (Heb., Lita’im; Lithuanians). listic ideas. tus, prestige, and authority different from Since the first quarter of the nineteenth The social and ideological substrata those of the or elders who had century, hostility has given way to coexis- from which the leaders of both Hasidism been the traditional leaders of the com- tence. Nonetheless, Hasidism soon found and its opposition emerged were circles of munity. The tsadik was not formally ap- itself facing a new, far more determined pietists and kabbalists known as Hasidim. pointed or elected to his post; nor was he and sophisticated enemy—the . They were active in the southeastern dis- expected to prove his mettle in Torah The clash between Hasidim and maskilim tricts of Poland (now Ukraine) as individ- scholarship. He was accepted as leader by (followers of the Haskalah or Jewish En- uals and as Õavurot (Heb., groups), but his followers (including those not living lightenment) was not just a dispute be- they lacked unifying links. They operated in his own community) by virtue of his tween different groups in Jewish society in a variety of ways. Some individuals, re- charismatic personality or spiritual emi- over the correct way to worship God. Nor puted to be privy to the “holy spirit,” de- nence, and, from the nineteenth century, was it motivated by competition over voted themselves to religious and mysti- by dint of his descent from a dynasty economic interests and positions of influ- cal activities of an ascetic, reclusive nature; of previous tsadikim. Membership in a ence. It also represented a peak in the ba- others studied Torah and , en- Hasidic community was voluntary and sic tension that has characterized Jewish gaging in prayer and religious observance informal, depending on experience; one history throughout the modern era: this with an emphasis on such values as ec- joined by merely expressing one’s alle- ill feeling results from the conflicting stasy, joy, and religious devotion. giance to the tsadik. The literature of Ha- views of “innovators” and “conservatives” The main scene of the Besht’s activities sidism, which elaborated the special mys- with respect to the religious and cultural was the province of Podolia. After a pe- tical and social status of the tsadik as identity of Jewish society, as well as from riod of “concealment” and religious prep- divinely elected to his post, also ultimately the significance of “modern times” and aration, he revealed himself to the public upheld the dynastic principle as the sole their spirit in shaping the future of the (probably in 1733) as a ba‘al shem (profes- basis of legitimacy in Hasidic leadership Jewish people. [See Haskalah.] sional healer), proficient in the use of once this custom had taken hold near the Hasidism’s followers generally led the “holy names,” and as a mystic possessing end of the eighteenth century. The lead- conservative front and waged a deter- magical powers and bearing a new reli- ership of the dynastic tsadik is still the sa- mined, uncompromising struggle against gious message. lient characteristic of all Hasidic groups the Haskalah, as well as against secular- The Besht directed his first efforts at and communities (with the exception of ization, nationalism, and . In its members of the aforementioned pietist Bratslav Hasidism). early days, Hasidism played a radical, in- elites, hoping they would recognize both Hasidism has never been a “movement” novative role in Jewish society but re- his exceptional spiritual powers (which in the modern sense of having a central- mained confined within the bounds of were particularly obvious in his ecstatic ized organization. Hasidism is essentially traditional norms (halakhah). When the prayer) and the legitimacy of his charis- a collective term for a great variety of movement found itself confronting mo- matic leadership. After achieving some groups and subgroups that took shape dernity and a dichotomized Jewish soci- recognition, he began to propound his over the centuries, whether owing to dif- ety, conservative tendencies came to the unique teachings in these circles. Admirers ferent approaches or ideological and so- fore. Hasidism was thus not only a reli- were attracted to him mainly in the last cial emphases, or because of personal gious and social movement but also a ri- 20 years of his life (1740–1760), when conflict within the leadership. Since the val and competitor to other religious and he lived in the town of (Pol., nineteenth century, Hasidic groups have social currents that shook East European Mi×dzyboÛ; often spelled Medzhibozh or been identified with the dynasties to Jewry in the nineteenth and twentieth variants) and was recognized and re- which their leaders belong, and are gener- centuries. These currents, Hasidism in- spected by the whole community. ally designated by the names of the East cluded, sought to shape the identity of The Besht and his group formed an elit- European towns and villages where the Jewish society in the present and the fu- ist nucleus that followed the distinctive “courts” of those dynasties were estab- ture, not only through innovation and religious lifestyle and customs of similar lished or first became known. inner creation, but also through delegiti- groups of kabbalists and mystics in the The organized struggle against Hasi- mizing the opposing camp and posing an eighteenth century. For example, they dism, beginning in Vilna in 1772 when unyielding struggle against its influence. adopted the Sephardic version of the Hasidim in the community were excom- Emergence and Growth (1700–1760) prayer book with added kabbalistic kava- municated, reflected the perception of Hasidism was rooted in the milieu of not (intentions) attributed to YitsÕak Luria the movement as a threat to traditional the “old” world of Polish Jewry. When the and his disciples, purified themselves reg- structure and order partly because it pro- movement emerged at the time of the ularly by immersion in a mikveh (ritual claimed new sources of authority and Besht, it rose on the one hand from a co- bath), and used highly polished knives leadership. The struggle of the Misnag- herent, traditional society with an an- for ritual slaughter. dim against Hasidism, whatever its mo- cient tradition of communal organiza- The Besht’s disciples and colleagues, tives, failed utterly after only one stormy tion, a well-defined economic and legal some of whom were associated with other generation, but it left its mark on the gen- profile, a characteristic spoken and writ- pietist groups, included community rab- eral social and spiritual features of the tra- ten language (), and a lifestyle bis and Torah scholars (such as Ya‘akov ditional Jewish community, namely, the shaped by halakhah and its authoritative Yosef of Polnoye or Me’ir Margoliot of S persisting distinction between the two interpreters. On the other hand, it was Ostróg), preachers (itinerant and other- R L

660 HASIDISM: Historical Overview wise, such as MenaÕem Mendel of Bar, but did not accept the Magid’s leadership preting the principles of the Hasidic sys- Dov Ber of Mezritsh, or Aryeh Leib of and were in fact critical of his ideas. tem of worship and stressing the new, Polnoye), ritual slaughterers, cantors, and The partitions of Poland (in 1772, unique role of the tsadik as religious leader. teachers of young children. While the 1793, and 1795) and the collapse of the The 1780s saw the publication of the first Besht was also active among the lower kingdom that had hitherto combined all Hasidic books. In particular, three classic classes and was heedful of their troubles of East European Jewry into one political works on Hasidic doctrine were issued: and needs, they were not members of his unit provided the backdrop to the first Toldot Ya‘akov Yosef by Ya‘akov Yosef of closest circle and his new religious doc- formation of Hasidic “courts” on a perma- Polnoye (first published in Korets, 1780); trines were not meant for them. nent basis—a phenomenon that became Magid devarav le-Ya‘akov, by Dov Ber of Despite the concurrent activities of un- particularly widespread in the nineteenth Mezritsh (Korets, 1781); and No‘am Eli- dercover Sabbatians in the region, there is century. Emissaries and propagandists rep- melekh by Elimelekh of Lizhensk (Lwów, no convincing evidence of a link between resenting the tsadikim (or operating on 1788). them and the Besht’s circle, or of their their own) spread Hasidism and its doc- A systematic, organized campaign ideological influence. In any case, Has- trines beyond its original homelands, en- against Hasidism began in 1772 in several idism vehemently denied this accusation abling it to reach communities in western communities, notably Shklov, Vilna, and by its opponents, though it has been ac- , central Poland, Belorussia, and Brody. It was inspired and driven by the cepted by some scholars of the history of . outspoken opposition to Hasidism of Eli- Hasidism. In addition, there is no proof of The new Hasidic communities, thanks yahu ben Shelomoh Zalman, the Gaon of a relationship between early Hasidism to their predominantly young member- Vilna, then considered a supreme reli- and non-Jewish pietist groups that were ship and pioneering fervor, adopted pat- gious authority and a venerated figure. then active in Eastern Europe. terns of activity appropriate to a vibrant The struggle itself was waged by rabbis, The Besht’s associates were not content youth culture, and achieved coherence preachers, community officials, and lay merely to share their religious values and on the basis of unique shared religious, leaders. Moreover, communal authorities ideas, but also tried to exert spiritual and social, and economic experiences. Young used the sanctions at their disposal to en- scholarly influence on their communities men began to travel to their rebbe’s court force their opposition. These opponents and leaders. Criticizing existing priorities and to stay with him on Sabbaths and fes- objected to the popularization of the Ha- in the area of religious worship, they pro- tivals. These visits frequently led to their sidic mode of worship and other practices posed new directions of religious revival becoming Hasidim. Some, in fact, re- and doctrines. Opponents feared these and innovation, and advocated ecstatic mained for long periods and were known would undermine the existing religious fervor in religious observance, especially as yoshvim (Heb., residents). The “court” and social order in which only a few ex- in prayer. They expanded the concept of became the main unifying center for the ceptional personalities (that is, Hasidim to other areas of knowledge, devotees. It was filled not only with Hasi- in the old sense of the term) were entitled such as kabbalistic ethical literature, and dim coming there to bask in the rebbe’s to adopt uniquely pietistic modes of be- favored a new mode of religious leader- teaching and guidance, but also with out- havior. These elite included groups of ship that was committed to the commu- siders motivated by curiosity or a hope of pietists and kabbalists (such as the group nity in which it was operating. At this finding solace for their troubles. in the kloyz of Brody). Opponents of Hasi- stage, opposition to Hasidism was not or- With the consolidation of the Hasidic dism were also anxious to avert a new out- ganized and systematic but was confined community and an ensuing demand for break of heresy and quasi-Sabbatian incli- to sporadic criticism of a local nature. the teachings of the tsadikim, Hasidism nations. This chapter in the history of Hasidism developed a dynastic style of leadership, Anti-Hasidic bans and agitation contin- ends with the Besht’s death in 1760. regular institutions, and organized chan- ued even after the Gaon’s death in 1797, Consolidation and Dissemination nels of dissemination. Different types of but they gradually diminished, whether (1760–1815) leaders emerged. Among its heads were because of ineffectiveness, the lack of a At the center of the second period—the “theoretical” tsadikim devoted mostly to central authority to oversee the struggle transitional stage from an intimate circle spiritual matters and worship; these con- and arouse popular zeal, or the growing of Hasidim to a mass movement—stood trasted with “practical” leaders whose ma- realization that Hasidic doctrines were Dov Ber of Mezritsh (d. 1772), known as jor activity was to give advice and help to not so heretical after all. The death of the the Magid, and his disciples, who were ac- all seekers. Separate prayer groups in preachers Yisra’el Leibel of (ca. tive mainly in and Belorussia. communities distant from the “mother” 1800) and David of Makeve (Maków; d. Many of the Magid’s followers became courts were established. Demand arose 1814), who had considered themselves leaders of Hasidic communities while he for Hasidim to ensure the economic wel- to be the Gaon’s personal emissaries in was still alive (including Aharon ha-Gadol fare of the tsadik, his family, and his court. their vigorous anti-Hasidic activities, also [“the Great”] in Karlin and MenaÕem The tsadik and his followers were increas- added to the decline of the campaign. Mendel [of Vitebsk] in ) and to an ingly involved in the community at large, An important turning point in the his- even greater extent after his death. The attempting to gain power in the corridors tory of Hasidism occurred when the Rus- Magid was not seen as the Besht’s formal of community government by influenc- sian authorities agreed to allow the Ha- successor, but only as one of his major ing the dismissals and appointments of sidim to establish separate minyanim disciples. Other leaders who were active communal officials and clergy. (prayer groups) and elect their own spiri- around the same time, such as Ya‘akov As devotees gathered around differ- tual leadership. Such minyanim had al- Yosef of Polnoye (d. 1783) and PinÕas ent charismatic tsadikim and established ready been recognized in Galicia, then a S Shapira of Korets (d. 1790), also consid- themselves around their courts, theoreti- part of the Austrian Empire, by the R ered the Besht as their spiritual mentor, cal schools also began to emerge, inter- Toleranzpatent of 1789, but in Russia rec- L

HASIDISM: Historical Overview 661 Major Hasidic Centers, 1740–1815. Based on a map prepared for the exhibition “Time of the Hasidim,” by ElÛbieta DËugosz, The Historical Museum of Kraków—Old .

ognition came later, with the Jewish Stat- portant Hasidic dynasties took shape, and MenaÕem NaÕum of Chernobil (ca. 1730– ute of 1804. This official recognition of new types of tsadikim (representing the 1797), who founded the Twersky (or the legitimacy of the religious dichotomy many faces of the phenomenon) ap- Chernobil) dynasty, and Ze’ev Volf of in Jewish society dealt a further blow to peared in various areas of Eastern Europe. Zhitomir (d. 1798), whose book Or ha- the traditional community, ultimately Southwestern Provinces of Russia Me’ir is considered a basic work of Hasidic enabling not only Hasidism but also (Kiev, Podolia, Volhynia). Though sev- literature. Another remarkable figure from other groups (such as maskilim) to break eral disciples of the Magid of Mezritsh did this region was Levi YitsÕak of Barditshev free of their previously enforced affilia- not themselves lead large groups of devo- (Rus., Berdichev; ca. 1740–1809), a rabbi S tion with the traditional community. tees, they still had considerable spiritual and Torah scholar of who was ex- R During this period, some of the most im- impact. Among these were the preachers pelled from his town through pressure L

662 HASIDISM: Historical Overview from the Misnagdim and from 1785 to vitz (later of Nikolsburg; 1726–1778); successor, was marred by tension and his death was active in Barditshev as a among his disciples were Levi YitsÕak jealousy. An elite group of admirers gath- venerated Hasidic rabbi and leader. Also (later of Barditshev), ‘Uzi’el Meisels (1744– ered around Ya‘akov YitsÕak and chal- noteworthy were the Besht’s grandsons— 1785), Yisra’el Hapstein (later of Kozhe- lenged the Seer’s leadership. The new trail the brothers Mosheh Ôayim Efrayim of nits; 1737–1814), Eli‘ezer of Tarnogrod (d. blazed by Ya‘akov YitsÕak’s followers— Sudilkov (ca. 1740–1800) and Barukh ben 1806), and others. These were not fully who combined Hasidic and scholarly val- YeÕi’el of Mezhbizh (ca. 1756–1811); and developed Hasidic centers, but early nu- ues with intense criticism of “practical” the Besht’s great-grandson NaÕman of clei that foreshadowed the great expan- Hasidism, which they saw as a vulgariza- Bratslav (1772–1810), whose unique spiri- sion of Hasidism in nineteenth-century tion—as well as their custom to begin tual approach shook the Hasidic world. Poland. prayers at a late hour, aroused consider- Descendants of the Magid were notable as Western Galicia. The largest and most able opposition. One of these opponents well; among them were his only son, Av- important court in this region, at that was Me’ir ha-Levi of Apt (d. 1827), author raham, known as the “Angel” (ca. 1740– time a part of the Austrian Empire, formed of the work Or la-shamayim, who had con- 1776), who never served as a Hasidic around the figure of Elimelekh of Li- sidered himself a worthy successor of the leader; and his grandson Shalom Shakh- zhensk (1717–1787), brother of Zusya of Seer. After the Holy ’s death, many of nah of Pohorbishch (1769–1802), father Hanipoli and disciple of the Magid. Eli- his devotees flocked to his disciple Sim- of Yisra’el of and one of the first melekh is considered the archetypal “prac- Õah Bunem of Pshiskhe, who organized tsadikim to adopt the “regal way,” which tical” tsadik, who saw himself (and was them as a distinct Hasidic community rejected ascetisicm in favor of a display of seen by his Hasidim) as a kind of “chan- and defied the leaders of ’s Hasidic wealth. nel” through which divine abundance center. Northern Provinces of Russia. Farther could be brought down from the supernal Eastern Galicia. Known especially for north, in Grodno and Minsk provinces, worlds to our own. As such, he devoted its centers at Lizhensk and Rimanov, east- Aharon “the Great” of Karlin (1736–1772) most of his time and spiritual activity to ern Galicia was home to other Hasidic and his disciples were so active and prom- the material welfare of his followers (in leaders as well. The most important tsadik inent that Misnagdim referred to Hasidim Hasidic parlance, helping their quest for of the region was YeÕi’el Mikhl of Zlotshev in general as Karliners. He was succeeded bane Õaye u-mezone [descendants, health, (now Ukr., Zolochiv; 1726–1781), a disci- by his disciple Shelomoh of Karlin (1738– and livelihood]; at the same time, how- ple of the Besht and the Magid. Con- 1792), who was exiled from his home- ever, he expected them to support him, sidered the teacher of many future town in 1786 to Ludmir, Volhynia (mod. his family, and his court with monetary tsadikim, his descendants established a Ukr., Volodymyr-Volyns’kyi). The next contributions. ramified dynasty in Galicia and Volhynia admor was Asher Perlov of Stolin, son of Even before Elimelekh’s death, some of (Zvil [Ukr., Novohrad Volyns’kyi], Stepin, Aharon (1765–1826), under whom Karlin- his disciples founded new centers. The Brezna). Another important figure in Stolin Hasidism prospered until it became most prominent of these was Ya‘akov Galicia was Meshulam Fayvush Heller of the largest dynasty in Polesye. Other im- YitsÕak Horowitz of Lantset (Êaácut; ca. Zbarezh (ca. 1740–1794), disciple of the portant groups formed under Ôayim 1745–1815), known as the Seer of Lublin. Magid of Zlotshev and author of major Ôaykl of (d. 1787) and Mordekhai He was a charismatic personality who ex- literary works, including Derekh emet and of Lakhovits (1742–1810). plored mystical Hasidism and also had Yosher divre emet. Finally, Mosheh Leib of In the northeast provinces of Vitebsk the qualities necessary for leading a large Sasov (ca. 1745–1807) was famed for his and Mohilev, the most prominent Ha- community. His study house in Lublin religious ecstasy and intense devotion to sidic leaders were disciples of the Magid was the first Hasidic court located in an charitable acts and the ransoming of pris- of Mezritsh: MenaÕem Mendel of Vitebsk urban milieu (rather than a small village oners. (1730–1788), who moved to Vitebsk from or town). Nearly all leaders of Hasidism in By the end of the eighteenth century, Minsk; Avraham of Kalisk (1741–1810); Poland and Galicia, in his generation and a small Hasidic presence existed within and, after the latter two had immigrated later, considered themselves to be his dis- the borders of the main areas of Jewish to the Land of (1777), Shneur Zal- ciples. Other important followers of Eli- settlement in Eastern Europe including man (1745–1812), who founded the in- melekh of Lizhensk who headed large Bessarabia (Russia), Moldavia, and Buco- tellectually leaning Ôabad (an acronym communities were the magid Yisra’el Hap- vina (Austria). While various tsadikim vis- for Hebrew words meaning wisdom, un- stein of Kozhenits in Poland; MenaÕem ited these districts, none of them settled derstanding, and knowledge), known as Mendel of Rimanov in Galicia (d. 1815), for any length of time, and local disciples Lubavitch Hasidism, first in Liozno and whose court, which attracted many schol- affiliated themselves with far-off Hasidic later (from 1804) in Liady. ars, had previously been in Prishtik (Przy- centers in Ukraine, Galicia, or Poland. Central Poland. Several small groups of tyk); and Avraham Yehoshu‘a Heshel of One influential figure who helped to Hasidim associated with the Magid of Apt (1748–1825), who after much wan- spread Hasidism in these parts was Ôayim Mezritsh and his disciples were active in dering finally settled in Mezhbizh, and Tyrer (1760–1816/17), a rabbi in Czerno- central Poland, mainly in small commu- was considered in the last decade of his witz and Kishinev who later immigrated nities. Up until the 1780s, there was a Ha- life to be the oldest living tsadik. to the , and an important sidic presence in Ritshvol (RyczywóË), A unique and later highly influential Hasidic thinker (author of Be’er mayim Ostrevtse (Ostrowiec), Apt (Opatów), Zhe- figure in Polish Hasidism was a disciple Õayim and Siduro shel Shabat). likhov (Úelechów), and Novidvor (Nowy of the Seer, Ya‘akov YitsÕak of Pshiskhe Hungary. Hasidic influence was con- Dwór), as well as Kraków and the Praga (; 1766–1813), generally known fined to the rural northeastern districts S suburb of . From 1754 to 1776, a as Ha-Yehudi ha-Kadosh (the Holy Jew). (referred to by the Jews as Unterland), bor- R of Hasidic character in Ritshvol His relationship with his teacher, who dering on Galicia and Bucovina where L was headed by Shemu’el Shmelke Horo- had from the start singled him out as a the Jewish presence was sparse. In the

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MS3 1780s, YitsÕak Isaak Taub (d. 1821) estab- proper mode of worship. The dispute The fact that all parts of the traditional lished a Hasidic center in Nagykálló, and ended in the victory of the genetic heir, Jewish community, including Misnag- small groups of Hasidim were active but the movement split, and from that dim, accepted the existence of Hasidism mainly in the Máramaros (now Rom., point on, “outsiders” not descended from and recognized it as a religious move- Maramureã) district. Here, too, Hasidism previous tsadikim (or married into their ment, reflecting legitimate, though differ- gained strength only in the mid-nine- families) had very little chance of assum- ent, norms of behavior and religious life- teenth century. ing Hasidic leadership. style, contributed to the continuing Land of Israel. Hasidism was bent on The years 1810–1815 witnessed the spread of Hasidism. Hostility gave way to preserving traditional Jewish life in the deaths not only of Hasidism’s most vehe- coexistence, generally enabling the two Diaspora and on finding solutions for ment opponents, but also of many found- groups to live harmoniously, each culti- the difficulties of everyday life among the ing figures of Hasidic leadership. Their vating its own specific culture. Still, the Jewish masses of “old” Eastern Europe. places were now taken by a new genera- increase in the strength of the “Lithua- Despite the centrality of the Holy Land tion of tsadikim, members of dynasties or nian” yeshiva world, as well as the rise of in religious consciousness and Diaspora disciples who had reached maturity and the Musar movement, were spiritual phe- Jews’ recognition of the need to extend earned fame on their own merits. nomena that must be understood not material help to those who lived there, The year 1815 was also of literary sig- only in terms of their inner logic, but also the Land of Israel occupied a marginal nificance. Two of the most important as responses to the Hasidic challenge. place in the world of most tsadikim and works of Hasidic narrative were published During this period—the last in which Hasidim. then in Hebrew and Yiddish: ShivÕe ha- major new dynasties were established— As had been the custom for genera- Besht (In Praise of the Ba‘al Shem Tov)— Hasidism spread rapidly into the prov- tions, individual Jews including Hasidim an anthology of hagiographic stories about inces of Congress Poland, and was gener- immigrated to the Land of Israel—it was the lives of the Besht and his disciples, ally accepted there without particular said that even the Besht had made an compiled and edited by Dov Ber of Linits, friction. In spite of many communal ten- abortive attempt to do so. In 1777, a large whose father-in-law, Aleksander, had been sions in that region and period—some of group of Hasidim—not just a few individ- one of the Besht’s close companions; and them so acute that they reached the ears uals—led by MenaÕem Mendel of Vitebsk Sipure ma‘asiyot (Tales)—a collection of 13 of government authorities—issues mainly and Avraham of Kalisk, immigrated to stories, replete with a profound symbol- concerned economic or personal conflict Palestine. This wave of immigration, mo- ism, that NaÕman of Bratslav had told to rather than ideology. Hasidism also ex- tivated, according to some, by messianic his followers. Reacting to these books, a panded its influence in the southern expectations, created a sizable Hasidic prominent maskil, Yosef Perl, published a provinces of the (New presence in the Holy Land, mainly in brilliant satire titled Megaleh temirin (Re- Russia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia) and the and , and laid the organiza- vealer of Secrets; written in 1816, with eastern parts of the Austrian Empire (Bu- tional foundation for the collection of publication delayed by censorship until covina, western Galicia, and northeastern funds in the Diaspora for members of the 1819). These three books, each of which Hungary). In fact, Hasidism’s reach al- Hasidic community in the Holy Land. also had a Yiddish version, were highly most completely matched the distribu- While Hasidic immigration never actually influential in shaping the ethos of Ha- tion of Yiddish as a living, spoken lan- ceased, most leaders of the movement sidism and the Haskalah and helped to guage, and was blocked only where Jews preferred to preserve Jewish life in Eastern sharpen the messages and positions of had adopted the local language—Hungar- Europe, rather than settle either in Pales- the warring factions; to this day, they pro- ian in Budapest, German or Czech in tine or in Western countries. vide an invaluable key to the historical Prague, and German in Poznaá. The Problem of Succession. Toward the and ideological worlds of Hasidim and The expansion of the number of Ha- end of the eighteenth century, the estab- their opponents. sidic courts in this period and their in- lished Hasidic communities in Ukraine, Expansion and Atomization creasing diversity arose partly as a result eastern Galicia, and Belorussia began to (1815–1880) of significant improvements in commu- face the problem of succession (the prob- Following the Congress of Vienna nication networks, particularly due to the lem arose somewhat later in other areas (1815), Jews in “Congress” Poland and in railroad, beginning in the 1860s. The rail- such as Poland). The belief that the tsadik the Russian Pale of Settlement again were roads facilitated mobility, which resulted could bequeath his religious charisma to under the rule of the same government, in considerable change in everyday life, his offspring eventually became the guid- despite differences in legal status that still making the courts more accessible as ing principle behind leadership of the effectively separated the two communi- well. movement, but not without difficulty. ties. Ukraine. Hasidism became exception- Lubavitch Hasidism, for example, ex- The acceptance of Hasidism in most ally popular in Ukraine, where it appealed perienced a bitter struggle after the death East European Jewish communities, and to the majority of the traditional Jewish of its founder, Shneur Zalman of Liady its new status as a multigenerational mass community. In the first two decades of in late 1812. The rivals were his son, Dov movement, led to the formation of insti- the nineteenth century, the best-known Ber, known later as the Middle Rebbe tutionalized social mechanisms. One was courts were those of Mordekhai Twersky (1773–1827) and a disciple, Aharon ha- not just a “,” with no further affilia- of Chernobil (Czernobyl; 1770–1837), Mo- Levi Horowitz of Starosielce (1766–1828). tion; one had to be associated with a spe- sheh Tsevi of (d. 1838), and Yis- Their struggle, which was both personal cific tsadik or Hasidic court. As a result, ra’el Friedman of Ruzhin (1796–1850), and theoretical, centered over who was the tsadik, his family, and the attendant great-grandson of the Magid of Mezritsh. authorized to interpret the founder’s court establishment became a major fo- The young and popular tsadik Friedman S teachings and what ways represented the cus of identification and social cohesion. began his “reign” in 1815, ostentatiously R L

664 HASIDISM: Historical Overview Major Hasidic Courts, 1815–1939. Based on a map prepared for the exhibition “Time of the Hasidim,” by ElÛbieta DËugosz, The Historical Museum of Kraków—Old Synagogue.

displaying his wealth like a Polish mag- Almost all the descendants of these dy- ham Ya‘akov of Sadagora (1819–1883) nate. Accused of complicity in the mur- nasties set up courts of their own: Mor- and David Mosheh of Tshortkev (Pol., der of two Jewish informers, he was im- dekhai of Chernobil’s eight sons were ac- Czortków; Ukr., Chortkiv; 1827–1903). prisoned and interrogated, subsequently tive in Ukraine, the best known of them These two dynasties and their offshoots (in the early 1840s) escaping from Russia being David of Talnoye (the “Talner were the dominant Hasidic groups of to Austria. Eventually, he reestablished Rebbe”; 1808–1882) and YitsÕak of Skvira their respective districts. his sumptuous court at Sadagora in Bu- (1812–1885). The most renowned of Despite attempts by Russian authori- S covina, attracting thousands of Hasidim Yisra’el of Ruzhin’s six sons, active in Gali- ties, in the 1860s, to restrain the activities R from both sides of the border. cia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia, were Avra- of the tsadikim in Ukraine and curtail L

HASIDISM: Historical Overview 665 sands of Hasidim flocked to his court, which he ruled with a conservative, zeal- ous hand, exemplified in his excommuni- cation in 1869 of the Sadagora dynasty and their followers. His descendants es- tablished courts in Shinyeve (Sieniawa), Gorlits (), Tsheshenev (Cieszanów), and (). Other important figures in Galician Hasidism were Kalonymos Kalman Ep- stein of Kraków (ca. 1751–1823), whose work Ma’or va-shemesh is one of the fun- damental works of Hasidism, and his son Yosef Barukh (1792–1867), a renowned miracle worker known as the Guter (tsadik) of Neustadt (Nowe Miasto). Uri ben PinÕas of Strelisk (1757–1826), known as the Seraph because of his ecstatic style of prayer, headed a group known for their poverty and asceticism. His disciple and successor was Yehudah Tsevi Brandwein Court of the Tshortkever Rebbe, David Mosheh, Czortków, Poland (now Chortkiv, Ukr.). (YIVO) of Stratin (1780–1844), who had been a ritual slaughterer before he became a tsadik. Tsevi Elimelekh of (1785– their freedom of movement, these restric- Avraham Weinberg of (1804– 1841) was a rabbi and kabbalist, a proli- tions could not stem the expansion of 1883). fic author (among his texts were Bene Hasidism. Another well-known Hasidic Galicia. In Austrian-ruled Galicia, Ha- Yisakhar and Derekh pikudekha), and a fa- group was made up of Bratslav Hasidism, sidism spread rapidly, establishing large natical foe of Haskalah. His descendants whose devotees were led after the death centers that attracted thousands of devo- headed the Munkatsh dynasty (Hun., of NaÕman by his faithful disciple and tees. Most of the dynasties originated Munkács; now Ukr., Mukacheve). scribe, Natan Sternhartz of Nemirov in the generation of the Seer of Lublin, Other leaders included Me’ir of Premish- (1780–1844). This small, lively, and rest- the Magid of Kozhnits, and MenaÕem lan (Peremysh’lany; 1780–1850), known less Hasidic community attracted consid- Mendel of Rimanov, and some of their as a miracle worker whose court attracted erable attention—but also sharp opposi- disciples. Naftali Horowitz of Ropshits admirers seeking his blessing for welfare tion, and was constantly persecuted by (Ropczyce; 1760–1827), known for his and livelihood. His descendants headed other Hasidim. acerbic tongue, founded a dynasty whose the dynasties of Nadvorne and Kret- Belorussia and Lithuania. The most most famous offshoots were in Dzikev shniv (Rom., Crçciuneãti). Tsevi Hirsh of prominent Hasidic community in Belo- (Tarnobrzeg-Dzików) and Rozvedev (Roz- Rimanov (1778–1846), nicknamed Mesha- russia was that of the Lubavitch Hasidim. wadów). Shalom RokeaÕ (1783–1855) ret (Attendant), was recognized as a tsadik From 1813 its center was in Lubavitch, founded the dynasty, later a major by his own mentor, MenaÕem Mendel of but it had many distant offshoots in branch of Hasidism whose leaders were Rimanov, but began to lead his flock only Ukraine, New Russia, and Bessarabia. Af- deeply involved in Jewish public life, es- after the death of Naftali of Ropshits ter the death of MenaÕem Mendel Shneer- pecially in the time of his son Yehoshu‘a (1827). Famed for his religious fervor, son (or ; 1789–1866), known (1825–1894). Tsevi Hirsh was not known for his schol- as the TsemaÕ Tsedek, there was a dispute Members of the Eichenstein family arship, and for that reason, as well as his over the inheritance of leadership among headed dynasties representing a special “lowly” social origins (he had been a tai- his five sons, and a dissenting court was aspect of kabbalistic Hasidism; the most lor’s apprentice in his youth), other established in . prominent tsadikim in this dynasty were tsadikim were critical of him. In Lithuanian Polesye, Karlin-Stolin Ha- Tsevi Hirsh of Zhidachov (or Zhidetshoyv; Congress Poland. After 1815 the dy- sidism had become an important group 1763–1831) and his nephew YitsÕak Yehu- namic center of Polish Hasidism shifted under Aharon Perlov (the Second) of Kar- dah YeÕi’el Safrin of Komarno (1806– from Lublin to Pshiskhe and its environs. lin (1802–1872), grandson of the founder. 1874). Both were prolific authors, pro- A circle of scholarly Hasidim around Sim- Because of a dispute with members of a found mystics, and venerated leaders. Õah Bunem of Pshiskhe (1765–1827), a powerful Pinsk family, Aharon and his The most important Galician tsadik disciple of the Holy Jew and a licensed court were expelled from Karlin (probably was Ôayim Halberstam (1797–1876), who apothecary, shook the Hasidic world with in 1864) and resettled in Stolin. Karlin- lived from 1830 on in Sandz (often Zanz its radically critical, anarchistic doctrines Stolin Hasidism had four main offshoots or Tsanz; Pol., Nowy SÙcz), where he and scholarly tendencies, and produced that developed into independent dynas- served as rabbi and gained recognition as some of the most important leaders of ties. These were headed by NoaÕ of a distinguished halakhic authority, whose Polish Hasidism. After SimÕah Bunem’s Lakhovits (1774–1832), Mosheh Polier of rulings were also accepted by non-Hasidic death, some of his Hasidim pledged alle- Kobrin (1784–1858), Shelomoh Ôayim circles. His best known book is the collec- giance to his charismatic disciple Mena- S Perlov of Koidanov (1797–1862), and tion of his responsa, Divre Ôayim. Thou- Õem Mendel Morgenstern of Kotsk (1787– R L

666 HASIDISM: Historical Overview 1859), who further reinforced the schol- Hasidim in Kotsk, and his descendants es- Saba’ ha-Kadosh (Holy Old Man); Shelo- arly trend and set radical standards of tablished small courts in Pileve (PiËawa) moh Rabinovich of (1803– ethical perfection and self-denial for him- and Sokelove (SokoËów). 1866), leader of an important dynasty self and his followers. Other branches of Pshiskhe Hasidism of tsadikim that attracted many follow- Toward the end of 1839, a kind of rebel- are represented by the Vurke and Alek- ers; and Avraham Landau of Chekhanov lion shook the Kotsk court: Mordekhai sander schools. Vurke- (Mszczo- (1784–1875), father of Ze’ev Volf of Yosef Leiner (1801–1854), one of Morgen- nów) Hasidism was established by YitsÕak Strikov and the only tsadik in the history stern’s favorite pupils, left him, taking Kalish of Vurke (1779–1848), disciple of of Hasidism who insisted on using the with him a group of leading Hasidim. Fol- SimÕah Bunem of Pshiskhe, a close friend traditional Ashkenazic prayer rite. The de- lowing and perhaps even before these of the rebbe of Kotsk, as well as a well- scendants of the Magid Yisra’el of Kozhe- events, the Rebbe of Kotsk began to ex- known intercessor for the interests of nits, who headed courts in that town, hibit strange behavior, effectively becom- Polish Jewry. Aleksander Hasidism, an off- Moglnitse (Mogielnica), Blendev (BË×dów), ing a recluse in his own house. This self- shoot of Vurke, was established after Yits- and Grodzisk, formed another distinct imposed seclusion lasted some 20 years Õak’s death by his disciple Shraga Feivel group that rejected the doctrines of until his death; over those years, the in- Danziger of Gritsa (Grójec), who officiated Pshiskhe. ner cohesion of his Hasidim was under- as tsadik for a very brief period (he died in Bessarabia and Hungary. Two small mined. 1848). He was succeeded by his son Hasidic dynasties were active in Bessa- Mordekhai Yosef Leiner founded a dy- YeÕi’el (1828–1894), who established a rabia. One was headed by Aryeh Leib nasty in Izhbits (Izbica) and adopted a court at Aleksander (Aleksandrów, near Wertheim of Bendery (d. 1854), the other doctrine of radical determinism with dis- Êódß), ultimately making it the second by Yosef of Rashkov (died ca. 1837). tinct antinomian overtones, as reflected largest Hasidic dynasty in Poland (after The first to spread Hasidism in Hungary in his book Me ha-ShiloaÕ. He was suc- Ger). was Mosheh Teitelbaum (1759–1841), a ceeded by his son Ya‘akov (d. 1878), who Among other tsadikim identified with disciple of the Seer of Lublin and a scholar moved the court shortly before his own Pshiskhe-Kotsk were David Biederman of and kabbalist also known for his amulets. death to Radzin (Radzyn), and then by his (1746–1814) and his son Mosheh In 1808, he left Sieniawa in Galicia and grandson Gershon Henikh (1839–1891), (1777–1850), who immigrated to Pales- settled in Uyhel (Sátoraljaújhely), Hun- an imperious, stormy, innovative person- tine in his last years. YeÕezkel Taub of gary. Hasidism gained strength in those ality. Gershon Henikh was known for writ- (Kazimierz Dolny; 1772–1856), regions, especially in Transylvania and ing a “New ” to the order Tohorot known for his musical talent, was a fore- Subcarpathian Rus’, only in the 1850s, es- of the (to which there is no real runner of Modzits Hasidism, celebrated pecially in Munkács (Yid., Munkatsh), Má- Talmud), and even more for his claim to for its melodies. Ôanokh Henikh Levin of ramarossziget (Sighet Marmaíiei), and have rediscovered the secret of producing Aleksander (1798–1870) was considered (). the blue dye (Heb., tekhelet) for the tsitsit the major disciple of YitsÕak-Me’ir of Ger. The influence of the Sadagora and Sandz (fringes of the prayer shawl)—his Ha- After the latter’s death in 1866, many of dynasties and their offshoots in these sidim zealously observed this command- his disciples went to Ôanokh Henikh’s parts was considerable, but even more so ment but most others did not accept his court in Aleksander, but returned after his was that of the tsadikim of Vizhnits claim. death to the courts of Ger and Sokhachev (Rom., Vijniía; Ukr., Vyzhnyts’a) in Buco- Another important dissenting disciple (Sochaczew). Ya‘akov Aryeh Guterman of vina. The leader of the Vizhnits Hasidim of the Kotsk court who moved to Izhbits Radzymin (1792–1874) was a disciple of was MenaÕem Mendel Hager (1830– was Yehudah Leib Eger of Lublin (1816– YitsÕak of Vurke; after the latter’s death, 1884), younger son of the Galician tsadik 1888), scion of a well-known rabbinic Guterman led thousands of Hasidim and Ôayim of (ca. 1795–1854) and son- family of Poznaá, who had been attracted was famed for writing amulets and work- in-law of Yisra’el of Ruzhin. to Hasidism in his youth. In 1854, after ing miracles. Some descendants of the Land of Israel. The small Hasidic com- the death of his mentor Mordekhai Yosef, Holy Jew who rejected the doctrines of munity in Palestine was defined by affilia- he returned to Lublin, where he headed a SimÕah Bunem of Pshiskhe headed Ha- tion with kolels, reflecting their geograph- Hasidic community committed to the sidic courts at Purisev (Parysów), Bekhev ical association with, and economic Izhbits school of Hasidism. (Bychawa), Shidlovtse (SzydËowiec), and dependence on, the “mother” courts in Some disciples of the rebbe of Kotsk Kaleshin (KaËuszyn). Eastern Europe: Hasidim from Volhynia kept faith with him during his years of se- Confronting the Pshiskhe school of and Galicia congregated in Safed under clusion. Among these were his brother- Hasidism was another school of the Seer’s the leadership of Avraham Dov of Ovritsh in-law, YitsÕak [Itche] Me’ir Alter of War- disciples, which placed emphasis on ma- (Ovruch; ca. 1765–1840), who had come saw (1799–1866), an astute Torah scholar terial well-being as a basis for religious to the Holy Land in 1833, while Hasidim and halakhist (author of Ôidushe ha-Rim), life. This school considered the tsadik a hailing from Belorussia settled mainly in and Ze’ev Volf Landau of Strikov (1807– major channel for reception of divine Tiberias. In 1819, a small Hasidic commu- 1891). In 1859, after the rebbe’s death, abundance and responsible for the subsis- nity had been established in Hebron, later YitsÕak Me’ir led a large group of Hasidim tence of his Hasidim. Among its most becoming a center for Lubavitch Ha- and settled in the town of Góra Kalwaria, prominent advocates were Me’ir of Apt, sidim. An organized Hasidic community near Warsaw, where he founded the Ger who assumed the leadership of opponents in was established in the early school of Hasidism, which grew into the to Pshiskhe; Yesha‘yah of Pshedborzh 1840s on the initiative of two printers, largest Hasidic dynasty in pre-Holocaust (Przedbórz; 1758–1831); Yisakhar Ber of Yisra’el Bak of Berdichev and his son S Poland. David, son of MenaÕem Mendel Radeshits (Radoszyce; 1765–1843), famed Nisan, who were Sadagora Hasidim. R of Kotsk (1809–1873), continued to lead for working miracles and known as Ha- Splinters and Controversies. In the his- L

HASIDISM: Historical Overview 667

MS3 Purim painting, untitled. Safed, Israel, 19th century. Hasidic Jews celebrating Purim with a Sephardic Jew (left). The inscription is part of a passage from the Talmud urging Jews to imbibe enough alcohol so that they will not know the difference between the phrases “cursed is ” and “blessed is Mordechai.” Collection of Isaac Einhorn, . (Erich Lessing/Art Resource NY)

tory of Hasidism, the period from 1815 to Hasidim; and the stormy controversy in in traditional economic patterns, acceler- 1880 saw a transition from a single move- 1869 between the tsadik Ôayim of Sandz ated industrialization and urbanization, ment with numerous communities, each and the Sadagora dynasty are just exam- crowded living conditions, the tremen- representing its own spiritual tendencies, ples of the internal friction that agitated dous increase in the Jewish population of to extreme atomization, with communi- and split Hasidic communities for several the Pale of Settlement, and numbing pov- ties splintering into tiny subcommuni- decades. erty—all of which created an entirely new ties. Almost every son of a tsadik (and Stagnation and Struggle (1880–1918) spiritual and social climate. Though new sometimes grandsons and sons-in-law) The period of pogroms and the waves forms of literature and journalism, in He- saw fit to set up his own court. Atomiza- of emigration in the last decades of the brew and in Yiddish, became major fac- tion led to disintegrative, unstable trends: nineteenth century had their effects on tors in Jewish public discourse, there was bitter disputes between tsadikim, compe- Hasidism, but the secularizing trends in almost no representation of Orthodoxy, tition for loyalty, and the formation of an Jewish society were its greatest enemy. including Hasidism, in that medium. The internal, popular hierarchy of prestige Dozens of tsadikim, major and minor Orthodox struggle against these new cur- that measured the merits of the numer- alike, were active at the time in hundreds rents only heightened their inclination to ous tsadikim, whether as individuals or of Hasidic communities all over Eastern close ranks in defense, painting their relative to their rivals. Europe, but the history of Hasidism at leaders with a conservative, even fanati- These splintering processes also reflec- the turn of the twentieth century has re- cal color. ted contradictory spiritual and social cur- ceived little if any scholarly attention. Hasidism gradually lost its attractive- rents, contributing to the extreme diversi- Nevertheless, there is little doubt that the ness. Wealthy courts found themselves in fication of the Hasidic mosaic. Flanking Hasidic court was severely shaken by the financial straits; the old, traditional edu- innovative trends, sometimes approach- storms pounding its walls from without. cational system, incapable of giving its ing the radical and even the anarchic, one It was generally felt that modern life and graduates a general education or voca- also finds a nostalgic longing for the pre- the secular-revolutionary atmosphere tional training, was undermined; and To- Hasidic values of pietism and asceticism, sweeping over the Jews of Eastern Europe rah scholarship and piety lost their pri- an emphasis on the value of traditional would do much more damage to Ha- macy in the internal hierarchy of the Torah study, and a preference for halakhic sidism than the distribution of satires and Jewish community. Hasidic leaders, not stringency. Numerous personal power polemical tracts or attempts to enlist the blind to this unprecedented spiritual cri- struggles, often presented as ideological help of the authorities. sis, took various steps in an attempt to arguments, also reflected elements of de- Secularization derived its strength not halt the erosion. cline and decay. Attempts to excommuni- only from modern Jewish ideologies of As early as 1878, several Galician admo- cate Pshiskhe Hasidism (between 1815 nationalism and socialism, but also from rim, headed by Yehoshu‘a RokeaÕ of Belz, and 1825); the persecution of Bratslav increasing acculturation, decline of the established Makhzikey ha-Das (Defenders Hasidim in the 1830s by Savran Hasidim shtetl (life in which was identified with of Faith), to oppose the maskilim of Lwów S and in the 1860s by Talnoye and Skvira the stagnation of the tradition), changes and promote the interests of Hasidic Or- R L

668 HASIDISM: Historical Overview

MS4 thodoxy using modern, political tools. leaders of the Ger Hasidim were the sec- sidism, such as Ger or Aleksander, which They published a newspaper and par- ond admor Yehudah Leib Alter (1847– favored a combination of Hasidic piety ticipated in Austrian parliamentary elec- 1905), grandson of the founder of the dy- with a tradition of deep political involve- tions. The most significant turning point, nasty, and known for his multivolume ment in Jewish community affairs, still however, came at the end of the period. work Sefat emet, and his son and suc- attracted thousands of followers and ad- Building on contacts that had already be- cessor, Avraham Mordekhai Alter (1866– mirers, but even these successes could not gun in 1909, in 1916 a group of German 1948), one of the founders of Agudas stem the tide of secularization, socialism, rabbis joined forces with the tsadikim of Yisroel and its driving force. Sokhachev and Zionism (including religious Zion- the Ger dynasty to establish, in Warsaw, Hasidism, founded in 1870, was led by ism) that swept over large numbers of the political arm of Agudas Yisroel. While Avraham Bornstein and, after his death in Jewish youth in Eastern Europe. the movement considered itself to be 1910, by his son Shemu’el (1855–1926). In reaction to the threat of secular her- the guardian of ultra-Orthodox Jewry as The leader of the Aleksander dynasty esy and Zionism, ultra-Orthodox society a whole (seeking to unite Polish Ha- from 1894 was YeraÕmi’el Yisra’el YitsÕak (including Hasidism), especially in Galicia sidim, Lithuanian Misnagdim, and Ger- Dantsiger (1854–1910), later succeeded and Hungary, closed its ranks, adopting man Neo-Orthodox), it was largely domi- by his brother Shemu’el Tsevi (d. 1923). ever more stringent and conservative po- nated by the Polish Hasidic element, and A unique figure in the world of late sitions. Leading Hasidism at this time, its leadership generally reflected this Hasidism was Tsadok ha-Kohen of Lublin and largely dictating the fanatical tone, domination. (1823–1900), a disciple of the Izhbits were the of Belz, Sandz, and Sat- Another innovation of this period was school, who became a leader of Hasidim mar and their offshoots, who opposed the foundation of Hasidic . Until only after the death of his mentor, Yehu- not only Zionism but even Agudas Yis- then, yeshivas had been identified with dah Leib Eger. He was known as a prolific roel. Most prominent were the venerated the Misnagdim or the Musar movement author who wrote several works of origi- leader of Belz Hasidism, Yisakhar Dov Ro- in Lithuania; their adoption by Hasidic nal Hasidic-kabbalistic thought (includ- keaÕ (1854–1926), and his rival, Ôayim courts may be attributed not only to a re- ing Tsidkat ha-tsadik, Peri tsadik, and El‘azar Shapira of Munkatsh (1872–1937), turn to the conservative values of classic Resise lailah) that aroused considerable in- leader of the Carpatho-Rusyn Hasidim Torah study, but also to the realization terest outside the Hasidic world as well. from 1914, who was known for his schol- that the yeshiva study method was a Upheaval and Destruction arship but also for his belligerent person- fitting response to the threat and seduc- (1918–1945) ality. tive power of secularization. The first Ha- World War I and the disintegration of One particularly outspoken figure was sidic yeshivas were founded in the early the multinational empires of Austria and Yo’el Teitelbaum (1887–1979). In 1934, 1880s, in Vishnitsa, Galicia (Pol., WiÓnicz), Russia resulted in the physical destruc- he settled in Satmar where, thanks to his by Shelomoh Halberstam (1847–1905), tion of some of the greatest Hasidic cen- vigorous activities as rabbi, principal of grandson of Ôayim of Sandz and founder ters in Ukraine, Poland, and Galicia (in- the yeshiva, and tsadik, he became a re- of the Bobov dynasty; and in Sokhachev, cluding the courts of Sadagora, Chortkiv, vered Hasidic figure throughout Transyl- Congress Poland, by the rebbe of Kotsk’s and Belz). The tsadikim, their families, vania. In 1944, he escaped the Germans son-in-law Avraham Bornstein (1839– and associates were forced to relocate, de- in the “Zionist” rescue train organized by 1910), known as a Torah scholar whose parting for other countries or large cities Rezsë Kasztner, reaching Switzerland and books (Avne nezer; Egle tal) were also stud- such as Vienna. The shift of Hasidic going from there to Palestine. After a brief ied in the non-Hasidic yeshiva world. courts from the small town to the great stay, he left for the United States, where Subsequently, yeshivas, large or small, city was one of the signs of the times. he reestablished his court, making it the were established in almost every Hasidic Civil wars in Ukraine and the creation largest Hasidic community in existence court. Among the best known is Tomkhe of the Soviet regime, which sealed its bor- after , and continuing to be Temimim, founded in Lubavitch (1897) ders, all but liquidated Hasidic activities an indefatigable foe of the State of Israel. on the initiative of the fifth admor Sha- within the Soviet Union. Only Lubavitch Another fierce opponent of Zionism and lom Dov (Ber) Shneerson (1860–1920). managed to maintain an underground Agudas Yisroel was Yosef YitsÕak Shneer- The emergence of the Hasidic yeshiva presence under the iron fist of the anti- son (1880–1950), leader of the Lubavitch exemplified the processes of Orthodoxi- clerical regime. Hundreds of Bratslav Ha- Hasidim in Soviet Russia. Imprisoned in zation that gradually blurred religious dif- sidim in Poland, unable to assemble at 1927 and then released, he wandered ferences between Hasidim, non-Hasidim, the grave of NaÕman in Uman, moved through Russian, Latvian, and Polish cit- and Misnagdim, combining them into the location of their “Holy Gathering” ies, finally reaching New York in 1940, what would later be known as Ôaredi so- during the High Holy Days to Lublin. where he reestablished his court. ciety—a loose coalition of diverse, some- They lodged and prayed in the spacious One of the most colorful Hasidic lead- times conflicting groups that waged a halls of the Ôakhme Lublin Yeshiva, en- ers was Aharon Roth of Beregsas (Hun., common war against all manifestations joying the hospitality of its principal, Beregszász; now Ukr., Berchove; 1894– of Haskalah, modernization, and secular- Me’ir Shapira, himself a Hasidic rabbi. 1947), who founded a new, extreme, Ha- ization. Even in independent Poland, however, sidic community known as Shomre Emu- At this time, the admorim of the three Hasidism could not recoup its losses, al- nim, with centers in Satmar, Beregsas, major Polish dynasties—Ger, Sokhachev, though a few of its centers seemed to and Jerusalem. His Hasidim followed and Aleksander—emphasized the tradi- enjoy some quantitative and qualitative strict rules of simplicity and modesty, and tional values of Torah scholarship and success, particularly in the larger cities were known for their fierce stance against S halakhic stringency, thus giving Polish (Warsaw and Êódß) and medium-sized Zionism. R Hasidim a more scholarly coloring. The towns. Typically “Polish” branches of Ha- The terrors of the Holocaust and the di- L

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MS3 abolical implementation of the Final So- sidism began successfully to rebuild itself. Mystic, and Leader, trans. Saadya Sternberg lution dealt a mortal blow to ultra-Ortho- Within a single generation, it has again (Waltham, Mass. and Hanover, N.H., 2005); dox Jewry in general and to Hasidim in established itself on spiritual, social, and Arthur Green, Tormented Master: A Life of particular. Besides the physical threat, demographic planes. In so doing it has Rabbi Nahman of Bratslav (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1979); Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Circle of Hasidim had to grapple with grave theo- once more proved its unbelievable power the : Studies in Hasidism (Chi- of survival and its inherent vitality and logical misgivings, a desperate quest for cago, 1985); Gershon D. Hundert, ed., Essen- divine providence, profound guilt feel- creativity. tial Papers on Hasidism: Origins to Present (New ings, and attempts to explain the catas- Despite sea changes in Hasidism in this York, 1991); Ôayim Liberman, RaÕel, trophe as a divine punishment. Impas- period, its East European features are still vols. 1–3 (New York, 1980–1984); Raphael sioned faith was mingled with bitterness evident, whether in the names of the var- Mahler, Hasidism and the Jewish Enlightenment: and doubt about the wisdom of Hasidic ious courts (which preserve the names of Their Confrontation in Galicia and Poland in the leaders who had despised Zionism before the East European towns or villages that First Half of the Nineteenth Century (Philadel- the Holocaust, some of whom had urged were once their centers), in their customs phia, 1985); , The Faith of the their followers to remain in the Diaspora of everyday clothing, culinary traditions, Mithnagdim: Rabbinic Responses to Hasidic Rap- ture (Baltimore, 1997); Mendel Piekarz, Bi- but had unhesitatingly taken the oppor- and religious lifestyle, but particularly Yeme tsemiÕat ha-Õasidut: Megamot ra‘yoniyot with the survival of Yiddish as the main tunity to escape to safety in their own be-sifre derush u-musar (Jerusalem, 1978); Men- time of need. spoken language among most Hasidic del Piekarz, Ôasidut Polin: Megamot ra‘yoniyot Unique Hasidic voices could be heard communities. ben shete ha-milÕamot uvi-gezerot tav-shin–tav- even during the Holocaust. One such Since the collapse of Communist rule, shin-he (“ha-sho’ah”) (Jerusalem, 1990); Tzvi voice was Esh kodesh (Holy Fire), an an- Hasidim have been expressing their East M. Rabinowicz, ed., The Encyclopedia of Hasi- thology of sermons delivered by Kalony- European roots through ritual pilgrim- dism (Northvale, N.J., 1996); Wolf Zeev Rabi- mus Kalmish Shapira of Pisetsne (Pia- ages to the tombs of tsadikim and other nowitsch, Lithuanian Hasidism from its Begin- seczno; 1889–1943) to his Hasidim in historical sites associated with Hasidism, ning to the Present Day (, 1970); Ada the , reflecting on the hor- and through vigorous activities aimed at Rapoport-Albert, ed., Hasidism Reappraised (London and Portland, Ore., 1996); Moshe rors of the Holocaust from a sober, an- repairing tombstones and memorials of Rosman, Founder of Hasidism: A Quest for the guished, Hasidic perspective. Another famous rebbes. These developments are Historical Ba‘al Shem Tov (Berkeley, 1996); text, Em ha-banim semeÕah (Happy Mother especially evident in the Ukrainian towns Avraham Rubinstein, ed., Perakim be-torat ha- of Children), by Slovakian rabbi Yisakhar of Mezhibezh, where the Besht and some Õasidut uve-toldoteha (Jerusalem, 1978); Joseph Shelomoh Teichthal (1885–1945), is a of his disciples and successors are buried, Weiss, Studies in Eastern European Jewish Mysti- rare expression of personal and commu- and Uman, site of NaÕman of Bratslav’s cism, ed. David Goldstein (Oxford and New nal self-reckoning written in Budapest in grave, which has become—especially dur- York, 1985); Joseph Weiss, MeÕkarim ba- the midst of the war (1943). Teichthal, ing the High Holy Days—a favorite pil- Õasidut Braslav, ed. Mendel Piekarz (Jerusalem, formerly a foe of Zionism, did not hesi- grimage site for thousands of visitors, 1974); Aaron Wertheim, Law and Custom in tate to castigate contemporary tsadikim many of whom are not Bratslav Hasidim Hasidism, trans. Shmuel Himelstein (Hobo- ken, N.J., 1992); Mordecai Wilensky, Ôasidim for their fanatical opposition to the na- themselves. Hasidic hotels have in fact u-mitnagdim, 2 vols., 2nd rev. ed. (Jerusalem, tional movement, and for their loss of the been built in these towns to accommo- 1990); Marcin Wodziáski, Haskalah and Ha- opportunity to save the Jewish people date the many visitors. sidism in the Kingdom of Poland: A History of from extermination. Hasidic emissaries are active today in Conflict (Oxford, 2005). Rehabilitation and Revival Russia, Ukraine, and the Baltic states, par- —David Assaf (since 1945) ticularly members of the Lubavitch and Translated from Hebrew by David Louvish The destruction of the centers of Ha- Karlin dynasties, but their activities are sidism during the Holocaust, especially in aimed primarily at reinforcing religion Poland and Hungary, signaled the histor- and traditional education among the Jew- Teachings and Literature ical end of Hasidism as a Jewish experi- ish community at large and not at creat- The term Hasidic theology should refer to a ence on East European soil. From then ing new Hasidic communities. body of ideas that have characterized Ha- on, its history has belonged to those sidic thought from its beginnings in the • Aaron Zeev Aescoly, Ha-Ôasidut be-Polin countries where remnants of the move- mid-eighteenth century to the present, (Jerusalem, 1998); YitsÕak Alfasi, Ha-Ôasidut ment, having escaped or survived the and may be distinguished in a meaning- mi-dor le-dor, 2 vols. (Jerusalem, 1995–1998); European inferno, managed to reconsti- David Assaf, ed., Breslav: Bibliografyah mu’eret ful way from the thought of non-Hasidic tute their communities—in particular, (Jerusalem, 2000); David Assaf, ed., Tsadik ve- teachers, both before and during this pe- the eastern regions of North America and ‘edah: Hebetim historiyim ve-Õevratiyim be-Õeker riod and since. Every attempt by modern the State of Israel. Despite the inherently ha-Õasidut (Jerusalem, 2001); David Assaf, The scholars to present such a body of ideas, East European character of Hasidism, lead- Regal Way: The Life and Times of Rabbi Israel of however, has failed. The conceptions and ers and devotees were able to adjust to en- Ruzhin (Stanford, Calif., 2002); Israel Bartal, ideas that dominate Hasidic literature can tirely new political and economic condi- Rachel Elior, and Chone Shmeruk, eds., Tsadi- be found in kabbalistic and ethical litera- tions, in fact taking advantage of them to kim ve-anshe ma‘aseh: MeÕkarim be-Õasidut ture before the eighteenth century, and Polin (Jerusalem, 1994); , Tales of consolidate their communities anew. play a prominent role in modern non-Ha- the Hasidim (New York, 1991); Joseph Dan, In the course of the 1950s, thanks to an sidic and anti-Hasidic writings as well. It Ha-Sipur ha-Õasidi (Jerusalem, 1975); Simon impressive series of charismatic leaders Dubnow, Toldot ha-Õasidut (Tel Aviv, 1930– is very easy to distinguish between a Hasid with organizational talents who knew 1931); Glenn Dynner, Men of Silk: The Hasidic and a non-Hasid by their dress, customs, how to instill their followers with faith Conquest of Polish Jewish Society (Oxford, manner of prayer, loyalty to a rebbe, and S and self-confidence, the world of Ha- 2006); Etkes, The Besht: Magician, many other obvious aspects of daily life R L

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