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Microelectronics Research and Development

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Microelectronics Research and Development . Appendix A Current Microelectronics Technology This appendix provides general background in- Figure A-1 .—Generations of Electronics Technology formation about microelectronics technology, the roots of which extend back to the early part of this century. Today, a vast assortment of integrated Beyond circuits (ICs) and other miniature electronic de- very large-scale Fifth generation vices are on the market. All of these components integration pass through complex design and fabrication proc- esses before reaching consumers. t Electronics Technology From Vacuum Tubes to Integrated Circuits Very Electronics technology over the last century has Early 1980s large-scale Fourth generation advanced in a series of dramatic breakthroughs: integrated circuits the vacuum tube, the transistor, and the inte- grated circuit. These are often used to designate different generations of technology, as shown in figure A-1. The history of electronic devices began in the early 1900s with the invention of vacuum tubes, 1958 Integrated Third generation the first devices to reach major use in manipulat- circuits ing and amplifying electrical currents. This tech- nology is limited by several related features. b Vacuum tubes require high voltages and, by microelectronics standards, a great deal of power. t The invention of the transistor in 1947 marked the beginning of a new generation in electronics. The inventors fabricated the device from a crys- 1947 Transistors Second generation tal of semiconductor material to which they added controlled quantities of different impurities. The transistor had three points of electrical contact, or terminals. Like a vacuum tube, it could amplify an electrical signal, but at room temperature, and t it required only a small fraction of the power, volt- age, and space that tubes demand. The transistor rapidly became the central component in circuits Early 1900s Vacuum First generation for a variety of applications. tubes By the late 1950s, transistor-based circuits dom- inated early computers and military systems. But SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment the drive for increasingly complex circuitry en- countered some difficult barriers. Millions of con- demanded smaller, faster circuits that would con- nections were required to turn the hundreds of sume less power and could be fabricated reliably. thousands of components into a functioning The next major breakthrough in electronics was circuit—a labor-intensive process with unreliable the invention of the integrated circuit in 1958. Un- results. Further complicating things, the total cir- til this time, all electrical circuits consisted of sep- cuit size was growing unmanageable, although the arate components-transistors, diodes, resistors, individual components were quite small. The capacitors—connected by wires. The inventors of equipment in which electronic devices were used the IC recognized that the wires and other com- 27 28 ponents could also be fabricated from or on the vices in general. Figure A-2 shows the types of same semiconductor material that was used to microelectronic devices on the market today. The make transistors.1 In this way, they made an en- most numerous and widely used of these are stand- tire circuit on a single piece, or chip, of the mate- ard ICs made of silicon. Other semiconductor rial. Using this technique, engineers were able to devices, such as optoelectronic and microwave make connections and components by etching the products and discrete devices, are also part of semiconductor and depositing metals and insula- microelectronics technology. Additionally, a few tors in patterns on the chip. The new process elim- examples exist of miniature devices made from inated many of the problems associated with pro- materials other than semiconductors (e.g., mag- ducing highly complex circuits. Because the huge netic bubble storage devices), but these fall out- number of connections no longer had to be made side the scope of this paper. by soldering wires together, the IC technique was more reliable and less labor-intensive. The individ- Types of Integrated Circuits ual components could now be smaller since they would not need to be handled by people. This Integrated circuits are commonly classified in shrinkage yielded circuits that operated at higher a variety of ways and referred to with an impres- frequencies and consumed less power. sive number of acronyms. They may be catego- Progress in microelectronics over the last 25 rized by function, by the level of integration (num- years has been based on further shrinkage of the ber of components), by the type of transistors used circuitry etched onto chips. The number of com- in the circuitry, or by the underlying material (or ponents per chip has, on average, almost doubled substrate) on which they are fabricated. every year, Today, up to 1 million transistors and Types of Functions.–Integrated circuits may be other components are fabricated on a single chip either digital or analog (also called linear). In gen- that may have an area of less than 1 square centi- eral, a digital circuit switches or stores voltages meter. that represent discrete values. For example, O volts and 5 volts may represent the values O and 1, respectively. An analog circuit, in contrast, am- Microelectronic Devices plifies or otherwise modifies voltages of any value within a given range (e.g., any voltage between O In this background paper, the term “microelec- and 5 volts). Some integrated circuits are designed tronics” is used to refer to miniature electronic de- to convert signals from analog form to digital form ‘For an account of the invention of the integrated circuit, see T. Il. (A-to-D converters) or vice versa (D-to-A con- Reid, ‘The Chip,” Science 85, February 1985, p. 32, excerpted from T.R. verters). Custom chips can combine the various Reid, The Chip: 7’he Microelectronics Revolution and the Men W’ho Made It (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985). functions. Currently, the majority of ICs are digi- Figure A-2.—Types of Microelectronic Products Microelectronic products . 1 1 I I Integrated Discrete Optoelectronic Microwave circuits transistors devices - devices and diodes . b I 1 t ? * 1 Custom and other Monolithic Digital Analog Lasers Discrete Ics (linear) ICs ICs and light- microwave I 4 4 < devices emitting Detectors ICs diodes (LEDs) t -1 f Microprocessors a Memories - Logic ICs 4 A Read-only Random-access memories memories (ROMs) (RAMs) SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment 29 tal; computers, the major use of ICs, are based on Designers can program information into read- digital integrated circuits. only memories in different ways. They may put the The major product categories in digital inte- information in the physical chip design; this type grated circuits are logic circuits, memories, and is known as a mask-programmable ROM. Alter- microprocessors. All three handle information in natively, chip manufacturers fabricate ROMs that the form of electrical signals: logic circuits proc- users can program themselves (programmable ess the signals, memories store them, and micro- ROMs, or PROMs)–a much more versatile prod- processors combine the two functions. uct. Some varieties of these PROMS can be erased Logic circuits carry out the operations required and reprogrammed using light or electrical signals to manipulate data in binary digital form. They (erasable PROMS, or EPROMs). EPROMs differ perform mathematical functions. Logic ICs are from read/write memories in two ways: they typi- typically classified according to the type of tran- cally cannot be reprogrammed by the computer it- sistors used to make them. self, but they need no power source to retain in- Semiconductor memories are microelectronic cir- formation. cuits designed to store information. They fall into The capacity of a semiconductor memory is de- two groups: read/write memories and read-only termined by the number of bits that it can store. memories (ROMs). Although both groups consist The maximum capacity available in the early primarily of memories that can be accessed ran- 1970s was 1,024 bits, commonly called a kilobit or domly (i.e., any storage location can be accessed kbit. Today, 262,144-bit (256 -kbit) RAMs are on in the same amount of time), the term “random- the market, and l,048,676-bit (l-megabit) RAMs access memory” (RAM) usually refers only to are just around the corner. Prices for memories read/write memories. A computer can store a da- have dropped as dramatically as their capacity has tum in a location within a read/write memory and risen: memory costs approximately one-thousandth later retrieve it or store a new datum there. How- of a cent per bit today. ever, the computer can only retrieve information Because a microprocessor is a complete com- that is already stored (by some external means) in puter processing unit on a single IC, it can proc- a ROM. Thus, a ROM may be used to store un- ess data expressed in a series of binary digits or changing information or instructions that the com- bits (ones or zeroes). The number of bits used in puter needs regularly, while read/write memories the series determines the precision of the datum’s are used to store data as they come into the com- digital representation; precision increases with the puter and as they are processed. number of bits. The original microprocessor, made Read/write memories may be labeled “static” or in 1970 at Intel Corp., was designed to handle four “dynamic” depending on the design of the circuits bits. The industry introduced 8- and 16-bit micro- that make up the RAM. Dynamic RAMs (DRAMs) processors by the end of that decade and 32-bit store data in the form of charge on capacitors, microprocessors within the last few years. and so require that the capacitors be recharged Levels of Integration.—The level of integration regularly-every few milliseconds. Static RAMs of an integrated circuit refers to the number of (SRAMs), on the other hand, store data by chang- components packed on the chip.
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