Banko Janakari A Journal of Forestry Information for Nepal

Forests and Biodiversity Conservation in Federal Nepal

Nepal is endowed with rich biological diversity. It shares 1.1 and 3.2 percent of total faunal and floral diversity of the world respectively, while occupying only 0.1 percent of global area. Biodiversity and forest resources are integral component of rural livelihoods and economic prosperity of Nepal. Nepal’s Constitution 2015 has explicitly mentioned to maintain certain portion of the land of the country as forest land for environmental equilibrium. The essence of the Constitution has been later incorporated in Forest Policy (2015) emphasizing to maintain at least 40% of the total land as forest cover with equal importance to biodiversity. Undoubtedly, Nepal has been able to maintain the given target to date. For the conservation of Forest and Biodiversity, Nepal has formulated various policy documents and action plans which are underway. However, these documents were made under the framework of unitary system. The new constitution of Nepal has led the country towards federal system from its long unitary system. The federal system has given opportunities to share power among different levels of government. Annexes from 5 to 9 in the constitution have clearly specified three tiers of government i.e., federal, provincial, and local to exercise their individual and shared rights over the different resources including forests and biodiversity within their political boundaries. Political boundary and forests ecosystem services boundaries are not mutually inclusive. They are completely independent to each other. Ecosystem services and externalities from forests and biodiversity spreads beyond the political boundary. The management of such widely spread services and externalities is difficult to restrict within territorial decision-making approach after long experiences. Now, new paradigm shift of landscape level forests and biodiversity conservation has been in existence worldwide irrespective of political boundaries. Conservation forest resources and biodiversity beyond the political boundaries in the newly formed federal system in Nepal is quite challenging. In the federal system, different aspirations of different governments either horizontally or vertically might bring conflicting interest among themselves for the conservation and management of forests and biodiversity. However, the model of Forest and biodiversity conservation has already been decentralized to settlement levels in Nepal but has very limited acceptance of political devolution on forest resource governance. The Community-based forest management Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 practices, community managed conservation areas, the community based-seed and genome conservation practices, and buffer zone resource conservation are exemplary participatory resource management practices developed within unitary system of government. Transforming the existing decentralized model to a more strongly devised political devolution model need an innovative planning and strategic intervention. Adoption of ecosystem approach in the federal system can be a strategic point of intervention to address gaps in forestry and biodiversity sector. The widely accepted ecosystem approach in conservation science and popular power devolution in political science need to be blended to secure optimum benefits for people and nature. The benefits sharing among governments should need trade off while maintaining well-established system of ecosystem structure and functions. Ecosystem structure and functions should not be detached by territory based political decision rather they have to be restrengthened in the process of federal restructuring of forestry sector. Federal restructuring of forestry sector should follow a different course rather than a general administrative, legal and basic infrastructure development model. It should begin with mapping forest and biodiversity, outlining services flow pattern, mapping economic potentiality of different level governments and devising a sound and resilient management structure. At the end, the model should appear as ecologically sound, economically viable and socio-politically acceptable. While devising this kind of model i.e., governance model, the forestry sector should neither be reluctant on constitutional rights of different tiers of governments nor it should forget the ecological integrity. Despite some challenges, we have no option to ignore any of these. Therefore, it is high time for the forestry sector to start designing a governance model with wider consultations. The model should be able to optimize forest and biodiversity services, benefits sharing and integrity of the ecosystem with well recognized and accountable institutions in all tiers of governments as envisioned by the constitution of Nepal.

2 Variation in leaf biomass and fruit output of Juniperus indica along an elevation gradient in north-central Nepal

A. Chapagain1*,3, R. P. Chaudhary2 and S. K. Ghimire3 Biomass and reproductive output are important functional traits that influence aspects of plant performance. Measurements of these attributes by harvesting plant parts are often destructive and impractical. Therefore, non-destructive methods, based on allometric relationships, have been recommended for measuring plant biomass and reproductive output, particularly in the ecosystems where plant harvesting is not very practical or feasible. Here, we assessed the variation in the traits related to vegetative and reproductive performance (including plant height, trunk diameter, canopy area, leaf biomass and number of fruits set) among populations of Juniperus indica distributed along an elevation gradient in Manang district of the north-central Nepal, and finally determined the allometric relationships addressing the leaf biomass and the fruit output. The distribution range of J. indica was divided into lower- (3,350– 3,580 m), mid- (3,650–3,880 m) and higher- (3,950–4,250 m) elevation classes where we made 54 sample plots of 10 m × 10 m size. In each plot, we recorded the number of individuals of J. indica classifying into seedling, juvenile and mature classes, and measured their vegetative traits and fruit output. Trunk diameter, leaf dry-weight and fruits set parameters spatially varied within the same elevation class. The individuals at the lower-elevation were larger in vegetative size with larger- trunk, height and canopy area, and produced higher leaf biomass and greater number of fruits as compared to those produced by the individuals situated at the mid- and higher-elevations. The regression analysis showed the strongest relationship between the canopy area and the leaf biomass. Thus, the use of outer canopy dimension is found to be the best option for estimation of leaf biomass of J. indica using non-destructive method..

Key words: Fruit output, leaf biomass, Manang, non-destructive method

lant biomass and reproductive output are consuming, and require a large number of Pimportant functional traits that determine samples, which is impractical for rare and plant growth, aspects of individual performance threatened species. Therefore, non-destructive and competitive ability. There are two methods methods, based on allometric relationships, have available for estimating plant biomass- i) been recommended for measuring plant biomass destructive method and ii) non-destructive in such ecosystems where plant harvesting is not method. The destructive method, also known very practical or feasible (Tackenberg, 2007; as the harvest method is the most commonly Vashum and Jayakumar, 2012). Non-destructive used method for measuring plant biomass and measurements of plant allometric attributes (e.g., reproductive output. It is the most direct and height, canopy dimensions and stem diameter) accurate method, and involves plant harvesting have long been used to estimate plant biomass in the known area, and measuring the fresh or (Mason and Hutchings, 1967; Peek, 1970; Ludwig oven-dried weight of the different plant parts et al., 1975) and reproductive output (Haymes for biomass estimation (Tackenberg, 2007; and Fox, 2012; Otárola et al., 2013). Recent Vashum and Jayakumar, 2012). Measurements interests in quantifying ecosystem carbon stocks, of these attributes by harvesting plant parts are and potential uses of bio-energy have shown the often destructive, and time-as well as resource- need of implementing non-destructive methods to

1 Federation of Community Forestry Users Nepal (FECOFUN), Duwakot, Bhaktapur, Nepal. *E-mail: [email protected] 2 Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal 3 Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal

3 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Chapagain et al. estimate total above ground biomass (Ansley et In this study, we sampled J. indica along an al., 2012). Studies indicate that canopy area and/ elevation gradient in Manang district situated or stem diameter can provide the best regression in the north-central Nepal, and examined the fit for above ground biomass prediction in several relationship among the traits associated with tree species including Juniperus (Mason and vegetative and reproductive performances. Hutchings, 1967; Ansley et al., 2012). We assessed the variations in the traits related to vegetative and reproductive performance Juniperus indica is an important component (including plant height, trunk diameter, canopy of sub-alpine forest of Manang district, north- area, leaf biomass and number of fruits set) central Nepal (Ghimire et al., 2008a). Juniperus among the populations distributed along the three forest in the Nepal Himalayas is under threat due elevation gradients. Finally, we determined the to high anthropogenic pressure (e.g., destructive relationship among the allometric traits with leaf practices, such as over-harvesting of leaves for biomass and fruit output. incense and slash-burning to harvest its wood) as well as harsh climatic conditions. Studies carried Materials and methods out in other parts of the world have shown that the principal ecological problems in junipers are Study area related to low production of viable seeds (Juan J. indica is native to high-altitude Himalaya, et al., 2003; Otto et al., 2010). Juan et al. (2003) occurring from the northern Indus Valley in assessed viability in J. oxycedrus which showed Kashmir to western Yunnan in China and it difficulties in seed germination because of harsh occurs throughout Nepal at elevations ranging cold climate. In some species of Juniperus, low from 3,300 m to 4,500 m above sea level (Press reproductive success is due to low amount of et al., 2000). The plant is found on open and pollen that reaches female individuals resulting rocky alpine slopes in drier areas; sometimes in less number of fruits set (Juan et al., 2003). forming forests at lower elevations. The plant Most of the works on Himalayan junipers occurs as dwarf woody-shrub at higher elevations are confined to essential oil variation in leaf exceeding 4,200 m and as tree growing at lower (e.g., Adams and Chaudhary, 1996; Adams et elevations of range 3,300–4,000 m above sea al.,1998), taxonomic determination (e.g., Adams level (Ghimire et al., 2008b). The leaves are dark et al., 2009), and ethnobotany (e.g., Bhattarai et grey-green, dimorphic, mature plants having al., 2006). Ethnobotanical study of junipers (J. mostly scale-like leaves which are decussate or indica, J. squamata and J. communis) in Manang sometimes in whorls of 3, closely appressed, 1-3 by Bhattarai et al. (2006) revealed that the local mm long; while young plants have mostly needle- community and traditional Tibetan traditional like leaves, which are borne in whorls of 3 and practitioner had been using almost all parts for are 5–8 mm long. Needle-like leaves are also different purposes. Fruits, leaves, stem and barks found on shaded shoots of adult plants. The plant of Juniperus spp. are used in traditional medicine is dioecious with male (pollen) and female (seed) to cure kidney, skin and lymph disorders, fever, cones on separate plants. The pollen cones are cough and cold, sores, wounds, and paralysis sub-globose or ovoid, 2–3 mm long; seed cones of limbs (Bhattarai et al., 2006; Ghimire et al., are ovoid, berry-like, 6–10 mm long, glossy black 2008b); leaves are also burnt for incense by when ripe, and contain a single seed. The cones followers of Buddhism. The plant is also used are seen in April to May, and mature in October as fencing material and for carving different to December. The seeds are mostly dispersed by household items (Bhattarai et al., 2006). Dried birds, which eat the cones (Ghimire et al., 2008b). leaves are sold locally for incense, and essential Study area oil obtained from steam distillation of fresh leaves is traded internationally for its use in medicines The study area is located in Manang district of and cosmetics (Ghimire et al., 2008b; Gurung, the north-central part of Nepal (Fig. 1). It lies 2010). Leaves are harvested throughout the year within the broad U-shaped Trans-Himalayan while fruits during July to August. These all valley dissected by the Marshyangdi River, and activities put heavy pressure on Juniperus stands is extended up to the north of the Annapurna in the forest ecosystem. Mountain Range (up to 7,000 m asl). The northern

4 Chapagain et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 part of the Manang Valley, therefore receives intervals. In each transect, six plots of size 10 m × very low annual monsoonal precipitation of 450 10 m were sampled at 50–100 m length intervals, mm, whereas the precipitation at southern region totaling 54 plots from all transects and elevation (Chame, Manang, at 2,680 m asl) remains to be classes. Each plot (100 m2)was further divided over 1,000 mm (Miehe et al., 2001; Baniya et al., into 4 subplots of 5 m × 5 m size. 2009). Similarly, the mean annual temperature remains 6.2o Celsius in the northern Trans- In each subplot, individuals of J. indica of different Himalayan valley while 11.0o Celsius in the size (maturity) classes were recorded separately. southern region in Manang district. The moisture The size classes were recognized corresponding is found to be decreasing from east to west in to their growth stages following Schemske et al. the Upper Manang Valley, and the south-facing (1994). The size classes were broadly defined slopes are much drier than those facing north according to the plant height or trunk diameter as (Bhattarai et al., 2004; Ghimire et al., 2008a). seedlings (height <0.1 m and trunk diameter <1 cm), juveniles (height 0.1–1.0 m, trunk diameter Vegetation in the Manang Valley at elevations <1 cm) and mature (height usually >1 m, trunk above 3,000 m supports the luxuriant stands diameter >1 cm and also bearing reproductive of Pinus wallichiana, Betula utilis and Abies structure). The mature individuals were recorded spectabilis on the north-facing slopes, and some for their height (ground level to the top of patches of P. Wallichiana on the dry south-facing the canopy), trunk diameter, canopy area and slopes (Baniya et al., 2009). J. indica and Rosa number of fruits. The trunk diameters of mature sericea with other shrubs are dominant on the >1–3 m tall individuals were measured at 25 cm dry south-facing slopes. At the lower elevations, aboveground, whereas the trunk diameters of the vegetation mainly comprises J. squamata, mature >3 m tall individuals were measured at Lonicera obovata and Caragana gerardiana. 137 cm above ground. The crown cover was directly measured in terms of the canopy area occupied by each adult individual using Measuring Tape. In each plot, a mature individual was randomly selected, and its leaves were collected within an area of 0.0625 m2 by randomly placing a small quadrat (0.25 m × 0.25 m) on the crown surface. All the leaves within the selected quadrats were collected from the crown base to the tip across the vertical profile. The leaves were packed in paper bags, and fresh weight was taken with the help of a Spring Balance (error of ±2.5 gm).In the field, all the leaf samples, collected from each plot, were packed in cotton bags, and Fig. 1: Map of the study area dried in shade. After returning to the laboratory, the samples were oven dried at 600oC for 72 hours, Methods and dry weight was recorded with the help of a The sampling of J. indica population was carried Digital Weighing Machine (error ±1.5 gm). We out in September 2011 during fruiting season could collect the samples from only 46 plots due in the north-eastern part of the Manang Valley. to the absence of mature individuals in the rest 8 A systematic sampling approach was used. The plots. The number of fruits per tree was counted study was started from Bhraka Village (3,350 m only from one mature individual present within asl) almost at the bottom of the valley to the Ice each sub-plot. We could measure the number of Lake (4,250 m asl). The whole of the distribution fruits from only 90 plants, one each from 90 sub- range was divided into lower- (3,350–3,580 m), plots as the mature individuals were completely mid- (3,650–3,880 m) and higher- (3,950–4,250 absent in the remaining sub-plots as in the 8 plots. m) elevation classes so as to cover the wider The latitude, longitude and altitude of each plot range of distribution of J. indica, heterogeneous were recorded with the help of Global Positioning environmental conditions and diverse vegetation System (GPS) device. The aspect and slope of types. In each elevation class, three horizontal each plot were recorded with the help of Compass transects were laid at 75–100 m elevation and Clinometer, respectively.

5 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Chapagain et al. The variations in the vegetative and reproductive individuals of J. indica at the lower-elevation traits among the three elevation classes was were found to be larger in size, with larger trunk, tested using one-way ANOVA. The relationships height, canopy area, and produced higher leaf between the vegetative and reproductive biomass and greater number of fruits as compared traits were analyzed by calculating Pearson to those from the mid- and the higher-elevations Correlation Coefficients. The traits exhibiting (Fig. 2). statistically significant correlations were further analyzed through linear regression analysis to evaluate the strength of relationships and derive allometric equations. Particularly, we focused on significant allometric traits to predict the leaf biomass (vegetative trait) and the number of fruits (reproductive trait). To meet the statistical assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance while fitting linear regression, the trunk diameter, the plant height, the leaf dry weight and the number of fruits were log transformed, and the canopy area was square-root transformed. All the statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS 17.0 Software. Results and discussion Variation in vegetative and reproductive traits

The Mean, Standard Error (SE) and the range values of the vegetative and the reproductive traits of J. indica recorded in the Ice Lake Area of the Upper Manang Valley are given in Table 1. Most of the individuals were of moderate to small size Fig. 2: Variations in (a) trunk diameter, (b) with the height, trunk diameter and canopy area plant height, (c) canopy area, (d) leaf dry ranging from 0.5 m to 25.0 m, 0.95 cm to 60.48 biomass (gm per 0.0625 m2), (e) leaf dry 2 2 cm and 0.01 m to 2.01 m , respectively. The mean biomass (kgha-1), and (f) number of fruits set of 2 leaf dry weight per 0.0625 m canopy was found J. indica at the three elevation classes (low, mid to be 0.031 kg, ranging from 0.013 kg to 0.058 and high) around the Ice Lake in the Upper kg; the mean dry leaf biomass was calculated to Manang Valley. The means with different be 28.98 kg per ha. The mean number of fruits per letters represent significant difference in the plant ranged from 10 to 1040 (mean 202.9). traits among the three elevation classes at <0.05 level of significance based on the One- J. indica showed higher values of all its vegetative way ANOVA. and reproductive traits at the lower-elevation than at the mid- and the higher-elevations (Fig. 2). The

Table 1: Mean, SE and range values of the vegetative and the reproductive traits of J. indica recorded in the Ice Lake Area of the Upper Manang Valley Traits N Mean SE Minimum Maximum Plant height (m) 134 2.62 0.26 0.50 25.00 Trunk diameter (cm) 134 5.82 0.71 0.95 60.48 Canopy area (m2) 134 0.16 0.03 0.01 2.01 Leaf dry weight (g) per 0.0625 m2 canopy 46 31.12 1.65 12.50 58.10 Leaf dry weight (g) per plant 46 153.26 47.27 1.22 1801.51 Leaf dry biomass (kg ha-1) 46 28.98 8.37 0.18 202.20 Number of fruits per plant 90 202.90 21.64 10.00 1040.00

6 Chapagain et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Correlation among the traits

The Pearson Correlation Analysis revealed significant relationships among a numbers of traits of J. indica (Table 2). Significant correlations (p=<0.01) were observed between the trunk diameter and the plant height (r = 0.58), the trunk diameter and the canopy area (r = 0.34), the trunk diameter and the leaf dry weight (r = 0.54), the canopy area and the leaf dry weight (r = 0.93), the trunk diameter and the number of fruits (r = 0.44), and the plant height and the number of fruits (r = 0.34).

Regression analysis for statistically significant traits Fig. 3: Relationships between (a) the trunk The allometric traits exhibiting statistically diameter and the leaf dry weight, (b) the significant correlations with leaf dry weight and canopy area and the leaf dry weight, (c) the fruit production were further analyzed using trunk diameter and the no. of fruits, and (d) simple linear regression analysis to evaluate the the plant height and the no. of fruits. Fitted strength of relationships and derive allometric line based on linear regression model. equations (Fig. 3). The relationship between the plant height and the leaf dry weight and between The canopy area of J. indica in the present study the canopy area and the number of fruits were not varied from 0.01 m-2 to 2.01 m-2 per tree which is further analyzed as their strength of relationship far less than the findings of Ghimire and Devkota was very low (Table 2). Of the three allometric (2008) who measured the canopy area of J. indica measurements (trunk diameter, plant height and of the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, East canopy area), the canopy area was found to be the Nepal to be 7.98 ± 0.32m2 (mean±SE, range: strongest variable to explain the variability of the 0.01–7.98 m2). This might be because of the total leaf biomass (Fig. 3b). difference in the micro-climate between the more mesic condition of the Eastern Himalaya and the xeric microclimate of the Manang Valley. Of the three allometric measurements (trunk diameter, plant height and canopy area), the canopy area was found to be the strongest variable (r2=0.869)

Table 2: The Pearson correlation coefficients among the vegetative and reproductive traits ofJ. indica Traits Abbreviation TrDiam Ht CanAr DrWtPl NoFr Trunk diameter TrDiam 1 (n = 131) Plant height Ht 0.580* 1 (n = 129) (n = 129) Canopy area CanAr 0.344* -0.074 1 (n = 124) (n = 122) (n = 127) Leaf dry weight per plant DrWtPl 0.538* 0.252 0.932* 1 (n = 53) (n = 52) (n = 51) (n = 56) Number of fruits per plant NoFr 0.439* 0.339* 0.100 0.332 1 (n = 87) (n = 87) (n = 82) (n = 33) (n = 88) Note: Statistically significant correlations (p=<0.05) are denoted by asterisk (*); other correlations being insignificant.

7 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Chapagain et al. for predicting the total leaf biomass. The Average Conclusion canopy area and, thus, the mean leaf dry weight per plant tended to be high at the lower-elevation, Vegetative and reproductive traits are found to be which decreased gradually towards the mid- and the most important characteristics to differentiate the higher- elevations. Subedi (2016) also reported the populations of J. indica that are influenced highest leaf biomass in J. squamata at the low differently by the variation in elevation as the elevation in the Manang Valley. Linear negative individuals at the lower-elevation were larger in relationship between biomass and elevation has vegetative size, with larger trunk, height, canopy been reported for several woody plant speices area, and produced higher leaf biomass and greater (e.g., Rastetter et al., 2004). Plants growing along number of fruits as compared to the individuals at an elevation gradient exhibit reduction in radial the mid- and higher-elevations in this study. Trunk and vertical growth of their stem towards higher diameter, leaf dry-weight and fruits set parameters elevations mostly caused by corresponding spatially varied within the same elevation class. decline in temperature and nutrient availability, The use of outer canopy area was also found to be and delay in start of seasonal growth (Körner et the best option for non-destructively estimating al., 1983; Klinka et al., 1996). the leaf biomass of J. indica. This technique can be, therefore, used for estimating the leaf biomass Among the other allometric variables, the trunk of J. indica for different purposes, e.g., for its bio- diameter was found to be less strong for predicting energy estimation as well as for quantification of total leaf biomass (r2=0.289). Plant height was its carbon stock. found to be even less effective predictor of leaf biomass, which is similar to the findings of Acknowledgments Ansley et al. (2012). The reason might be due to the suppression and release from suppression We sincerely acknowledge the Missouri Botanical in vertical growth at different time periods and Garden (MBG), USA and the Central Department space, corresponding to light intensity, moisture of Botany (CDB), Tribhuvan University, Nepal and temperature. Measurements of basal trunk for their financial support to carry out this study. diameter and canopy height are difficult in bushy- We are grateful to Dr. Jan Salick and Dr. Kattie juniper because of very compact canopy with a Konchar, MBG, and Mr. Prem Subedi and Ms. high density of under-growth stems that restrict Sita Karki, CDB for their suggestions and access to the core base of the stems. Thus, the use company during our fieldwork. We are highly of individual outer canopy dimensions may be the thankful to two anonymous reviewers for their best option for non-destructively estimating leaf valuable comments and suggestions on the earlier biomass of J. indica as reported in other species version of the manuscript. (Ansley et al., 2012). References None of the allometric traits considered in Adams, R. P. and Chaudhary, R. P. 1996. Leaf this study showed strong power for predicting essential oil of Juniperus indica Bertol. from fruit-output. Nevertheless, larger plants [with Nepal. Journal of Essential Oil Research 8: greater trunk diameter (r2=0.192) and height 677–680. (r2=0.115)] produced more fruits as compared to the smaller ones (Table 2). As the individuals at Adams, R. P., Thapa, R. K., Agrawal, S. G., the lower elevation are generally larger in size, Kapahi, B. K., Srivastava, T. N. and they produced greater number of fruits than Chaudhary, R. P. 1998. The leaf essential those in the mid- and higher-elevations. The oil of Juniperus recurva Buch. Ham. ex D. less number of fruits produced per plant in the Don from India and Nepal compared with J. mid- and high-elevations may also be due to the recurva var. squamata (D. Don) Parl. Journal limited pollination success as reported by Juan et of Essential Oil Research 10: 21–24. al.(2003) as a result of the wider spatial distance between the male and the female plants. However, Adams, R. P., Chaudhary, R. P., Pandey, R. N. further study is needed to support this statement and Singh, L. 2009. Juniperus recurva var. in the local scenario. uncinata, the hooked branchlet juniper, a

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10 Abundance of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its wild prey in Chhekampar VDC, Manaslu Conservation Area, Nepal

B. P. Devkota1*, T. Silwal1, B. P. Shrestha2, A. P. Sapkota2, S. P. Lakhey3 and V. K. Yadav3

Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is the striking symbol as well as an indicator of intact eco-regions of high mountains it inhabits. Despite the advancement in new methods, scholars argue that signs are still a reliable indicator for the purpose of habitat use study of snow leopards. The relative abundance of snow leopard and its major prey species such as blue sheep (Pseudois nayar) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) in the Chhekampar Village Development Committee within the Tsum Valley of the Manaslu Conservation Area was determined by sign survey using Snow Leopard Information Management System (SLIMS) and block survey using Vantage Point Method, respectively. We also assessed human snow leopard conflict through household and key informant survey. The encounter rate of snow leopard signs were 3.57/km on an average, indicating low abundance, whereas prey species such as blue sheep and Himalayan tahr had 3.8 and 1.8 animals/ km2, respectively. The livestock depredation rate was 1.29% with snow leopard accounting to only 0.32% of the total. Due to the low abundance of snow leopard but sufficient number of large-sized wild prey species, livestock predation by snow leopard was minimum, and therefore, the local people had positive perception towards snow leopard conservation. Though the present situation including the local religious tradition and social norms is supportive in conservation of snow leopard, it may not sustain unless incentive programs are encouraged timely..

Key words: Blue sheep, conflict, Himalayan tahr, livestock depredation, predator, prey density

he snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is one the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, the Tthe least known and most endangered of Api Nampa Conservation Area, the Dhorpatan the world’s large cat species, and the striking Hunting Reserve and the Manaslu Conservation symbol of World’s highest place, predating in Area (MCA), and also possibly in the Makalu- the high mountains of central and southern Asia Barun National Park (HMGN, 2005). It has been (Schaller, 1977). The distribution of the snow fully protected by National Parks and Wildlife leopard extends between elevations of 3,000 m Conservation Act 1973 of Nepal (HMGN, 1973). to 5,500 m in 12 Asian countries, encompassing Because of decline in its population due to a total potential habitat area of 1,835,000 km2 habitat loss and other factors, it has been listed (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003). In Nepal, it is in the International Union for Conservation found in the northern chain of Himalayan frontier of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red along the Tibetan border (HMGN, 2005), with List of endangered species since 1986 (Jackson the largest populations in Dolpa, Mugu, Manang, et al., 2008) and included in Appendix I of the and Mustang districts (Bajimaya, 2001). Its Convention on International Trade in Endangered distribution has been confirmed in the mountain Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975, protected areas (PA) of Nepal viz. the Langtang and hence, all international commercial trade in National Park, the Shey-Phoksundo National the species, its parts and derivatives is prohibited Park (SPNP), the Annapurna Conservation Area (McCarthy and Chapron, 2003), to support snow (ACA), the Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), leopard conservation.

1 Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal. *E-mail: [email protected] 2 Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal 3 Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Hetauda, Nepal

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The presence and survival of the snow leopard (Jackson et al., 2010). The snow leopard feed on is also an indicator of intact eco-regions they large range of natural prey, but it prefers the larger inhabit (Jackson and Hunter, 1996). Based ungulates because of the net energy gain per unit on the habitat use analysis aided by empirical effort expended (Wegge et al., 2012). Thus, blue studies, the total snow leopard habitat in Nepal sheep (Pseudois nayar) and Himalayan tahr is estimated to be about 13,000 km2 with the (Hemitragus jemlahicus) are considered to be estimated population of 301–400 snow leopards important primary prey species for snow leopards (WWF Nepal, 2009; GoN, 2013). Unfortunately in Nepal and elsewhere in the Himalayan region snow leopards are declining throughout their (Oli, 1994). range due to various threats including habitat and prey loss and persecution (Nowel and Jackson, Previous studies (Oli, 1994; Ale et al., 2007; 1996). The Himalayan region continues to Upadhyaya, 2010; Wegge et al., 2012; Devkota et experience problems of illegal hunting, human- al., 2013) have attempted to address issues on snow wildlife conflicts, and habitat degradation and leopard conservation in other protected areas of fragmentation (Wegge et al., 2012; Devkota et al., Nepal. However, no studies have been conducted 2013). Knowledge of snow leopard prey species in the Manaslu Conservation Area, especially is essential to understand the ecology of this in the Chhekampar Village Development predator, and thereby, provide better conservation Committee (VDC) within the Tsum Valley so options of this endangered species. far to explore status of snow leopard and its prey species updating existing knowledge for its wise Status of the species is one of the parameters of conservation. To implement appropriate strategies greatest intrinsic interest to biologists studying of snow leopard conservation, the impact of snow snow leopard population dynamics (Krebs, 1985; leopard predation on its natural prey and livestock Buckland et al., 1993; Turchin, 1998 cited in is required (Wegge et al., 2012), and this requires Maheshwari, 2006). Large carnivores may face the knowledge on availability of natural prey and important trade-offs between habitat features, livestock depredation beforehand. Therefore, this and knowing how these factors influence habitat study explores the abundance of snow leopard, its use is critical to the conservation of snow leopard prey species, and people’s perceptions on snow (Wolf and Ale, 2009). Study on snow leopard by leopard in the Chhekampur VDC within the Tsum sign methods are easy and less expensive (Fox et Valley of the MCA, fulfilling the existing gap in al., 1991). Despite the criticisms on the accuracy this important but unexplored area. of this method (McCarthy, 2000), scholars have concluded that signs are reliable indicator of Materials and methods the habitat use by snow leopard (Ahlborn and Study area Jackson, 1988; Wolf and Ale, 2009). Population distribution and availability of prey influence The MCA is located between 28o 21’ N to 28o45’N the quality of a predator’s habitat and the health latitudes and 84o29’ E to 85o11’E longitudes in of a predator population, and thereby, can Gorkha district in the northern-central Himalaya strongly influence predator density. Therefore, of Nepal (Fig. 1). The MCA was gazetted in 1998 knowledge of important prey species is essential with an area of 1663 km2. to understanding predator ecology. Knowledge of prey density and predator-prey ratios can help give insight into snow leopard numbers in a particular area. There must be sufficient prey to support the predicted predator population (Jackson and Hunter, 1996). The snow leopard is an opportunistic predator capable of killing prey more than three times its own weight (Schaller, 1977). Throughout the Himalayan range, because of livestock depredation, the snow leopard enters into conflict, and this intensity is inversely proportional to availability of wild prey species (Oli et al., 1994), and is one of the main challenges for snow leopard conservation Fig. 1: Map of the study area

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Biogeographically, the MCA corresponds to the temporal coral for most of the time. During the Tibetan plateau of the Palearctic region, and study period, livestock depredation was reported represents Trans Himalayan ecosystem (NTNC, to have been occasionally occurred by the snow 2016). Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus), leopard. blue sheep, musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), Himalayan serow (Naemorhedus sumatraensis), Study design Himalayan tahr, goral (Naemorhedus goral), We performed sign survey, and carried out key Assamese monkey (Macaca assamensis) and informants interview and household questionnaire snow leopards are the main wild animals recorded survey to collect primary information about in the area (NTNC, 2016). Besides these wildlife snow leopard and prey species. The study was species, this area is also rich in high-value conducted in the Chhekampar VDC of the Tsum medicinal plant species such as Yarsagumba Valley between November, 2010 (Pre-winter) and (Cordyceps sinensis), Pakhanved (Bergenia May, 2011 (Post winter). Secondary information ciliate), Nirmasi (Delphinium denudatum), were obtained from various sources such as Panchunle (Dactylorhizia hatagirea) and Satuwa documents of the MCA Office at local level and (Paris polyphylla). Bordering the Annapurna the related literatures. Conservation Area to the west, the Tibetan plateau to the north and east, and the mid-part of Sign survey of snow leopard Gorkha district to the south, the Manaslu region popularly known as ‘Tsum Valley’ was restricted The field surveys were conducted twice: during to tourism until 1991. Since then, the region has pre-winter (November to December 2010) and been opened up for organized tourism. post-winter (April to May 2011) periods. After consultation meeting with the key informants This study was carried out in the Chhekampar (local people, previous researcher, MCA staffs), VDC within the Tsum Valley lying in the northern the study area was divided into three blocks part of the MCA. The total area of the Chhekampar comprising the potential habitat of the snow 2 VDC is 317 km situated at the altitude of leopard. 2,959 m above sea level (asl). There are several Buddhist monasteries including renowned Mu As snow leopards are extremely difficult to sight Gumba in the Tsum Valley. The Lamas (Boudhist directly, indirect sign survey was conducted to monk) and Amchis (traditional Buddhist healers) estimate their density. For this purpose, transects are very positive towards wildlife species and routes were established by randomly selecting their conservation. Most of the local inhabitants feasible landforms where snow leopard signs are of Buddhist origin. They have strong social were likely to be found, e.g. along ridgelines, norms and values for maintaining non-violence cliff bases, river bluffs (Jackson and Hunter, traditional culture and practices over the region. If 1996; Bajimaya, 2001). These transects were ≥1 someone violates the rules, s/he will be punished km apart with a maximum of 5 km separation as per the existing norms. (Janecka et al., 2008). Each transect was searched for sign within a 5 m-wide strip on either side. The The total human population in the Chhekampar type of signs (scrapes, feces, pugmarks, spray/ VDC was 983 people within 263 households, urine, or claw marks), the sign measurements, distributed in 11 hamlets (CBS, 2012). The the estimated age of sign and whether the sign livelihood patterns are based on small agriculture was relic or non-relic were recorded. Within (e.g. potato, wheat, buckwheat and millet), 20 m radius of the signs, slope, aspect, elevation, livestock productions (e.g. manure, drought power habitat type, landform ruggedness, dominant and sources of food and protein) and seasonal topographic feature as mentioned in the SLIMS migration for labor work. Lopping of tree branches manual were recorded (Thapa, 2006). To ensure for fodder together with collecting fire-wood, whether the signs were authentically of the snow leaf-litters and other high-value forest resources leopards, we relied upon more than single type are basic components of the daily livelihoods of of signs such as scrapes and scent sprays or claw the local communities. Cow, Yak, Jhopa (cross rakes. breeds of yak and cow), and horses are the main livestock reared by the villagers. These livestock Geographic coordinates (GPS points) were taken heard used to graze across the pasture land with for all snow leopard evidences (observations/

13 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Devkota et al. signs) in order to map snow leopard distribution. teachers and the MCA Committee Members Following the field surveys for snow leopard faciliated in rapport building with the local signs, the potential area of the snow leopard people and also in translation work when needed. occurrence was mapped in the whole VDC. The people´s perception towards snow leopard Topographic maps at the scale 1:50000 were used conservation was measured in Likert Scales (1– to delineate survey blocks and to layout transects 5). within each block; the GPS points taken in the field were overlaid on these maps. Then, on the Results and discussion basis of the information collected from the local Abundance of snow leopard signs people regarding the snow leopard potential area and field verification, a map showing the snow The snow leopard signs were observed within the leopard signs and its prey species distribution was 14 transects that were laid both in the high and prepared. low potential areas within the entire Chhekampar VDC. The type, total length and the mean length Density estimation of prey species of transects along with the number of signs observed were recorded (Table 1). A total length The major prey species of the snow leopard were of 8.12 km distance was observed within the 14 identified on the basis of the discussion with transects; the average length of a transect being the conservation area staff and the local people 580.07 m within a range of 420 m to 725 m. as well as the available literature. Block count Shorter transects were laid out so as to save time method was used to estimate the density of prey and also more importantly to represent the whole species. In each block, direct observations were site (study area). Out of the 14 transects, only 6 done in the morning (06:00–10:00 Hrs) and (42.85%) had snow leopard signs whereas the the evening (14:00–17:00 Hrs) from the trails remaining 8 transects (57.15%) had no evidence and fixed point method (vantage point) so as of snow leopard signs. Among the different types to identify the prey species such as blue sheep of snow leopard sign, only scrapes, pugmarks and and their number (Schaller, 1977; Oli, 1996). feces were recorded in the sites. Of the total 29 Monitoring from the trails (Jackson and Hunter, signs recorded, 14 (48.28%) were feces followed 1996) was done as the main sampling method for by scrapes and pugmarks. The average encounter determining the status of the prey species of the rate was 3.57 signs/km indicating low snow snow leopard. The visible area from the trail was leopard density. scanned using binoculars (8–30×) and a spotting scope (15–60×) to identify the prey species and The snow leopard signs were categorized into their number. In order to make the study easier, three classes based on their age which was the study area was divided into three blocks, and guessed on the basis of wetness, integration, the total counting of the prey species was done. coloration, odor and their appearance; a sign was categorized as “very fresh”, if it was between Assessment of livestock loss and people´s one week and one month old and categorized as perception towards snow leopard conservation “old” if it was more than one month old. Most Livestock depredation was assessed by household of the signs (78.57%) observed were of old age surveys (Sharma et al., 2006). From the randomly (Fig. 2). This indicated that the area had relatively selected 50 households out of the total 262, we little snow leopard activity at the time of the used questionnaire at household level to record survey. The Human activities and the livestock livestock damage during the last one year population were found to be high in the area, and period. We assessed the conflict and collected so the snow leopard habitat was highly disturbed. the information on livestock damages by wild The scrapes and the old feces were found to be animals. The Household surveys were focused more frequent, because they were not damaged on quantifying information that was measurable by human disturbance as compared to the other overtime in terms of conflict imparted by snow signs; scrapes, in particular, tend to be very long leopards and other predators. The household lived in the protected areas and the areas where heads, either male or female, were considered as there is no disturbance from livestock. the respondent. We cross-checked their answers to minimize intentional exaggeration. The local

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Table 1: Snow leopard signs Sign types and their numbers Transect Number Transect length (m) Scrapes Pugmarks Feces Total 1 626 0 2 1 3 2 725 0 0 0 0 3 420 0 0 0 0 4 620 3 2 2 7 5 550 0 0 0 0 6 600 0 3 2 5 7 520 0 0 0 0 8 600 0 0 0 0 9 612 0 0 0 0 10 480 0 0 0 0 11 522 0 0 0 0 12 588 2 0 2 4 13 721 2 0 3 5 14 537 1 0 4 5 Total 8.12 km 8 7 14 29 Encounter rate (sign/km) 0.99 0.86 1.72 3.57

Fig. 2: Age of signs Fig. 3: Sign distribution according to topographic features Habitat feature of snow leopard

The area with snow leopard signs and its surrounding area are considered to be potential habitat of snow leopard. According to dominant topographic features, about three fourth signs were recorded on the ridgelines (Fig. 3). Snow leopard use ridgelines more frequently to travel across the landscape and is considered to be the potential habitat. Ruggedness landform appears to be a determining factor for the presence of snow leopard, and could indicate suitable habitat. Fig. 4: Distribution of snow leopard sign Along the ridgelines, majority of the signs were according to landform ruggedness in found in the rolling areas, with slightly broken Chhekampar VDC, MCA to moderately broken landform, indicating snow leopard’s preferred land form habitat (Fig. 4). Primary vegetation type is another important factor that determines the use of the site by snow

15 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Devkota et al. leopard. In this regard, grassland forms the major area, respectively. Next to blue sheep, Himalayan land use type preferred by snow leopard (Fig. tahr was the another major prey species found 5). Based on the above parameters, the potential in the area, but the herd of Himalayan tahr was habitat of snow leopard seems to be more than sighted only in Block I (124.2 km2) which is 3,000 m asl. Based on the distribution of snow located at the southern part of the study area with leopard sign overlaid on the vegetation map (Fig. comparatively lower elevation range. Altogether, 6) abundance was highest in the Alpine pasture nine herds of Himalayan tahr with an estimated lands. total population of 223 were observed in Block I; the average herd size being 25 (range 2 to 74 individuals); the density of Himalayan tahr in this area being 1.8 animals/km2. There was no habitat overlap of these two species. Majority of the Himalayan tahr herd were sighted in the hillside among the different topographic features.

The blue sheep herds were sighted in different topographic features including the cliff-base (15.56%), the hillside (35.56%) and were most abundant on the ridgelines (48.89%) whereas Himalayan tahr were most abundant in the hillside (66.67%) followed by the ridgeline (22.22%) Fig. 5: Snow leopard sign distribution and the cliff-base (11.11%). Four habitat types- according to vegetation type barren land, grassland, shrubland and forest have been mostly used by blue sheep, with higher distribution in the shrubland (48.89%) and none in the forest. Similarly, the highest abundance of Himalayan tahr was found in the shrubland (55.56%) but none in the barrenland. Among the rugeddness landform that includes flat, rolling, slightly broken, moderately broken and very broken lands; the rolling land had the highest density of blue sheep herds (57.78%) followed by the slightly broken land (20.00%), the moderately broken land (8.89%), the flat land (6.67%) and the very broken land (6.67%). On the other hand, the slightly broken land (55.56%) was preferred by the Himalayan tahr followed by the rolling Fig. 6: Distribution of snow leopard signs in land (22.22%), flat land (11.11%), the moderately different habitat in MCA broken land (11.11%) and none in the very broken land. Himalayan monal (Danphe), Himalayan Prey species abundance marmot, Royale’s pika and wooly hare were the Blue sheep, Himalayan tahr, musk deer, other prey species recorded in the field. Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana), Livestock loss and people´s perception towards Himalayan serow, hare (Lepus oiostolus), Royle’s snow leopard conservation pika (Ochotona roylei) and impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus) were found to be We found 933 livestock heads with the average the major wild prey species of snow leopard in holding of 18.66 heads/HHs in the Chhekampar Chhekampar area. Forty-five herds of blue sheep VDC. The major livestock were cow/bull, 2 were sighted in Block II (103.6 km ) and Block III horse/mule and yak/chauri. The yak/chauri was 2 (89.6 km ), with an estimated total population of the dominant livestock followed by cow/bull. 733 animals; the density of blue sheep being 3.8 However, there were no records of goat/sheep 2 animals/km . Block II and Block III were located and dogs. Twelve livestock were found to be at the north-west and north-east parts of the study lost because of snow leopard and other factors

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(starvation, diseases and sliding) but only three is associated with religious ties and traditional yak/chauri were found to be killed by snow cultural and social norms. The majority of the leopard in 2010. This figure accounted for 1.29% local people who have faith in Buddhism believe of the total livestock. The snow leopard was the that snow leopards are ambassadors of god and only predator believed to damage the livestock in feel that the presence of snow leopards in their this region. Of the total 12 livestock lost (1.29% area is a matter of dignity. Traditionally, killing of total herd), the snow leopard was responsible and hunting is strictly enforced in the restricted for 25% (3 yak/chauri). Of the total livestock, zone. If any one uses violence against snow predation by snow leopard was only 0.32%. leopards this goes against their social norms, and Although jackals were reported to be found in they must be punished by Lamas and socially the Chhekampar VDC, no losses by jackals was ostracized. recorded. In addition, no wildlife attacks on human or injuries by predators were noticed in Discussion the last year. Though Fecal DNA Analysis is the most promising In the four seasons- snow leopards killed two method for monitoring snow leopard population, livestock in winter and one in summer. There was Snow Leopard Information Management System no record of livestock killed in spring and autumn Survey Method can be improved by rigorous seasons. A loss in winter is attributed to seasonal training of observers and designing sampling migration of people towards lower regions schemes (McCarthy et al., 2008). The result of along with their livestock to avoid extreme cold this study may have some methodological errors, weather. During this period livestock are prone to but are useful in reveling the primary information attack by predators, particularly snow leopards, of snow leopards in an unexplored area like and in the pastures where livestock are mostly the Chhekampar VDC. The result of this study left unguarded overnight. It is quite interesting to indicated that the sign density of snow leopard 2 mention that snow leopards and their main preys- (3.57 signs/km ) was quite less as compared to Himalayan tahr and blue sheep together with the similar studies in other parts of the snow leopard other wild animals also conduct the same seasonal range. In the Mustang region of Nepal, Upadhyaya 2 movements during winter. The loss in summer (2010) recorded 10.83 signs/km , and concluded (April–June) is attributed to the engagement of that the area had good density of snow leopard. 2 the people in collecting yarsagumba and they Similarly, 8.22 signs/km in the Kanchanjunga 2 cannot spend more time guarding their livestock Conservation Area, and 12.7 signs/km in the at the pasture land. SPNP have been recorded (Thapa, 2006). In Humla and Sagarmatha regions of Nepal, the The Likert scale attitude survey revealed that highest percentages of scrapes (10.64±2.50% and 80% of the local people had a positive attitude 58.7% respectively) were recorded during the towards snow leopard conservation. Thirty six sign surveys (Lama, 2015; Wolf and Ale, 2009). percent of the local people strongly liked snow However, the highest number of scats were leopards whereas 31% strongly liked blue sheep/ encountered in the field survey in western Nepal Himalayan tahr and 24% strongly liked wildlife (59.6% in Humla and 61% in Dolpa region) in general. Respondents with strongly positive (FoN, 2014; GGN, 2014). In this study too, the attitude towards wildlife were basically Lamas highest percentage of scats were encountered in and Amchis. The presence of Himalayan tahr the signs (Table 1; Figure 2). In our study, the and blue sheep were found to be good indicators presence of old scats indicated that the area had for snow leopard conservation signifying that not been used by the snow leopard recently, and there was no immediate threat of its main prey. this might be because of the heavy disturbance of According to the respondents, the blue sheep and human activities in the area. The ridgelines were Himalayan tahr used to frequently enter their found to have been excessively used by the snow croplands, and damaged crops. However, none of leopards not only to detect prey species, but also the respondents disliked or strongly disliked the might have been used for easy escaping when Himalayan tahr and blue sheep. needed. There seems to be not much preferences in the use of landform ruggedness by the snow The positive attitude of the people towards leopard, though the flat and very broken land form wildlife including snow leopards in this study area are less used. The grassland and shrub land are

17 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Devkota et al. almost equally used by the snow leopard because (2003) in the Upper-Mustang, Oli et al. (1994) of the availability of prey species in these habitat in the Annapurna Conservation Area; where types. Because of the habitat destruction and majority of the respondents strongly dislike snow other anthropogenic activities, snow leopards are leopards. Similar perception was reported for blue at high risk (Wegge et al., 2012; Devkota et al., sheep (Kunwar, 2003). Because of the negligible 2013), so knowing how these factors influence human snow leopard conflict in the study area, habitat use is critical to the conservation of snow people have positive perception towards snow leopard (Wolf and Ale, 2009). The density of leopard and its prey species in this region. The blue sheep (3.8 animals/km2) in the study area religious belief of Buddhism has very positive as compared to other regions of Nepal, is higher impact upon the wildlife conservation in the than in the SPNP (2.27 animal/km2; Devkota et Tsum Valley. al., 2013) and upper region of Mustang district (0.86 animal/km2; Aryal et al., 2014). However, Our study has explored the abundance of snow the density of the blue sheep in this study area is leopard signs and its prey species in new sites, quite less than that of 8.4 animals/km2 in the Phu opening opportunities for further studies. The Valley of Manang district (Wegge et al., 2012). religious belief of the local people is the major Similarly, Shrestha (2006) had observed the mean factor in accepting snow leopard conservation. herd size of 18.7 animals of Himalayan tahr in the However, since the people of the locality are poor SNP, which is less than the mean herd size of 25 and much depend on the natural resources, and if animals found in the present study. alternatives to their livelihoods are not available, the present condition may not go a long way. Our results shows that the livestock depredation Incentives programs such as relief and insurance rate (1.29%) is lower than the similar studies programs for livestock depredation coupled with conducted in other parts of Nepal. The livestock other incentive programs for crop damages should loss was 2.6% in the Annapurna Conservation be encouraged timey to keep on gaining local Area (Oli et al., 1994) and 11.1% in the SPNP peoples’ support in snow leopard conservation in (Devkota et al., 2013). This could be because of the landscapes of the Tsum Valley of the MCA. the low abundance of snow leopards and high abundance of wild prey species like blue sheep Acknowledgements and Himalayan tahr. The percentage of livestock This research would not have been possible loss is found to be less than 7.1% due to snow without the financial, technical and logistic leopard and wolf in Ladakh (Namgail, 2004) support of Memorial Centre of Excellence, while the loss is 18% because of wolf and snow Institute of Forestry, Pokhara: we express our leopard in Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in India gratitude to the project and supporting staffs. We (Mishra, 1997). A study by Kunwar (2003) in also would like to thank Manaslu Conservation the ACA also recognized the snow leopard as Area Project, Gorkha and field office, Phidim. We the principal predator where it was responsible appreciate the tremendous support of the people for 58% of the total livestock loss. However, he of Chhekampar VDC, Gorkha, Nepal. reported seven wild predators in the ACA and Devkota et al. (2013) also reported snow leopard References as the principal predator where it was responsible for 45.6% of the total livestock depredation in the Ahlborn, G. and Jackson, R. M. 1988. Marking SPNP, which is quite higher than in our study. in free-ranging snow leopards in west Nepal: The loss to snow leopards in winter is comparable a preliminary assessment. In Proceedings to the results revealed in the ACA by Oli et al. of the Fifth International Snow Leopard (1994), where 39% of the feces of snow leopards Symposium (ed Freeman, H.), pp. 25–49. collected in winter contained the remains of International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, livestock. However, another study in the same area Washington, DC and Wildlife Institute of by Jackson et al. (1996) reported predation losses India, Dehradun, India. throughout the year, but with a peak in spring and early summer (AprilJune). This result of the Ale, S. B., Yonzon, P. and Thapa, K. 2007. assessment of the people’s perception towards Recovery of snow leopard Uncia uncia in snow leopard conservation is contradictory to Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park, the result explored by other researchers; Kunwar Nepal. Oryx 41 (1): 89–92.

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Aryal, A., Brunton, D., Ji, W. and Raubenheimer, R. HMGN. 2005. The Snow Leopard Conservation 2014. Blue sheep in Annapurna Conservation Action Plan for the Kingdom of Nepal. His Area, Nepal: habitat use, population biomass Majesty Government of Nepal (HMGN), and their contribution to the carrying capacity Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, of snow leopards. Intergrative Zoology 9: Kathmandu, Nepal. 34–45. Jackson, R. M. and Hunter, D. O. 1996. Snow Bajimaya, S. 2001. Snow Leopard Manual. Leopard Survey and Conservation Hand Field techniques for the Kingdom of Nepal. Book (2nd Edition). International Snow Kathmandu, Nepal. Leopard Trust Seattle, Washington, USA. Buckland, S. T., Anderson D. R., Burnham K. P. Jackson, R. M., Ahlborn, G. G., Gurung, M. and Laake, J. L. 1993. Distance Sampling and Ale, S. 1996. Reducing livestock Estimating Abundance of Biological depredation losses in the Nepalese Himalaya. Populations. Chapman and Hall, London, In Proceedings of the 17th Vertebrates Pest UK. Conference (eds Timm, R. M. and Crabb, A. C.), pp. 241–247. University of California, CBS. 2012. National Population and Housing Davis, USA. Census 2011 (National Report). Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), National Planning Jackson, R. M., Mishra, C., McCarthy, T. M. Commission Secretariat, Government of and Ale, S. B. 2010. Snow leopards: conflict Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. and conservation. In The Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids (eds Macdonald, Devkota, B. P., Silwal, T. and Kolejka, J. 2013. D. W. and Loveridge, A. J.), pp. 417–430. Prey density and diet of snow leopard (Uncia Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. uncia) in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. Applied Ecology and Environmental Jackson, R., Mallon, D., McCarthy, T., Chundaway, Sciences 1 (4): 55–60. doi: 10.12691/aees-1- R. A. and Habib, B. 2008. Panthera uncia. The 4-4. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008:e. T22732A9381126. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/ FoN. 2014. Assessment of Snow Leopard Status IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T22732A9381126.en and Distribution in Humla and Bajhang accessed on 19 July, 2016. Districts in Western Complex of Nepal. Friends of Nature (FoN). Report submitted to Janecka, J., Jackson, R. and Munkhtog, B. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. 2008. Scat Survey Methodology for Snow Leopards. Fox, J. L., Sinha, S. P., Chundawat, R. S. and Das, P. K. 1991. Status of the snow Krebs, C. 1985. Ecology (3rd Edition). Herper leopard Panthera uncia in north-west India. and Row. Biological Conservation 55: 283–298. Kunwar, P. B. 2003. People Wildlife Conflict in GGN. 2014. Assessment of Snow Leopard Upper Mustang of Annapurna Conservation Status and Distribution in Western Nepal Area. M.Sc. Thesis. Tribhuvan University/ (Dolpa, Mugu and Darchula Districts). Green Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal. Governance Nepal (GGN). Report submitted Maheshwari, A. 2006. Food Habits and Prey to WWF Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. Abundance of Leopard (Panthera paradus GoN. 2013. Snow Leopard Conservation fusca) in Gir National Park and Wildlife Action Plan for Nepal, 2005–2015 (Revised Sanctuary. M. Sc. Thesis. Aligarh Muslim 2012). Government of Nepal (GoN), Ministry University, Aligarh, India. of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department McCarthy, T. M. 2000. Ecology and Conservation of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, of Snow Leopards, Gobi Brown Bears, Kathmandu, Nepal. and Wild Bactrian Camels in Mongolia. HMGN. 1973. National Parks and Wildlife PhD Thesis. University of Maccachusetts Conservation Act 1973 (4th amendment Amherst, USA. in 1993). His Majesty Government of Nepal McCarthy, T. M. and Chapron, G. G. 2003. Snow (HMGN), Kathmandu, Nepal. Leopard Survival Strategy. International

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Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard J.A., McCarthy, T. M., Smith, A., Whittaker, Network, Seattle, USA. L. O., and Wolraamayale, E. D.). Society for Conservation Biology Asia Section and McCarthy, K. P., Fuller, T. K., Ming, M., Resources Himalaya Foundation, Nepal, pp. McCarthy, T. M., Waits, L. and Jumabaev, K. 184–196. 2008. Assessing estimators of snow leopard abundance. Journal of Wildlife Management Shrestha, B. 2006. Status, distribution and 72 (8): 1826–1833. potential habitat of Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and conflict areas Mishra, C. 1997. Livestock depredation by large within livestock in Sagarmatha National Park. carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 7: conflict perceptions and conservation 27–33. prospects. Environmental Conservation 24 (4): 338–343. Thapa, K. 2006. Study on Status and Distribution of the Snow Leopard and Namgail, T. 2004. Interactions Between Argali Blue Sheep Including People Interactions, and Livestock, Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary, Kanchanjungha Conservation Area and Shey Ladakh. Final Project Report submitted to Phoksundo National Park. Report submitted The International Snow Leopard Trust, India. to WWF Nepal. Nowel, K. and Jackson, P. 1996. Wild Cats: Turchin, P. 1998. Quantitative Analysis of Status Survey and Conservation. IUCN, Movement: Measuring and Modeling Gland, Switzerland. Population Redistribution in Plants and NTNC. 2016. Manaslu Conservation Area Project, Animals. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, National Trust for Nature Conservation UK. (NTNC). Website: http://www.ntnc.org.np/ Upadhyaya, M. 2010. Relative Abundance, project/manaslu-conservation-area-project Habitat Preference and Threats of Snow accessed on 19 July, 2016. Leopard Uncia uncia in Upper Mustang, Oli, M. K. 1994. Snow leopards and blue sheep Nepal. M.Sc. Thesis. Tribhuvan University/ in Nepal: densities and predator prey ratio. Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal. Journal of Mammalogy 75 (4): 998–1004. Wegge, P., Shrestha, R. and Flagstad, O. 2012. Oli, M. K. 1996. Seasonal patterns in habitat Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation use of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in on livestock and wild prey in a mountain the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. valley in northern Nepal: implications for Mammalia 60 (2): 187–194. conservation management. Wildlife Biology Oli, M. K., Taylor, I. R. and Rogers, M. E. 1994. 18: 131–141. Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of Wolf, M. and Ale, S. 2009. Signs at the top: livestock: an assessment of local perceptions habitat features influencing snow leopard in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Uncia uncia activity in Sagarmatha National Biological Conservation 68: 63–68. Park, Nepal. Journal of Mammalogy 90 (3): Schaller, G. B. 1977. Mountain Monarchs: 604–611. Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya. WWF Nepal. 2009. Estimating Snow Leopard University Chicago Press, Chicago, USA. Populations in the Nepal Himalaya. World Sharma, S., Thapa, K., Chalise, M. K., Dutta Wildlife Fund (WWF) Nepal. pp 1–31. T., Bhatnagar Y. V. and McCarthy, T. M. 2006. The Snow leopard in Himalaya: A step towards their conservation by studying their distribution, marking habitat selection, coexistence with other predators, and wild prey-livestock-predator interaction. In Conservation Biology in Asia (eds McNeely,

20 Perceptions of agro-pastoralists towards the change in temperature and precipitation in the trans-Himalayan regions of Nepal

S. Aryal1*,2, S. K. Ghimire2, Y. R. Dhakal2,3, N. P. Gaire2,3,4 and S. Bhandari4 Climate change has emerged as a global concern despite its differential impacts across geographical, social and economic gradients. Understanding perceptions of local communities towards climate change is important as it advances the knowledge, and is the driver of autonomous adaptation and behavioral responses. The livelihood of the agro-pastoralists in the trans-Himalayan regions of Nepal depends on the natural resources, and is highly sensitive to the change in climatic variables. Although there are indications of pronounced climate change in terms of their important variables in the high-altitude compared to the lowland of Nepal, there is limited information on how communities living in those areas have perceived to the change. Realizing the significance of such information, perceptions of the agro-pastoralists towards the change in climatic variables were studied in the two important high- and trans-Himalayan districts- Dolpa and Mustang. The results of the study revealed that the perceptions of the agro-pastoralists correspond with the increasing trend of temperature and the changing (both increasing and decreasing) trends of precipitation. Moreover, the agro- pastoralists have perceived the decrease in snowfall and reported appearance of new forage and pasture species in rangelands. The findings will be useful to understand about the climate change in the high- and trans-Himalayan region, and to devise adaptation strategies in these areas.

Key words: Agro-pastoralists, climate change, impacts, Nepal, perceptions and trends

lthough impacts of climate change differ emerged as a systematic threat compounding with Aacross geographical, socio-political and other threats challenging the livelihood of people economic gradients, climate change has emerged and sustainability of the traditional systems. The as a global concern (MEA, 2005). Small island, trends of temperature suggest that warming is least- developed and mountainous countries more pronounced in the high-altitude areas than are more vulnerable to climate change (Klein, in the lower elevations of Nepal, and the nature 2009). Due to its geo-political conditions and its of precipitation has also been changing (NAPA, potential impact on the economy, ecology, and 2010; Shrestha and Aryal, 2011). Previous studies environment, climate change is a major concern (Gentle and Maraseni, 2012; Aryal et al., 2014a; in the Himalayas (Liu and Rasul, 2007). The Macchi et al., 2014) suggest that the climate rate of increase in temperature is higher than change has affected the livelihood of the people the global average in the region, and the form in the mountainous areas of Himalayas. But, of precipitation will be changed in the higher people living with high-poverty in the region Himalayas where more rainfall will be expected have limited capacity to adapt with the climate than the snowfall (IPCC, 2007). change.

Nepal is both the mountainous and the least Over two million Nepalese depend upon climate developed country of the Himalayan region sensitive sectors like agriculture and forestry for which is socio-politically, geographically and their livelihood (Garg et al., 2007). Even with a economically fragile. Climate change has slight change on climatic variables, there would

1 Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, QLD 4350, Australia; *E-mail: [email protected] 2 Siddhartha Environmental Service, Kathmandu, Nepal 3 Tree Ring Society of Nepal, Lalitpur, Nepal 4 Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Lalitpur, Nepal

21 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Aryal et al. be a greater impact over the natural and human Materials and methods systems of Nepal. Agro-pastoralism is practiced in those areas which are most affected by global Study area climate change (Kullman, 2004; Zomer et al. 2014) and are likely to be affected by the timing The study was conducted in the Dolpa district of of rainfall, agricultural seasons, persistence and the Mid-western Development Region and the melting of snow in rangelands, availability of Mustang district of the Western Development water near grazing spots and so on. The agro- Region of Nepal. Both the Dolpa and Mustang pastoralists may be disproportionately more districts are mountainous districts of Nepal, and vulnerable due to climate change (Dong et al., represent the trans-Himalayas. The field visits 2011) and the situation could be even more severe at the study sites were conducted by a Team when the flexibility is restricted (Tyler et al., including one Expert in Climate Change and 2007; Fu et al., 2012). Agro-pastoralism, and three Research Assistants. The same Team conducted the study in both The observations of local people often relied on the sites. The field visit in the Mustang district holistic ways of knowing their environment that was conducted during September October, 2015 integrate a number of variables and relationships whereas it was conducted in April in the Dolpa between them (Pretty et al., 2009). Local people district. Preliminary consultation was done with use physical environmental indicators such as the staff of the Annapurna Conservation Area rain, first snowfall, melting of snow and biological Project (ACAP) Site Office and the members of indicators such as spring budding, leafing, the Conservation Area Management Committee blooming flowers and fruiting (Turner and Clifton, in the case of Mustang district and the staff of 2009). Perceptions in some instances, however, the Shey Phoksundo National Park Office in the can be affected by their belief on climate change case of Dolpa district. As this paper is a part of a (Howe et al., 2013; Niles and Mueller, 2016). broader research project entitled “Treeline Shift The indigenous and marginalized communities in the Central Nepal Himalaya and the Climate whose subsistence livelihoods depend upon Reconstruction of the Past Millennia”, the local direct utilization of natural resources might have people who frequently visit the forest area different experiences and knowledge than the especially for yak movement and sheep rearing people adopting a modern lifestyle and living in were consulted to identify the study sites. urban areas (Tucker 1986; Wolf and Moser 2011; Howe et al., 2014). Many scholars (Petheram Data collection et al., 2010; Alexander et al., 2011; Sánchez- After the selection of the study sites for Cortés and Chavero, 2011) have noted that dendrological and ecological study, the local indigenous knowledge could be better applied people who were using the forests and rangelands to the assessments of climate change. It has also near the dendrological study sites were selected been acknowledged for its role in advancing the for survey and focus group discussions (FGDs). understanding of climate change (Nelson et al., Based on the criteria described above, three sites 2006; Chaudhary and Bawa, 2011; Klein et al., viz. Marpha Settlement of the Marpha VDC, 2014). In these contexts, agro-pastoralists of Kodekhola Danda and Kosari Ban were selected the high Himalayas have to respond to nature’s in the case of Mustang district whereas Rigmu rhythm for characteristic seasonal movement and Chhekpa of the Phoksundo VDC in the Dolpa of livestock and crop plantation and harvesting. district were selected for the survey and FGDs Their perceptions and meaningful observations (Fig. 1). A total of 21 agro-pastoralists in the could be interesting in climate change studies Dolpa district and 15 in the Mustang district were and to understand impacts of climate change surveyed using semi-structured questionnaire. A to the climate sensitive agro-pastoral systems. purposive sampling method was applied for the Therefore, this study aims to explore the selection of the respondents for the survey as no perceptions of the agro-pastoralists towards prior list of the agro-pastoralists was available. At change in climatic variables, validate perceptions first, the secretaries of the selected VDCs were with the trends and impacts of climate change approached to identify the initial contacts of some to the agro-pastoralism in the high-altitude and agro-pastoralists, and then the contacted agro- trans-Himalayan regions of Nepal. pastoralists were asked to identify the other agro-

22 Aryal et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 pastoralists. stations under the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM). The nearest meteorological stations from the study sites were Dune in the Dolpa district and Jomsom in the Mustang district. Therefore, the temperature and rainfall data during the last 30 years (1984–2014) in those stations were analysed. The data on these parameters were found to be normally maintained at Jomsom in the Mustang district, but there were many missing values in the case of temperature at the Dune Station and therefore, the trends only in the precipitation were analysed in the case of this Station. General linear regression Fig. 1: District map of Nepal showing the study was used to calculate the annual and seasonal areas trends of temperature and rainfall. The annual trends of temperature and rainfall were obtained A face-to-face and semi-structured interview using the data of all months. For the analysis of was done with the selected respondents, and the seasonal trends, the months under each season- perceptions of the herders about the two major winter (December to February), monsoon (June climatic variables- temperature and precipitation to September) and summer (March to May) were were collected, asking whether the particular used (Shrestha and Aryal, 2011). variable was changing or not. The responses were categorized in the ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘don’t know’ Results and discussion columns. If the answer was ‘yes’, the trend of Trends of temperature and rainfall change (increasing or decreasing) was also noted. The temperature of the study sites showed Two focus groups discussions (FGDs) were also increasing trends in between 1984 and 2014. The conducted in each site in a group of 6–8 agro- rate of increase was much higher in the winter pastoralists per FGD. The likely impacts of season than in the summer season (Fig. 2). The climate change to the agro-pastoralism were also trends of rainfall were not similar in the two sites. discussed during the FGDs. There were decreasing trends of rainfall in the The temperature and precipitation data for trend Dolpa district whereas the increasing trends in the analysis were collected from the meteorological same were observed in the Mustang district. The

Fig. 2: Temperature trends during the period of 1984–2014 recorded at the Jomsom Meteorological Station in Mustang district

23 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Aryal et al. decreasing trends in the Dolpa district were more season compared to the those in the summer pronounced as compared to the increasing trends season (Fig. 2) are consistent with the previous in the Mustang district (Fig. 3). studies (Shrestha et al., 1999; Shrestha and Aryal, 2011) and reports (IPCC, 2007; NAPA, 2010) for Perception of agro-pastoralists toward change Nepal and the Himalayan region. The trends for in the climatic variables precipitation were not similar in the two sites. The one in the Dolpa district showed the decreasing Majority of the agro-pastoralists from both trend whereas the another in the Mustang district the study sites had perceived change in showed the increasing trend (Fig. 3). The results the temperature, and they reported that the of this study also support the statement that no temperature was increasing. Their perceptions distinct and long-term pattern for the precipitation towards the change in rainfall, however, differed has been reported in the Himalayan regions of from the one site to the another site. Majority of Nepal (Shrestha et al., 2000; NAPA, 2010). the respondents in the Dolpa district perceived that the rainfall was decreasing whereas those The trends of the temperature and precipitation in the Mustang district had perceived increasing recorded in the meteorological sites almost trends in rainfall (Table 1). All the surveyed agro- perfectly correspond with the perceptions of the pastoralists from both the sites had also perceived agro-pastoralists in the study areas. There was that the number of days with snowfall and the a difference in the precipitation trend across total amount of snowfall per year had decreased the sites, however, the perceptions of the agro- during the period (Table 1). pastoralists from each area matched with the trends of that particular site. The rising summer Trends of change in key climatic variables and temperature as perceived by the agro-pastoralists perceptions of agro-pastoralists is consistent with the findings of the previous The increasing trend of temperature and higher studies (Shrestha et al., 1999; Biggs et al., 2013; rate of increase in temperature in the winter Aryal et al., 2014b; Aryal et al., 2016). This Table 1: Perceptions of agro-pastoralists towards change in climatic variables during the period of 1984–2014 No. of respondents S. Change in Don’t If yes N. Yes No know Increased Decreased Dolpa district (n = 21) 1. Temp. of summer season 12 (57.14) 6 (28.57) 3 (14.28) 12 (100) 0 (0) 2. Temp. of winter season 12 (57.14) 6 (28.57) 3 (14.28) 9 (75) 3 (25) 3. Total amount of rainfall in a year 21 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 21 (100) 4. Total rainfall in monsoon season 18 (85.71) 3 (14.28) 0 (0) 0 (0) 18 (100) 5. Total rainfall in winter season 21 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 21 (100) 6. Total no. of snowing days 21 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 21 (100) 7. Total amount of snowfall in a year 21 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 21 (100) Mustang district (n = 15) 1. Temp. of summer season 15 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 15 (100) 0 (0) 2. Temp. of winter season 14 (93.33) 0 (0) 1 (6.66) 14 (100) 0 (0) 3. Total amount of rainfall in a year 13 (86.66) 2 (13.33) 0 (0) 13 (100) 0 (0) 4. Total rainfall in monsoon season 15 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 15 (100) 0 (0) 5. Total rainfall in winter season 12 (80) 3 (20) 0 (0) 12 (100) 0 (0) 6. Total no. of snowing days 15 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 15 (100) 7. Total amount of snowfall in a year 15 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 15 (100) Note: Figures in the parentheses represent percentage of respondents.

24 Aryal et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1

Fig. 3: Rainfall trends during the period of 19842014 recorded at the Meteorological Stations at Jomsom in Mustang district (a) and Dunai in Dolpa district (b) indicates that the perceptions and observations (Yeh et al., 2013). In addition to the changes in of the agro-pastoralists can compliment modern climatic variables, the agro-pastoralists have science, and provide a chance to cross-validate reported rapid melting of snow and appearance the findings from scientific observations. This of new plant species in the rangelands (Table 1). can have great implication in the data-deficit The drying of water resources and appearance of regions such as the higher Himalaya which has new livestock diseases were also reported. Those been declared as ‘white spot’ due to limited observations of the agro-pastoralists are in line observations and understanding (IPCC, 2007). with the findings of the previous scholars- Xu et al. (2009) and Aryal et al. (2015) reporting The studies from the other regions of the world phonological changes. (Martello, 2008) have indicated that local people who directly interact with the nature will better Perception of change in climate and biophysical and accurately perceive the changes in climatic indicators, and impacts of climate change are variables. Local people use physical and biological important due to several reasons. Firstly, it indicators such as rains, frost, first snowfall, may be a driver of autonomous adaptations and melting of snow, budding, fruiting etc. (Turner behavioral response (Howe et al., 2013; Zheng and Clifton, 2009) to compare trends. Moreover, and Dallimer, 2016) that could, for example, these people develop effective adaptation include changes in the grazing and agricultural strategies to combat effects from changing climate calendar. Secondly, the increased knowledge

25 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Aryal et al. sharing between scientists, policy-makers and to the abandonment of rangelands which in turn resource users may be one means of reducing can lead to grazing pressure in other rangelands. vulnerability because new adaptation strategies could be generated from the combinations of The appearances of non-native and unpalatable knowledge and experiences (Lebel, 2013; Strand species indicate the poor quality of rangelands 2016). Thirdly, it can be a form of citizen science and ultimately affect upon livestock production. or social science, confirming or challenging The increase of such unwanted species can be the modeled-changes in climate. This is more related to different factors. Some species that significant for the Himalayan region as the region were located at the adjacent lower elevation lacks empirical data of climate change. might have moved upslope due to an increase in temperature and associated range shift Effects of climate change on agro-pastoralism (Klanderud and Birks, 2003; Gaire et al., 2014; Zomer et al. 2014) or some shrub species might Climate change has potential to impact upon have encroached the alpine rangelands due to an different areas, communities and sectors. increase in drought, cessation of fire and range Mountainous regions are comparatively more abandonment (Brandt et al., 2013). Some ruderal sensitive to climate change (Paudel and Andersen, species such as Iris goniocarpa and Euphorbia 2011; Rangwala and Miller, 2012). Climate stracheyi might have benefited due to increased change poses both direct and indirect effect to nitrogen in highly -grazed patches (Bauer, 1990; the agro-pastoralism. Climate change can directly Aryal, 2010). The increase in drought can lead to affect upon two most important agricultural the early maturity of the grasses in the rangelands production factors- precipitation and temperature extending the duration and severity of grass (Deschenes and Greenstone, 2007). Crop growth, shortage. Due to climate change, pastoralists development, water use and yield under normal might have to decide in an environment of greater conditions are largely determined by the weather uncertainty. Changes in weather can affect upon during the growing season. Climate change can other agricultural activities, such as planting and indirectly affect upon agriculture by influencing harvesting crops, and thus ultimately disturb their emergence and distribution of crop pests and seasonal calendar. Such changes in the calendars livestock diseases, exacerbating the frequency of the local people might also have implications and distribution of adverse weather conditions, upon ecosystem and ecosystem management reducing water supplies and irrigation, and (Franco, 2015). The increase in temperature and enhancing severity of soil erosion (IPCC, 2014). longer growing season can increase the upper limit of grasslands and grass production. The majority of respondents of the present study reported that the total amount of snowfall has According to the agro-pastoralists of the study decreased, and it melts faster in the rangelands. areas, different types of pests are increasingly With higher amount of snow, it would melt widespread, and their livestock frequently suffer gradually and provide moisture for a longer from water- and vector-borne diseases. It has been duration than rainfall. The decreasing amount reported that livestock may be more susceptible of snowfall in combination with the increasing to diseases due to increase in temperature. The temperature can decrease soil moisture. This can increasing incidences of livestock diseases might affect upon both the quality and quantity of crop be related to climate change as the population production in agricultural field as well as grass dynamics and distribution ranges of many production in the rangelands. The decreasing trend diseases causing vectors are largely determined of rainfall can lead to the drying of water resources by climatic variables (Gage et al., 2008; Aryal, (springs, rivers) and reduce water availability 2015). in the rangelands (Aryal, 2015). The impacts of climate change upon the rangelands could be more Conclusion complex as it can alter the competition between plants and their growth habits, productivity and The perceptions of the agro-pastoralists of the plant-animal interactions (IPCC, 2007; IPCC, the study areas in the two districts (Dolpa and 2014) and decrease rangeland quality (Klein et Mustang) were consistent with the rising trends al., 2007). The drying of water resources can lead of temperature and changing rainfall pattern. The

26 Aryal et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 trends and perceptions of the agro-pastoralists of Aryal, S. 2010. Effect of Transhumance in this study are in line with the previous studies Species Richness and Composition in High- and predictions for the Himalayan region. The Altitude Landscape, Langtang National Park, agro-pastoralists have also observed change Nepal. M.Sc. Thesis, Tribhuvan University, in biological indicators such as emergence of Nepal and University of Bergen, Norway, 56. new plant species, appearance of new livestock diseases, and change in physical indicators, Aryal, S., Cockfield, G. and Maraseni, T. 2014a. such as fast melting of snow in rangelands and Vulnerability of Himalayan transhumant drying of water resources. The findings of this communities to climate change. Climatic study suggest that direct and indirect impacts of Change 125: 193–208. climate change are becoming apparent in agro- Aryal, S., Maraseni, T. N. and Cockfield, G. pastoralism, and the perceptions and experiences 2014b. Climate change and indigenous of the agro-pastoralists can be useful in climate people: Perceptions of transhumant herders change studies. Studies on perceptions and and implications to the transhumance system identification of possible impacts of climate in the Himalayas. Geology and Geosciences change would help to design adaptation plan 3: 1–5. and intervention strategies for the sustainability of traditional farming systems, such as agro- Aryal, S. 2015. The Socio-Ecological Impacts pastoralism and livelihood improvement of the of Structural Changes in the Transhumance people involved in such systems. System of the Mountainous Area of Nepal. PhD Thesis, University of Southern Acknowledgements Queensland Australia, 247.

This study was supported by the Asian Aryal, S., Cockfield, G. and Maraseni, T. N. Development Bank supported-project entitled 2016. Perceived changes in climatic variables “Management of Climate Change Risk and impacts on the transhumance system in Management in Development Project” (TA 7984 the Himalayas. Climate and Development 8: NEP) under the Nepal Academy of Science and 435–446. Technology (NAST), Lalitpur, Nepal. We are oblized to the Department of National Parks and Bauer, J. J. 1990. The analysis of plant-herbivore Wildlife Conservation of the Government of interactions between ungulates and vegetation Nepal (GoN), the ACAP and the Shey Phoksundo on alpine grasslands in the Himalayan region National Park for providing us permission to of Nepal. Plant Ecology 90: 15–34. conduct our research work. We are grateful to the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology Biggs, E. M., Tompkins, E. L., Allen, J., Moon, C. of the GoN for providing us temperature and and Allen, R. 2013. Agricultural adaptation to precipitation data. We appreciate the Project climate change: observations from the Mid- Office Team of the Nepal Climate Change Hills of Nepal. Climate and Development 5: Knowledge Management Center and the NAST 165–173. for their generous support. We are thankful to Mr. Rishi Ranabhat, Ms. Neeru Thapa, Mr. Ramdev Brandt, J. S., Haynes, M. A., Kuemmerle, T., Yadav, Dr. Deepak Kumar Kharal, Dr. Buddi Waller, D. M. and Radeloff, V. C. 2013. Sagar Poudel, Mr. Kiran Kumar Pokharel and Regime shift on the roof of the world: Alpine Sugam Aryal, field assistants as well as the local meadows converting to shrublands in the people for their support for this study. southern Himalayas. Biological Conservation 158: 116–127. References Chaudhary, P. and Bawa, K. S. 2011. Local Alexander, C., Bynum, N., Johnson, E., King, U., perceptions of climate change validated by Mustonen, T. and Neofotis, P. 2011. Linking scientific evidence in the Himalayas. Biology indigenous and scientific knowledge of Letters 7: 767–770. climate change. BioScience 61: 477–484. Deschenes, O. and Greenstone, M. 2007. The economic impacts of climate change:

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30 Invasion of alien plant species and their impact on different ecosystems of Panchase Area, Nepal

S. Baral1*, A. Adhikari2, R. Khanal2, Y. Malla2, R. Kunwar3, B. Basnyat4, K. Gauli5 and R. P. Acharya6

The aggressiveness of invasive alien plant species has been amidst the changing climate, which has necessitated further research in this area. The impact of invasive alien plant species in the Panchase area of Nepal was assessed through the forest resource assessment and other methodologies such as, household survey, group discussion, direct field observation, participatory cluster mapping, quadrat sampling, laboratory analysis, and GIS mapping. A total of nine major invasive species, in which Ageratum houstonianum and Ageratina adenophora were found spread throughout the ecosystem. The invasion was fueled by anthropogenic disturbances such as leaving the agricultural lands, fallow and degradation of habitat. As a consequence, native species such as Artemisia indica and Urtica dioica were outcompeted mostly in the fringes of fallow lands, agricultural lands and in the disturbed sites. The intrusion was, however, less in the forest area, implying that community-managed dense canopy forests are less susceptible to invasion and routine management can offset the negative effects of invasion. Even though many negative consequences of the invasion were observed in the study sites, the possibility of the economically exploiting the biomass of invasive alien plant species for generating income locally was noticed.

Key words: Climate change, disturbances, ecosystem, Invasive plants, Nepal, Panchase

nvasive plants are exotic species that threaten of biogeographic conditions and environments Inative ecosystems, habitats or species (CBD, (Mooney and Hobbs, 2000). Lodge et al. (2006) 2008). Introduced plant species and livestock concluded that IAPS endanger the environment, spread like invasive or associated species, by economy and human welfare. They also reduce displacing native species (Matthews and Brand, the population of native or replace them all 2004; Mooney et al., 2005). The emergence together, necessitate increased investment in of invasive alien plant species (IAPS), which agricultural activities and silviculture operations are commonly referred to as weeds, is a major (Ricchardi et al., 2000), and disrupt prevailing threat to the biodiversity and ecosystem services vegetation dynamics and nutrient cycling (Burgiel and Muir, 2010). The IUCN (2000) (Richardson & Higgins, 1998). The estimated defines IAPS as exotic plants that have established worldwide damage from IAPS is estimated to themselves in natural or semi-natural ecosystems be about US $1.4 trillion a year, which is nearly or habitats, and are agents of change, and threaten 5 percent of the global economy (Stern, 2006). native biological diversity. On the other hand, the The IAPS impacts on the wide range of sectors IPCC (2007) identifies climate change as one of including agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, trade the factors for the emergence of invasive plant and recreation. Since from the 17th century, IAPS species. Increase in atmospheric temperature are the agents for nearly 40 percent of different and carbon dioxide concentrations are likely to animal extinctions for which cause is known increase invasion of plant species because of their (CBD, 2002). adaptability and ability to disturb a broad range

1 University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria. *E-mail: [email protected] 2 International Union for Conservation of Nature, Nepal 3 Department of Geosciences, Florida Atlantic University, US 4 Institute of Forestry and University of Copenhagen, Denmark 5 Resource Identification and Management Society (RIMS) Nepal 6 Practical Solutions, Kathmandu, Nepal

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The CBD (1992) has set global priorities, and 57’ E, and altitude ranging from 815 m to 2,517 m. guidelines on collecting information and on Considering its high natural resource significance, coordinating international actions on invasive as well as its potential for eco-tourism, it has alien species. The fifth IUCN World Park been the focus of national, regional and local Congress, 2003 underlined the need for managing development strategies and plans (GoN, 2012). IAPS as an “emerging issue”, which was further The Panchase Protected Forest was gazetted as emphasized at the sixth World Park Congress, a ‘protected forest’ on February 27, 2011, under 2014. Nepal, being a signatory of the Convention article 23 of the Forest Act 2002 in recognition of on Biological Diversity (CBD), is required to its rich biodiversity, forest resources, as well as its prevent the introduction of IAPS and to control cultural and spiritual values (Suwal et al., 2013). or eradicate those IAPS that threaten ecosystems, Panchase, which literally means ‘five seats’ is the habitats and species (CBD, 1992). The approaches meeting place of five hills, and it represents the taken to combat invasive species, as well as the mid-hills of Nepal. The area received an average data on which they should be based, are, however, annual rainfall of 338 mm over the period of clearly inadequate to deal with the onslaught of 25 years from 1985 to 2010, with the highest invasive species in the country. Similarly, from rainfall occurring in the monsoon of 1988 with a conservation perspective, there is little point to the total rainfall of 4,936.6 mm (UNDP/MDO, addressing the climate change if the biodiversity 2006). The area has great biological, cultural and we are trying to protect has already been lost to religious diversities as well as natural beauty. The invasive species. Panchase Lake is considered as a famous site for religious pilgrimage for the people of the area The introduction and aggressiveness of IAPS are in November (Bhattarai et al., 2014). Although increasing especially on different land uses, in the area has a great diversity of ecosystems and the changing climate. The problem of invasion plant species (Aryal and Dhungel, 2009), the is quite high in farmland and forests compared likelihood of invasion of different ecosystems is to other ecosystems (IUCN, 2014; Suwal et al., increasing either due to depopulation or erratic 2016). A total of 166 IAPS of Nepal are reported rainfall. All the 17 villages of the Panchase (Tiwari et al., 2005); however, effects of invasion area have been invaded by the IAPS such as and initiatives to manage IAPS and studies to Ageratina adenophora, Ageratum conyzoides, research their dynamics have been very limited A. houstonianum, Chromolaena odorata and (Bhattarai et al., 2014). Although the first study Eichhornia crassipes (Kunwar and Acharya, of the IAPS of Nepal was carried out nearly five 2013). decades ago (Banerji, 1958), studies focusing on impacts and management of IAPS at species-, Bhadaure Tamagi Village Development ecosystem- and socio-economic levels through Committee (VDC) (Fig. 1) of the Panchase eco-friendly approaches are few. Poudel and Protected forest was selected considering rich Thapa (2012) admit further research on the biodiversity, altitudinal variation, high out- impacts of IAPS by focusing on the ecosystem migration, an expanse of fallow lands, and record and land use types from the reviewed of 43 of historical invasion. Furthermore, the village similar studies related to IAPS in Nepal. Hence, has a high occurrence of the invasive alien plant the present research was carried out to assess the species, with apparent impacts on connected extent of IAPS invasion and their impacts in the ecosystems (UNDP/MDO, 2006). The VDC Panchase area in western Nepal. covers 2,504.3 ha and has a population of 3,257. The average family size is four, which is less than Research site and methods the national average of 4.88 (GoN, 2012). This is Study area due to the out-migration of more than 50 percent of the local working age population for various The study was carried out in the Panchase purposes. protected forest site high occurrence of the invasive at the junction of Kaski, Parbat and Syangja districts in the Western Development Region of Nepal It lies between latitudes 28o 12’ and 28o 18’ N, longitudes between 83o 45’ and 83o

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spatial analysis was performed using participatory cluster mapping and Geographical Information System (GIS), and the ecological assessment. Furthermore, stakeholder consultations were organized to know the history and intensity of impacts of IAPS; the representatives from the District Forests Office (DFO), Panchase Development Committee as well as the other knowledgeable persons participated in the consultations.

Participatory assessment Fig. 1: Location map of the study area While collecting data, prior informed consent For this study, the VDC was divided into four was obtained at different levels. A total of ecosystem types, namely agriculture, forest, 28 households (nearly 5% of the total 570 of wetlands and grasslands for spatial analysis of the households) were interviewed using household distribution and impacts of invasive plant species questionnaires to understand the impact of IAPS (Fig. 2). Forest was found to be the dominant on the different ecosystems of the Panchase ecosystem, forest, along with grassland covers area and problems of invasion. Six focus group 76.13%, followed by agro-ecosystem (22.86%) discussions (FGDs) were conducted with farmers and wetland (1.01%). The Khahare Khola and CFUGs, club members, NGO representatives, Harpan Khola are the major river systems that Panchase Protected Forest Council Members constitute the majority of the wetland ecosystem, and the Mothers’ Group Members to gather followed by the transitional grassland ecosystem additional information on the status and effects (Sharma et al., 2013). The lower belt of the study of IAPS on the different ecosystems. Altogether, area, characterized by the dense settlement is used 58 respondents participated in the FGDs. for settlements and farming whereas the upper Participatory resource mapping was conducted belt, mostly covered by forest, is traditionally with the locals to identify the most affected areas. used for herding livestock and pasture. In addition, a historical timeline was prepared during the FGDs to document the extent of invasion and its impact of invasion. The study largely relied on the recall method to elucidate the history of introduction, trends and distribution of invasion. Information was validated with the help of the key-informant interviews, especially with the elderly and forest guards. After participatory mapping, an ecological assessment was carried out representing the different ecosystems of the Panchase area.

Ecological assessment

A rapid ecological assessment was carried out based on the participatory resource mapping representing different ecosystems. The assessment Fig. 2: The study area with different ecosystems was carried out in December 2012. Depending upon the terrain condition, perpendicular transects Study methods within a distance of 50–100 m length were laid The required information was collected through on the ground. On either side of the transect, two mainly two approaches; ecological assessment quadrats, each measuring 10 m x 10 m were and participatory methods such as community laid (Fig. 3) ensuring the requisite distance and consultation, household questionnaire survey, spiral in spinning; thus, one quadrate was feasible direct field observation, and group discussion. The in each perpendicular transect and two in each

33 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Baral et al. parallel transect. Altogether, 108 plots were available climatological records (rainfall and laid in the field. In each quadrant, two sub-plots temperature) obtained from the Meteorological measuring 1 m x 1 m for annual and 2 m x 2 m Station nearby Lumle, for the period of 1981– for biannual IAPS, respectively were laid. For 2011, were correlated with the ecological data. conducting the ecological study, different sites The plant species were identified by following situated at the different altitudes were sampled Stainton and Polunin (1984), Stainton (1988) and (Table 1). GoN (2001).

Data analysis

The quantitative data obtained from the household interviews was analyzed using the SPSS 16.0 Software. The climatic characteristics of the study area were assessed in terms of average annual maximum and minimum temperatures and annual precipitation. The suitability analysis was carried out on the basis of the distance and the frequency of the existing species in relation to the land- use, rivers and roads. Similarly, the analysis of the species distribution was conducted by using the Importance Value Index (IVI) as introduced by Cottam and Curtis (1956) for comparison of the species dominance. The IVI provides Fig. 3: Lay out of the quadrants and sub- a quantitative basis for the classification of quadrants in the field community, which reflects the overall importance of a species; the IVI for a species is calculated as Table 1: Study sites and elevation the sum of its relative frequency, relative density and relative dominance, as follows: Elevation No. of S.N. Site (m) quadrats Relative frequency is the frequency of a species in 1 Ghatichina 821–975 13 relation to the frequency of all the other species, and is expressed as, 2 Thulakhet 929–959 19 Frequency of a Species Relative Frequency (%) = x 100 3 Chainpur 1,036–1,136 9 Total Frequency of all 4 Harpan 1,214–1,441 12 the species 5 Damdame 1,288–1,292 2 (Source: Raunkiaer, 1934) 6 Sidhane 1,326–1,390 6 Relative density is the density of a species with 7 Kutmidada 1,337–1,361 12 respect to the total density of all species, and is 8 Deurali 1,410–1,822 7 expressed as, Density of individual Species Relative Density (%) = x 100 9 Tamagi 1,440–1,908 6 Total density of all the 10 Bhadaure 1,502–1,699 8 species 11 Ahaldada 1,860–2,096 2 (Source: Zobel et al., 1987) 12 Bhanjyang 2,001–2,048 2 Finally, the Importance Value Index (IVI) is 13 Chisapani 2,058–2,063 10 calculated by using the following formula: Total 108 IVI = Relative Frequency (RF) + Relative Density (RD) + Relative Dominance (RDo) The soil samples were collected to assess the relationship between the soil and the invasive Results and discussion species. The physio-chemical properties (texture, Invasive alien plant species and invasion trend pH and moisture) of the five soil samples collected were studied to determine whether the Invasive species have long been ethno-identified, IAPS correlated with the soil characteristics. The recognized and locally managed by the local

34 Baral et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 communities. Tiwari et al. (2005) have identified, Conyza japonica became problematic twenty- altogether, 166 invasive alien plants species five years ago (Fig. 4). According to the local in Nepal. However, we found as many as 194 communities, C. japonica, Phalaris minor, B. invasive plant species after updating the record alata, A. adenophora, A. houstonianum and C. of the Panchase area. Of these, 52 were recorded odorata were the primary invaders assaulting the in the Panchase area alone and 28 were the newly native biota of all the subject habitats- agricultural recorded invasive plants. lands, wetlands, forests lands and ruderal lands. The extent of invasion of the species, however, Altogether, 18 invasive plant species were found differed by ecosystem. The agricultural lands to be with higher occurrence in the study area. were notoriously confronted by C. japonica, Of these, 12 (Ageratina adenophora, Ageratum and further aggravated by the invasion of P. houstonianum, Borreria alata, Chromolaena minor and B. alata. The latter was found to be odorata, Conyza japonica, Eichhornia crassipes, more common at the banks of the farmlands. Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus, The invasion of A. adenophora in Panchase was Phalaris minor, Grevillea robusta, Leucaena reported fifteen years ago (IUCN, 2013), and its leucocephala and Xanthium strumarium) invasion continued to dominate the habitats in species were of high risk of spreading which has the proximity of the wetlands. About 20% of the been also reported by Tiwari et al. (2005). The forest land, particularly forest fringes were found local communities were, however, only aware to be invaded by the IAPS in Panchase. of the impact of nine species out of which A. adenophora and Ageratum conyzoides were more frequent and dense in distribution. They are noted for aggressive and rampant spread.

A. conyzoides and A. adenophora were found to be beyond control, causing detrimental impact upon the local biodiversity by reducing the regeneration of a number of valuable plant species and, thereby, causing negative impact on the livelihood of the local communities. Their Fig. 4: Graph showing the year of introduction ecological importance value index (IVI) showed of IAPS in the study area that A. adenophora (135) and A. houstonianum (104) possessed higher values. The higher IVI Driving factors of invasion values indicated that these were the most abundant and notoriously propagated species in the study Both anthropogenic and natural factors are area; their rampant growth was also observed responsible for the introduction and spread of along the trails. The ecological analysis showed IAPS (Rai et al., 2012). During the consultations that A. adenophora was present throughout the with the local communities, it came into our notice study area. It was, however, more abundant at that the major factors of invasion were the ecology higher elevations (above 1,500 m). The transition of the invasive plants and their adaptability, out- lands between the agricultural land and forest migration and shift in occupation, agronomic lands, fallow lands and roadsides above 2,000 m practices followed in the area, topography and exhibited the greatest degree of invasion; where soil characteristics, climate change and unplanned the preventive and controlling measures were road construction. Panchase is facing a high rate limited in these areas. The low land of the study of out-migration, causing an acute scarcity of area was co-dominated by A. adenophora and human resources for agriculture (Bhattarai et A. houstonianum. A. adenophora was sparsely al., 2014), leaving the entire agricultural lands distributed in all the types of soil and environment fallow. As a result, the IAPS got opportunity to throughout the study site; however, the nearby grow in open spaces and spread throughout the wetlands and grasslands were the most favorable agricultural ecosystem. More than two-thirds of environments for invasion. the respondents claimed that, all of the above causes except climate change and unplanned road In the study site, the impact of IAPS had been construction were responsible for the invasion apparent over the past three decades; notably, of A. houstonianum while the invasion of A.

35 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Baral et al. adenophora occurred due to all the causes other 11.99oC, respectively. The field observations than the agronomic practices in the study area showed that the species were mostly abundant (Table 2). As the roots of A. houstonianum are at the lower elevations (1,000–1,500 m) where densely fibrous and branched, the species tightly their growth was also relatively high as a result of anchors the soil, and grows in all ecosystem comparatively high temperatures. This coincides types including agricultural lands, disturbed with the relationship between the altitude and the sites and degraded areas. It has a high adaptive IAPS as mentioned above. capability, as it can complete its life-cycle in less than two months, and reproduces mainly from Impacts of Invasion seeds (IUCN, 2013) which are easily dispersed The threat, impact and management problems by livestock and wild animals, human clothes, because of the invasions were severe in the study water and agricultural seeds and equipment. area. The edges of the forests, agricultural lands The local communities were quite aware about and wetlands had severe IAPS intrusion. The the increasing temperature, and the increase in grasslands and agricultural lands, as well as the invasive species was perceived as an aftermath of fallow lands and roadsides were found to be increasing temperature and rainfall. highly susceptible to the IAPS (Fig. 5). Although The plant invasion was found to be positively most of the community-managed forests were but not significantly correlated with the soil pH worth in controlling the spread of IAPS, the (r=0.577) and soil moisture (r=0.738), Table ecosystems particularly the forests, wetlands 3). The soil pH in the study area was found to and grazing lands of the VDC were found to be have ranged from 4.6 to 6.5, which is suitable for deteriorated most due to the invasion of alien the growth of IAPS (Borland et al., 2009). The species. The species such as Artemisia indica, negative correlation value (r = -0.84, p = 0.05) Solanum surattense and U. dioica in the fallow between the altitude and the IVI revealed that the lands and Digitaria spp. (Banso), Echinochloa invasion of the alien plant species (in the study colona (Samo), Eriophorum comosum (Phurke), area) decreased with the increase in the altitude. Ischaemun rugosum (Mallido) and Imperata cylindrica (Siru) in the agricultural lands were The temperature varies with the altitudes. threatened by the IAPS within the study site. The average annual maximum and minimum All the ecosystems were found to be susceptible temperatures in last 30 years (1981–2011) at to invasion, the ecosystems intertwined with Lumle, the nearby station, were 20.22oC and higher level of human interventions. Grazing,

Table 2: Causes for the spread of IAPS in the study area Respondent % (n = 28) S. N. Causes A. houstanianum A. adenophora 1. Biology of IAPS and their adaptability 78.6 85.7 2. Out-migration and shift in occupations 92.9 89.3 3. Agronomic practices 78.6 53.6 4. Topography and soil characteristics 78.6 82.1 5. Climate change 64.3 78.6 6. Unplanned road construction 53.6 85.7 Source: Field Survey, December 2012

Table 3: Indicators for the spread of IAPS in the study area Indicators Average Range Correlation coefficient Altitude (m) 1,307 1,000–1,500 -0.84* Soil pH 5.2 4.6–6.5 0.577 Soil moisture 42% 34–45% 0.738 Note: * significant at 95% confidence level

36 Baral et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 agriculture and fallow lands and roadsides were and P. minor in the agriculture fields. The lower highly susceptible to invasion. area of the Bhadaure Tamagi VDC was densely populated by subsistence farmers, and livestock rearing was an integral part of their livelihood (Bhattarai et al., 2012).

According to the local communities, the impact of A. houstonianum on livestock was more severe; in the last five years, there were five cases of livestock mortality, particularly of buffalo. In general, buffalo and other livestock, except goat, do not forage on A. houstonianum, Fig. 5: Different ecosystems susceptible to but sometimes they inadvertently feed on the IAPS in the study area IAPS while feeding on other grasses and forbs. The cases generally occur in the spring, when In the agricultural fields, IAPS, namely A. the plant’s flowers are in full bloom. According houstonianum, B. alata, and P. minor were known to their version, the animal’s abdomen enlarges to replace the native species, as well as preventing after feeding on A. houstonianum compelling their natural regeneration. Many forb species, it to defecate, but the animal sometimes looses such as A. indica, S. surattense and U. dioica in the its life too. The local communities reported that fallow lands and Hypoxis aurea and Scrophularia along with the adverse impacts, IAPS had some species on the agricultural lands were imperilled positive impacts too. A. adenophora had been by the invasion of A. houstonianum, B. alata, and used as a green energy resource for composting P. minor. A. houstonianum has adverse impacts and soil fertility enhancement in the locality. The on most of the agricultural crops, as it exploits the practice of using A. adenophora as green manure nutrients and fertilisers supplied to the main crops. had been increasing at the study site. Agricultural crops, particularly ginger, millet, rice and grasses, were outcompeted by Ageratum. The Invasion invasion of A. conyzoides, A. adenophora, and C. odorata has reduced the production of cereal Out of the 100 invasive alien worst weed species crops and grasses in the Panchase area, causing found in the world (Lowe et al., 2000), eleven economic losses from agriculture business. The are found in Nepal (Sankaran et al., 2005). local communities reported that usually, about The seven important alien invasive species 273 kg of rice was produced in a ropani (500 (Arundodonax, Chromolaena odorata, m2) of agricultural land in Chainpur, but after Eichhornia crissepes, Hedychium gardnerianum, the invasion of A. houstonianum, rice production Hiptage benghalensis, Imperata cylindrica, reduced to about 182 kg. Lantana camara, Leucaena leucocephala, Mikania micrantha, Opuntia stricta and Rubus Forest fringes, roadsides and fallow lands were ellipticus) found in the Asia Pacific region are previously dominated by A. indica, S. surattense, also found in Nepal, and all the species except M. and U. dioica. These species failed to maintain micrantha are found in the Panchase area. Among their biomass in the changing climatic and land use the 14 worst species, nine species were prevalent conditions, and their dominance was overtaken in the Bhadaure Tamagi VDC, of which A. by opportunistic and invading alien plant species. conyzoides and A. adenophora were found to be Besides their ecological traits, their chemical traits the most problematic species. The determinants also made them fetid and unpalatable, supporting of plant invasiveness per se are extremely notorious growth. Ageratina contains cadinene complex (Rejmanek, 2005). Although the IAPS sesquiterpenes which is allelopathic, and controls are found in all the ecosystem types, the results associated vegetation (Kundu et al., 2013). showed that A. adenophora was dominant in all It is also poisonous to horses (Bohlmann and the ecosystems except the agricultural land. It is Gupta, 1981; Baruah et al., 1994). Similarly, in found that open areas were found to be conducive agricultural fields, grasses such as Banso, Samo, for the establishment of A. adenophora. This is Phurke, Mallido and Siru have been threatened because most of the IAPS are light demander and because of invasion of A. conyzoides, B. alata, cannot be found inside dense forests. Therefore,

37 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Baral et al. their diversity and distribution were found to to be the least affected in the study site as they be homogenous throughout the study site. A. were more diverse, (Bhattarai et al., 2012), close- adenophora was also the first species to colonize canopied and distantly located. The invasive the degraded areas and prevent other plants from plant species are often shaded by trees and lianas establishing themselves. In the study area, the in forests (Rouw, 1996), and their invasion is open grazing system had been practiced since slowed (Tjitrosemito, 1996). As a result, dense a long time ago. In this system, generally the and diverse forests are more resistant to ecological cattle are left free in the area for grazing without invasion (Pimm, 1984). However, only about 20 human-care mainly during summer (3–4 months), percent of the forests, particularly at their edges the land is frequently browsed by these cattle, as in the study area were found to be invaded by the well as other wild animals. Therefore, the area had invasive plant species as being light demander become more prone to biological invasion, and species. the trampling by the domestic and wild animals The invasive plants were found to be growing in had accelerated high invasion proliferation in a wide range of soils in the open areas. The soil the grasslands. According to the local farmers, texture in the agricultural lands in the study area Hypoxis aurea began to spread aggressively in the was found to be silt-clay. The highest population agricultural fields of the area seven years ago due of A. houstonianum in the agricultural land to excessive use of nitrogen chemical fertilizer. showed that they preferred silt- clay whereas Biologists, ecologists and conservationists the abundance of A. adenophora in the roadside have failed to manage the invasive species for and rangeland shows that the species preferred a long time (Bhagwat et al., 2012). In the study coarse soil. A. houstonianum has adverse impacts area, the plant invasion was found to be fueled on most of the agricultural crops, as it exploits by anthropogenic interferences such as habitat nutrients and fertilizers supplied to the main degradation, and abandoned of the agricultural crops. IAPS affect the dynamics and composition lands, as a result of youth outmigration, had of soil and affect the ecosystem functions, such provided adequate space for the invasion of as soil nutrient cycling (Yelenik et al., 2007) and IAPS. This had created space for the proliferation soil chemistry (Randall and Marinelli, 1996). of several invasive species in the area, which The local communities were living in the lower is consistent with the findings of Maren et al., area of the study site where livestock rearing was 2013. Furthermore, the agronomic practices an integral part of their livelihoods (Bhattarai et in the study area was found to be changing, for al., 2012; Rai and Scarborough, 2015). For this instance, the use of organic compost manure in reason, fodder collection was the second most agricultural farming was found to be decreasing important biomass out-take, especially in dry and while the use of chemical fertilizer increasing. lean periods when on-farm fodder particularly Similar observation was also reported by Timsina sparse. The species preferred by the local people et al., (2011) in their studies in Majhuwa Deurali for lopping fodder were Brassaiopsis hainla, Ficus of the Gorkha district, Majhitar of the Nuwakot lacor, F. glaberrima, F. hispida, Streblus asper, district and Kirtipur of the Kathmandu district in Eurya accuminata, Prunus species, Quercus the central part of Nepal. As reported by Dukes lamellosa and Q. semecarpifolia (Bhattarai et and Mooney (1999), the findings of this study al., 2012). Their productivity was, however, shows that several IAPS had quickly established constrained by A. houstonianum, because in a new soil, and thus had covered almost all both use the resources base of hedgerows and the open areas and newly constructed roadsides embankments of farms. The inadequate labour in (Yasuyuki et al. 2010). the study site had also led the agriculture lands Impact and grasslands to be less unattended, resulting into rampant spread of invasive plant species. Although all the ecosystems in the study area According to the local inhabitants, the indigenous were found to be susceptible to invasion, the agricultural crops such as ginger, millet, rice and ecosystems exposed to a higher level of human grasses were outcompeted by Ageratum whereas interventions such as agricultural lands and the forestry species were outpaced by Ageratina. grasslands were more susceptible to invasion of The invasion of A. conyzoides, A. adenophora, IAPS, which is consistent with the findings of and C. odorata had reduced the production of Yelenik et al., (2007). Forest lands were found

38 Baral et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 cereal crops and grasses in Kaski district (Bhusal, Borreria alata, and Phalaris minor showing the 2009). According to Oerke et al., (1995), there complexities of the local ecology and socio- was a loss of 13% of the agricultural output due economy. The invasion was more severe at the to weeds. edges of the forest and agricultural lands and also the wetlands where the onslaughts of A. Usefulness of alien invasive plants adenophora were persistent. The invasion was Most of the alien invasive plants have adverse less in dense forests, implying that close canopy effects both on forests and agriculture lands. forests are less sensitive to invasive species, and Nevertheless, they also have some use values, routine management can check the threats of such as medicinal, edible as a vegetable, fodder invasive species. Nevertheless, IAPS can also for cattle, preparing manure, hedge fencing be managed tactfully by using the resources and erosion control. The practice of using A. wisely instead of destroying them haphazardly. In adenophora as a green manure is increasing the addition, the bare ground should be minimized to study site. Green manure of A. adenophorahas control further spread of IAPS (Feng et al., 2002) contributed to increasing nutrient supply to the as far as possible. In the context of climate change, agricultural land thereby increasing yields of rice social transformation, and cultural evolution, (Bhattarai et al., 2006). Sun et al.,(2004) has found cautious use of non-indigenous resources is often that the manure contains 0.372% of total nitrogen, touted, and controlled use of invasive species 0.062% of total phosphorus and 0.580% of total can be a positive asset for the management of potassium, as well as calcium, magnesium, iron, the site. However, to put it in practice, the local sulphur, silicon, zinc, boron (Sun et al., 2004). communities along with the forest officials should Therefore, promotion of the use of A. adenophora be taught to include IAPSs management activities as a green manure is important. in their management plans. Traditionally, A. adenophora has long been used References as a cattle-bedding material, in several parts of the country (Shrestha, 1989). The leaves of A. Aryal, A. and Dhungel, S. K., 2009. Species adenophoraare used for controlling bleeding diversity and distribution of bats in Panchase, from cuts. Its medicinal properties have already a region of Nepal. Tiger Paper 36 (2): 14–18. been documented (Oladejo et al., 2003). In Banerji, N. L. 1958. Invasion of Eupatorium addition, A. adenophora is being used in the glandulosum (E. adenophorum) in east study site to produce bio-briquettes. The richness Nepal. Bulletin of Botanical society 10 (1, 2): and distribution of invasive plants in the study 14–18. area can be a good resource for an invasive-plant- based entrepreneurship. However, Bhagwat et Baruah, N. C., Sharma, J. C., Sharma, S. and al., (2012) recommend cautious use of invasive Sharma, R. 1994. Seed germination and species through adaptive management approach, growth inhibitory cadinene from Eupatorium which provides a favorable environment for adenophorum. Journal of Chemical Ecology non-timber forest species from which the local 20: 1885–1895. communities can benefit. Bhagwat, S. A., Breman, E., Thekaekara, T., Conclusion Thornton, T. F. and Willis, K. J. 2012. A battle As seen elsewhere, biological invasion of lost? Report on two centuries of invasion IAPS causes destruction and out-competition and management of Lantana camara L. in with indigenous species. The replacement of Australia, India and South Africa. PLoS native species by IAPS is a gradual process, ONE 7(3): e32407. doi:10.1371/journal. so it is difficult to show the evidence of direct pone.0032407, 17 May, 2014. replacement, but we succeeded in tracing the Bhattarai, K. R., Måen, I. E. and Subedi, S. history of increasing the spread of invasive C. 2014. Biodiversity and invasibility: species in the Panchase area. Artemisia indica, distribution patterns of invasive plant species Solanum surrattense and Urtica dioica were in the Himalayas, Nepal. Journal of Mountain threatened by the invasion of A. houstonianum, Science 11 (3): 688–696.

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42 Distribution and preliminary conservation assessments of commonly used forest species in the Nepalese Himalayas

B. Adhikari1*, C. A. Pendry1, I. E. Måren2 , K. R. Bhattarai3,4, and R. P. Chaudhary5

Balancing the trade-offs between biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service delivery is a colossal challenge in the areas of the globe with high productivity and high demand, such as in south Asia. In order to meet this challenge, we need enhanced knowledge of the species constituting these semi-natural systems. This paper reports the country-level preliminary conservation assessments for 153 woody plant species from the Middle Hills in central Nepal based on the IUCN criteria. Distribution maps and threat categories are provided for all species. Ten species are categorized as Near Threatened, two as Endangered and one as Vulnerable. Conservation assessments could not be completed for 24 species because of insufficient distribution data.

Key words: Conservation assessments, forest species, Himalayas, species distribution

n the global north, it is widely recognised that which is open for unrestricted exploitation by all. Ithe conservation of semi-natural landscapes The community forest user groups (CFUGs) at and their associated species are of paramount Panchase manage their forests so as to improve importance for the conservation of biodiversity, their condition by removing undesirable species but these landscapes do not receive the same in favour of the growth of the species with recognition in the global south. In south Asia, high value for fuel, fodder, fibre and medicine. traditional semi-natural landscapes are still the However, it is not clear whether greater species backdrop for rural livelihoods, and cover large land diversity has any relationship with the numbers areas. However, many of the region’s traditional of rare species growing in the forest. Nepal’s flora land uses are changing due to agricultural is believed to comprise around 7,000 species of intensification or abandonment caused by socio- flowering plants (Press et al., 2000; Watson et economic change (Sharma, 2016) in these tightly- al., 2011; Miehe et al., 2015), but only few of its linked social-ecological systems. Enhanced species have been evaluated for their conservation knowledge of the dynamics between land use and status. The distribution data which are used to biodiversity will be critical for future successful generate conservation assessments is derived biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service primarily from herbarium specimens (Rich and delivery. The shift towards a system’s view where Lewis, 1999; Antonovics et al., 2003), but these humans are seen as part of the system (Berkes, collections are very unevenly spread across Nepal 2004; Folke, 2006; Sharma, 2016) will benefit (Watson et al., 2011), so the distribution patterns both biodiversity conservation and ecosystem of most species are inadequately known. service delivery in Nepal and other countries in the region. A recent study on species diversity, In this study, we examined six locations in central forest structure, ecosystem services and forest Nepal, the three of which are within the Protected management practices both in the community Areas (National Parks or Conservation Areas) forests (CFs) and government managed forests and the rest three are outside the Protected Areas, (GMFs) at Panchase, situated towards the west of in order to further examine the effects of different Pokhara (Måren et al., 2013) found that the CFs legal frameworks on maintenance of forest had greater species diversity and less degradation biodiversity. This paper reports the preliminary than the GMFs, which in practice acts as a resource conservation assessments for all the species 1 Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20a Inverlieth Row, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR, Scotland UK. *E-mail: [email protected] 2 Arboretum and Botanical Gardens, the University Museum, University of Bergen, Allegt. 41, 5006 Bergen, Norway 3 Sheridan Davis Campus, 7899 McLaughlin Rd, Brampton, ON L6Y 5H9, Canada 4 Himalayan Resource & Development Center, GPO Box 7426, Kathmandu, Nepal 5 Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal 43 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Adhikari et al. found in this study. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jacks. is found at the higher elevations while P. roxburghii Sarg. is Materials and methods noticed at the lower altitudes.

Study sites The less commonly occurring species include Magnolia doltsopa (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Figlar, Three forested areas in central Nepal are studied, Taxus wallichiana Zucc., Edgeworthia gardneri each with a study site within the protected area (Wall.) Meisn. etc. These forests are home to a (National Park or Conservation Area) and an number of important species of wildlife such as equivalent study site outside the protected area. Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus), tiger These areas were Annapurna (Ghorepani inside (Panthera tigris), Indian muntjak (Muntiacus the Annapurna Conservation Area and Panchase muntjak), common leopard (Panthera pardus), outside the protected area), the Kathmandu jackal (Canis aureus) and several species of bats Valley (Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park inside (Aryal and Dhungel, 2009; Miehe et al., 2015). and Chandragiri outside the protected area) and Langtang (Langtang National Park inside and Bhalche outside the protected area) (Fig. 1). The study was conducted in the pre-monsoon season from February to June, 2010. Both the CFs and the GMFs (excluding plantations) were sampled using stratified random sampling. Sample plots of 10 m x 10 m size were laid out across the study sites with similar the biophysical factors and elevation (Måren et al. 2013 for further details). In each study site, equal numbers of plots (180) were sampled, totalling 540 plots in the three regions (six sites). Results from pH and loss on Fig. 1: Map showing the localities of the six ignition (LOI) analyses indicated only small study sites within the three regions in central differences in the soil conditions of the sites and Nepal, the Himalayas the regions. Calculation of conservation assessments In the mid-hills, Oak-Laurel forests are situated The herbaria at the Royal Botanic Garden at higher elevations while the mixed Schima- Edinburgh Herbarium (E), the Natural History Castanopsis forests are found at lower elevations. Museum London (BM) and the National These forests differ considerably in their floristic Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Kathmandu composition and ecology (Dobremez, 1976). (KATH) were consulted for specimens of the 153 Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. is the dominant tree woody species recorded during the study. All the species in the Oak-Laurel forests with the species specimens were photographed and data-based in of laurel such as Lindera pulcherrima (Nees) the ‘Padme database’, which is used to manage Hook. f., Neolitsea pallens (D. Don) Momiy. & all information for the Flora of Nepal project. H. Hara ex H. Hara, Machilus duthiei King ex Altogether, 4,374 herbarium specimens (1,927 Hook. f. and M. odoratissima Nees. The Schima- specimens recorded from the E, 1,239 specimens Castanopsis forests are dominated by Schima from the BM and 1,208 from the KATH) together wallichii (DC.) Korth., Castanopsis indica with the occurrence-records in the present study (Roxb.) Miq. and C. tribuloides (Sm.) A.DC. and unvouchered field records of the occurrences Other species which are also commonly found of the unambiguously identified common species in the mid-hill forests include several species of in the ‘Padme database’ were used for the Rhododendron, Acer spp., Prunus spp., Quercus assessments. In addition to this, the distributions glauca Thunb., Quercus lamellosa Sm., Quercus of species in the neighbour countries were also lanata Sm., Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude, taken into consideration while assigning the Eurya acuminate DC., Ilex dipyrena Wall., categories. The assessments were based mostly Symplocos ramosissima Wall. ex G. Don and on criteria B and A of the IUCN Categories and Daphniphylum himalense (Benth.) Mull. Arg. the criteria using extent of occurrence (EOO)

44 Adhikari et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 and area of occupancy (AOO) plus evidence based on the IUCN criteria; the species being (or inferring) of decline in the habitat (IUCN, Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb., Acer caudatum 2016). Species which are very close to qualifying Wall., Aesculus indica (Colebr. ex Cambess.) or likely to qualify for a threatened category Hook., Camellia kissi Wall., Eriobotrya elliptica (critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable) Lindl., Euonymus pendulus Wall. and Litsea in the near future were categorized as Near doshia (D. Don) Kosterm. T. wallichiana is the Threatened (NT). Evidence of population size only tree species listed as ‘EN’ (A2 a, c, d). The and/or reduction was, generally, not available. The population of this species is decreasing at an EOO was calculated using GeoCAT (Bachman et alarming rate because of commercial demand al. 2011; http://geocat.kew.org/) while the AOO (Liu et al., 2011; Poudel et al., 2012; Gajurel et using a facility in the ‘Padme database al., 2013), and it has been listed in the CITES Appendix 2 since 1995. Fifty eight species were Results and discussion fairly well distributed, and were categorized as ‘LC’ while 14 species were placed under ‘DD’. One hundred and fifty-three woody plant species were recorded from the six study sites, Shrubs: One species, H. cordifolium Choisy comprising 80 species of trees, 48 shrubs and 25 was recorded as ‘VU’ (B1 a, b). Three species, woody climbers (Annex I). The highest species D. bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, D. papyracea richness of trees and climbers were recorded at the Wall. ex Steud. and Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall.) Annapurna sites (trees 53; climbers 21), followed Meisn. were recorded as ‘NT’ while thirty-seven by the Kathmandu Valley (trees 44; climbers 18) species fell into ‘LC’ category, and seven were and the Langtang sites (trees 26; climbers 11). categorized as ‘DD’. There was a greater diversity of shrubs in the Kathmandu sites (30) and the Annapurna sites Climbers: One species, Hoya edenii King ex (30) followed by the Langtang sites (16). The Hook. f. was assessed as ‘EN’, (B1 a, b) while 21 most commonly recorded family was Rosaceae were recorded as ‘LC’, and three were categorized (26 species) followed by Lauraceae (9 species), as ‘DD’. Fagaceae and Ericaceae (both 7 species). Conclusion Preliminary conservation assessment This study clearly reflects the limitations of the Two species, Taxus wallichiana Zucc. and Hoya data which are currently available. Almost 15% edenii King ex Hook. f. were categorised as of the species were classified as ‘Data Deficient’ ‘Endangered’ (EN), one species, Hypericum as their distributions were too poorly known to cordifolium Choisy as ‘Vulnerable’ (VU), ten confidently assign them to any category. Several species as ‘Near Threatened’ (NT) and 116 species of these species have very limited distributions, as ‘Least Concern’ (LS). There were insufficient and are known only from a few specimens, and data to calculate conservation assessments for 24 so it is quite possible that a significant number species, and so those species were categorised as of them are actually under threat of depletion or ‘Data Deficient’ (DD) (Table 1). The complete list extinction. Looking at the maps of some of the of the species (trees, shrubs and climbers) found common species, such as P. roxburghii and P. in the study sites along with their preliminary Wallichiana (Annex II), it is evident that these conservation assessments is presented in Annex I. species are certainly under-recorded and the data set is insufficient to make accurate conservation Tree species: Among the 80 species of trees, assessments for these species. Clearly, more seven were categorised as ‘Near Threatened’ (NT) distribution records are needed before we can Table 1: Preliminary conservation assessments based on the IUCN criteria for 153 woody plant species recorded at the Ghorepani, Panchase, Shivapuri, Chandragiri, Langtang and Bhalche sites in central Nepal

Data Least Near Critically Vulnerable Endangered Deficient Concern Threatened Endangered (VU) (EN) (DD) (LC) (NT) (CE) 24 116 10 1 2 0

45 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Adhikari et al. be certain of the conservation status of these species (Caryophyllaceae) in the eastern commonly occurring and widely utilized Nepalese United States. American Journal of Botany woody plants. 90: 1522–1531. doi:10.3732/ajb.90.10.1522 accessed on 14 June, 2016. Many natural resource systems, here exemplified by forests, fall under collective management or Aryal, A. and Dhungel, S. K. 2009. Species are subject to use by multiple individuals, often diversity and distribution of bats in Panchase for a variety of purposes (Poteete and Ostrom, region of Nepal. Tigerpaper 36 (2): 14–18. 2004). Sustaining these resources in the face of economic and demographic pressures depends Bachman, S., Moat, J., Hill, A. W., de la Torre, upon an array of interdependent components J. and Scott, B. 2011. Supporting Red List including legislation and local engagement. In threat assessments with GeoCAT: geospatial order to facilitate evidence-based natural resource conservation assessment tool. ZooKeys management, we need to enhance our knowledge 150: 117–126. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3897/ regarding the species richness, composition zookeys.150.2109 accessed on 14 June, 2016. and dynamics of these systems. Pandey (2007) Berkes, F. 2004. Rethinking community-based found comparatively higher species richness conservation. Conservation Biology 18 (3): in the community forests than in the national 621–630. parks and government forests he investigated, and in the sacred groves of the Western Ghats Bhagwat, S. A., Kushalappa, C. G., Williams, P. H. of India. Bhagwat et al. (2005) found informal and Brown, N. D. 2005. The role of informal protection traditions to contribute to successful protected areas in maintaining biodiversity biodiversity conservation. We see similar trends in the Western Ghats of India. Ecology and in some of our material; however, we cannot see Society 10: 8. this as an overriding trend for the data set as a whole. In other words, these dynamics within Dobremez, J. F. 1976. Le Nepal: Ecologieet social-ecological systems are context-dependent Biogeographie. Centre National de la which call for enhanced knowledge in order Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France. to manage both ecosystem service delivery to the local people, and contribute to biodiversity Folke, C. 2006. Resilience: The emergence of conservation. a perspective forsocial-ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change 16: Acknowledgements 253–267.

We would like to thank Mr. Bishnu Chapagain, Gajurel, J. P., Cornejo, C., Werth, S., Shrestha, K. Mr. Ashok Chaudhary, Mr. Kuber Bhatta, Mr. K. and Scheidegger, C. 2013. Development Rupesh Gurung, Ms. Lila Sharma, Ms. Asha and characterization of microsatellite loci in Suwal, Mr. Rajesh Shrestha and Ms. Keith the endangered species Taxus wallichiana McInturff for their assistance in our fieldwork. We (Taxaceae). Applications in Plant Sciences are thankful to all the villagers who helped us in 1 (3): 1200281. http://doi.org/10.3732/apps. our fieldwork. We acknowledge Machhapuchhre 1200281 accessed on 18 July, 2016. Development Organisation (MDO) and Ms. Bashuda Gurung for providing insightful IUCN. 2016. Guidelines for Using the IUCN information on the Panchase area. We are grateful Red List Categories and Criteria, Version to the Norwegian Research Council (190153/ 12. Prepared by the Standards and V10) and Grolle Olsens Legat for their financial Petitions Subcommittee, The International support to accomplish this study. Union for Conservation of Nature. http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/ References RedListGuidelines.pdf accessed on 14 December, 2016. Antonovics, J., Hood, M. E., Thrall, P. H., Abrams, J. Y. and Duthie, G. M. 2003. Herbarium Liu J., Gao, L. M., Li, D. Z., Zhang, D. Q. and studies on the distribution of anther-smut Moller, M. 2011. Cross-species amplification fungus (Microbotryum violaceum) and Silene and development of new microsatellite loci

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for Taxus wallichiana (Taxaceae). American Poudel, R. C., Möller, M., Gao, L. M., Ahrends, Journal of Botany 98: e70–e73. A., Baral, S. R., Liu, J., Thomas, P. and Li, D. Z. 2012. Using Morphological, Molecular Måren, I., Bhattarai, K. R. and Chaudhary, R. and Climatic Data to Delimitate Yews along P. 2013. Forest Ecosystem Services and the Hindu Kush-Himalaya and Adjacent Biodiversity in Contrasting Himalayan Regions. PLoS ONE 7 (10): e46873. doi: Forest Management Systems Environmental 10.1371/journal.pone.0046873 accessed on Conservation. Published online doi:10.1017/ 16 December, 2016. S0376892913000258 accessed on 15 October, 2016. Press, J. R., Shrestha, K. K. and Sutton, D. A. 2000. Annotated Checklist of the Miehe, G., Pendry, C. A. and Chaudhary, R. 2015. Flowering Plants of Nepal. The Natural Nepal: An Introduction to the Natural History Museum, London, UK. History, Ecology, and Human Environment of the Himalayas. Royal Botanic Garden Rich, T. C. G. and Lewis, J. 1999. Use of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. herbarium material for mapping the distribution of Erophila (Brassicaceae) taxa Pandey, S. S. 2007. Tree Species Diversity sensu Filfilan and Elkington in Britain and in Existing Community-based Forest Ireland. Watsonia 22: 377–385. Management Systems in Central Mid-hills of Nepal. Swedish Biodiversity Centre, Swedish Sharma, L. N. 2016. The Disturbance-Diversity University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Relationship: Integrating Biodiversity Sweden. Conservation and Resource Management in Anthropogenic Landscapes. PhD Thesis, Poteete, A. R. and Ostrom, E. 2004. Heterogeneity, Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Group Size and Collective Action: The Norway. Role of Institutions in Forest Management. Development and Change 35: 435–461. Watson, M. F., Akiyama, S., Ikedo, H., Pendry, C., doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2004.00360.x Rajbhandari, K. R. and Shrestha, K. K. 2011. accessed on 9 January, 2017. Flora of Nepal (vol. 3). The Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.

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Annex I: List of the species recorded in the Annapurna (A) Region (Panchase and Ghorepani), the Kathmandu (K) Valley Region (Chandragiri and Shivapuri) and the Langtang (L) Region (Bhalche and Langtang], and their preliminary conservation assessment Recorded from S.N. Scientific name Family P. Con. Asses. A K L TREES 1 Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb Pinaceae  Near Threatened (NT) 2 Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis Sapindaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 3 Acer campbellii Hook. f. & Thomson ex Hiern Sapindaceae  Least Concern (LC) 4 Acer caudatum Wall. Sapindaceae  Near Threatened (NT) 5 Acer sterculiaceum Wall. Sapindaceae  Least Concern (LC) 6 Actinodaphne angustifolia Nees Lauraceae  Data Deficient (DD) 7 Actinodaphne sikkimensis Meisn. Lauraceae  Data Deficient (DD) 8 Aesculus indica (Colebr. ex Cambess.) Hook Sapindaceae  Near Threatened (NT) 9 Alnus nepalensis D.Don Betulaceae  Least Concern (LC) 10 Benthamidia capitata (Wall.) H. Hara Cornaceae  Least Concern (LC) 11 Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Betulaceae    Data Deficient (DD) 12 Camellia kissi Wall. Theaceae   Near Threatened (NT) 13 Carpinus viminea Lindl. Betulaceae  Least Concern (LC) 14 Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A.DC. Fagaceae  Least Concern (LC) 15 Cotoneaster frigidus Wall. ex Lindl. Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 16 Daphniphyllum himalense (Benth.) Mull. Arg. Daphniphyllaceae    Least Concern (LC) 17 Deutzia staminea R. Br. ex Wall. Hydrangeaceae  Least Concern (LC) 18 Dodecadenia grandiflora Nees Lauraceae   Least Concern (LC) 19 Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex Royle Elaeagnaceae    Least Concern (LC) 20 Eriobotrya dubia (Lindl.) Decne. Rosaceae   Data Deficient (DD) 21 Eriobotrya elliptica Lindl. Rosaceae  Near Threatened (NT) 22 Euonymus pendulus Wall. Celestraceae   Near Threatened (NT) 23 Eurya acuminate DC. Pentaphylacaceae    Least Concern (LC) 24 Euryacer asifolia (D.Don) Kobuski Pentaphylacaceae   Least Concern (LC) 25 Ficus neriifolia Sm. Moraceae   Least Concern (LC) 26 Ficus pumila L. Moraceae  Data Deficient (DD) 27 Fraxinus floribund Wall. Oleaceae  Least Concern (LC) 28 Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae  Data Deficient (DD) 29 Hydrangea heteromalla D.Don Hydrangeaceae  Least Concern (LC) 30 Ilex dipyrena Wall. Aquifoliaceae    Least Concern (LC) 31 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae  Least Concern (LC) 32 Leucosceptrum canum Sm. Lamiaceae  Least Concern (LC) 33 Ligustrum confusum Decne. Oleaceae   Data Deficient (DD) 34 Lindera pulcherrima (Nees) Hook. f. Lauraceae    Least Concern (LC) 35 Litsea doshia (D.Don) Kosterm. Lauraceae   Near Threatened (NT) 36 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Ericaceae    Least Concern (LC) 37 Lyonia villosa (Hook. f.) Hand.-Mazz. Ericaceae  Least Concern (LC) 38 Macaranga pustulata King ex Hook. f. Euphorbiaceae  Least Concern (LC) 39 Machilus clarkeana King ex Hook. f. Lauraceae  Data Deficient (DD) 40 Machilus duthiei King ex Hook. f. Lauraceae    Least Concern (LC) 41 Machilus odoratissima Nees Lauraceae   Least Concern (LC) 42 Magnolia doltsopa (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Figlar Magnoliaceae   Data Deficient (DD) 43 Maytenus rufa (Wall.) H. Hara Celastraceae  Least Concern (LC) 44 Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Myricaceae    Least Concern (LC) 45 Myrsine semiserrata Wall. Primulaceae    Least Concern (LC) 46 Neolitsea pallens (D.Don) Momiy. & H. Hara ex H. Hara Lauraceae    Least Concern (LC) 47 Osmanthus fragrans Lour. Oleaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 48 Photinia integrifolia Lindl. Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC)

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49 Pieris formosa (Wall.) D.Don Ericaceae    Least Concern (LC) 50 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae   Least Concern (LC) 51 Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. Pinaceae  Least Concern (LC) 52 Prunus cerasoides D.Don Rosaceae    Least Concern (LC) 53 Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 54 Prunus napaulensis (Ser.) Steud. Rosaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 55 Prunus rufa Hook. f. Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 56 Prunus undulata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 57 Pyrularia edulis (Wall. ex Roxb.) DC. Santalaceae   Least Concern (LC) 58 Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Rosaceae   Least Concern (LC) 59 Quercus glauca Thunb. Fagaceae   Least Concern (LC) 60 Quercus lamellosa Sm. Fagaceae    Data Deficient (DD) 61 Quercus lanata Sm. Fagaceae   Least Concern (LC) 62 Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Fagaceae    Least Concern (LC) 63 Rhamnus purpureus Edgew. Rhamnaceae  Least Concern (LC) 64 Rhododendron arboretum Sm. Ericaceae    Least Concern (LC) 65 Rhododendron barbatum Wall. ex G. Don Ericaceae  Least Concern (LC) 66 Rhododendron campanulatum D.Don Ericaceae  Least Concern (LC) 67 Rhus javanica Miller Anacardiaceae  Least Concern (LC) 68 Rhus succedanea L. Anacardiaceae   Least Concern (LC) 69 Salix obscura Andersson Salicaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 70 Saurauia napaulensis DC. Actinidiaceae  Least Concern (LC) 71 Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. Theaceae  Least Concern (LC) 72 Skimmia arborescens T. Anderson ex Gamble Rutaceae  Least Concern (LC) 73 Sorbus vestita (Wall. ex G.Don) Lodd. Rosaceae   Least Concern (LC) 74 Symplocos ramosissima Wall. ex G.Don Symplocaceae    Least Concern (LC) 75 Symplocos theifolia D.Don Symplocaceae   Least Concern (LC) 76 Taxu swallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae  Endangered (EN) 77 Tsuga dumosa (D.Don) Eichler Pinaceae  Least Concern (LC) 78 Viburnum erubescens Wall. ex DC. Adoxaceae    Least Concern (LC) 79 Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. Adoxaceae  Least Concern (LC) 80 Zizyphus incurva Roxb. Rhamnaceae   Least Concern (LC) SHRUBS/BUSHES 1 Eleutherococcus cissifolius (Griff. ex Seem.) Harms Araliaceae   Least Concern (LC) 2 Arundinaria maling Gamble Poaceae   Data Deficient (DD) 3 Berberis aristata DC. Berberidaceae    Least Concern (LC) 4 Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberidaceae   Least Concern (LC) 5 Berberis insignis Hook. f. & Thomson Berberidaceae  Least Concern (LC) 6 Berberis napaulensis (DC.) Laferr. Berberidaceae    Least Concern (LC) 7 Berberis wallichiana DC. Berberidaceae  Least Concern (LC) 8 Boenninghausenia albiflora(Hook.) Rchb. ex Meisn. Rutaceae   Least Concern (LC) 9 Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Lamiaceae  Least Concern (LC) 10 Colquhounia coccinea Wall. Lamiaceae  Least Concern (LC) 11 Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl. Rosaceae   Least Concern (LC) 12 Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex Lindl. Rosaceae   Least Concern (LC) 13 Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Thymelaeaceae    Near threatened (NT) 14 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex Steud. Thymelaeaceae   Near threatened (NT) 15 Desmodium elegans DC. Leguminosae  Least Concern (LC) 16 Desmodium multiflorum DC. Leguminosae  Least Concern (LC) 17 Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f. Poaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 18 Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall.) Meisn. Thymelaeaceae  Near threatened (NT) 19 Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall. Ericaceae   Least Concern (LC) 20 Hypericum cordifolium Choisy Hypericaceae  Vulnerable (VU) 21 Hypericum hookeranum Wight & Arn. Hypericaceae    Least Concern (LC) 22 Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis Leguminosae   Least Concern (LC)

49 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Adhikari et al.

23 Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) DC. Compositae  Least Concern (LC) 24 Lonicera ligustrina Wall. Caprifoliaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 25 Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Primulaceae  Least Concern (LC) 26 Mussa endatreutleri Stapf Rubiaceae  Least Concern (LC) 27 Neillia rubifloraD.Don Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 28 Phyllanthus clarkei Hook. f. Euphorbiaceae   Least Concern (LC) 29 Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.) D.Don Leguminosae  Least Concern (LC) 30 Prinsepia utilis Royle Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 31 Randia tetrasperma (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Brandis Rubiaceae   Least Concern (LC) 32 Ribesacum inatum Wall. ex G. Don Grossulariaceae  Least Concern (LC) 33 Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosaceae   Least Concern (LC) 34 Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 35 Rosa sericea Lindl. Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 36 Rubus calycinus Wall. ex D.Don Rosaceae Least Concern (LC) 37 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rosaceae    Data Deficient (DD) 38 Rubus pentagonus Wall. ex Focke Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 39 Rubus sumatranus Miq. Rosaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 40 Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Mull. Arg. Buxaceae   Data Deficient (DD) 41 Sarcococca wallichii Stapf Buxaceae   Least Concern (LC) 42 Spiraea canescens D.Don Rosaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 43 Swidao blonga (Wall.) Sojak Cornaceae  Least Concern (LC) 44 Viburnum cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Sambucaceae   Least Concern (LC) 45 Viburnum mullaha Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Sambucaceae   Least Concern (LC) 46 Wikstroemia canescens Meisn. Thymelaeaceae  Least Concern (LC) 47 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Rutaceae    Least Concern (LC) 48 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew. Rutaceae    Least Concern (LC) WOODY CLIMBERS 1 Ampelocissus rugosa (Wall.) Planch. Vitaceae  Least Concern (LC) 2 Aristolochia griffithii Hook. f. & Thoms. Ex Duch. Aristolochiaceae    Least Concern (LC) 3 Ceropegia longifolia Wall. Apocyanaceae    Data Deficient (DD) 4 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae  Least Concern (LC) 5 Clematis connata DC. Ranunculaceae  Least Concern (LC) 6 Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Ranunculaceae  Least Concern (LC) 7 Cochlianthus gracilis Benth. Leguminoceae  Data Deficient (DD) 8 Euonymus echinatus Wall. Celastraceae   Least Concern (LC) 9 Hedera nepalensis K. Koch Araliaceae    Least Concern (LC) 10 Hedyotis scandens Roxb. Rubiaceae  Data Deficient (DD) 11 Holboellia latifolia Wall. Lardizabalaceae    Least Concern (LC) 12 Hoya edenii King ex Hook. f. Apocyanaceae   Endangered (EN) 13 Jasminum humile L. Oleaceae   Least Concern (LC) 14 Jasminum officinale L. Oleaceae   Least Concern (LC) 15 Piper mullesua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Piperaceae   Least Concern (LC) 16 Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Rubiaceae    Least Concern (LC) 17 Rubus acuminatus Sm. Rosaceae  Least Concern (LC) 18 Rubus paniculatus Sm. Rosaceae    Least Concern (LC) 19 Sabia campanulata Wall. ex Roxb. Sabiaceae   Least Concern (LC) 20 Schisandra grandiflora (Wall.) Hook. f. & Thomson Schisandraceae  Least Concern (LC) 21 Smilax aspera L. Smilacaceae   Least Concern (LC) 22 Smilax elegans Wall. ex Kunth Smilacaceae   Least Concern (LC) 23 Smilax ferox Wall. ex Kunth Smilacaceae    Least Concern (LC) 24 Smilax menispermoidea A. DC. Smilacaceae  Least Concern (LC) 25 Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch. Vitaceae    Least Concern (LC)

50 Adhikari et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1

Annex II: Distribution maps of the species recorded from the three Mid-hills regions of Nepal, based on

the herbarium specimens deposited at the RBGE, BM and KATH Annex II: Distribution maps of the species recorded from the three Mid-hills regions of Nepal, based on the herbarium specimens deposited at the RBGE, BM and KATH

Trees Trees

Carpinus viminea Castanopsis tribuloides Abies spectabilis Acer caesium

Cotoneaster frigidus Daphniphyllum himalense Acer campbellii Acer caudatum

Deutzia staminea Dodecadenia Acer sterculiaceum Actinodaphne angustifolia grandiflora

Elaeagnus parvifolia Eriobotrya dubia Actinodaphne sikkimensis Aesculus indica

Alnus nepalensis Benthamidia capitata Eriobotrya elliptica Euonymus pendulus

Betula alnoides Camellia kissi Eurya acuminata Eurya cerasifolia

Trees Trees

Ficus neriifolia Ficus pumila Lyoni avillosa Macaranga pustulata

Fraxinus floribunda Garuga pinnata Machilus clarkeana Machilus duthiei

Hydrangea heteromalla Ilex dipyrena Machilus odoratissima Magnolia doltsopa

Juglans regia Leucosceptrum canum Maytenus rufa Myrica esculenta

Ligustrum confusum Lindera pulcherrima Myrsinesemis errata Neolitsea pallens

Osmanthus fragrans Photinia integrifolia Litsea doshia Lyonia ovalifolia

51 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Adhikari et al.

Trees Trees

Pieris formosa Pinus roxburghii Quercus lanata Quercus semecarpifolia

Pinus wallichiana Prunus cerasoides Rhamnus purpureus Rhododendron arboreum

Prunus cornuta Prunus napaulensis Rhododendron barbatum Rhododendron campanulatum

Prunus rufa Rhus javanica Rhus succedanea Prunus undulata

Pyrularia edulis Pyrus pashia Salix obscura Saurauia napaulensis

Quercus glauca Quercus lamellosa Schima wallichii Skimmia arborescens

Trees Shrubs

Sorbus vestita Symplocos ramosissima Eleutherococcu scissifolius Berberis aristata

Symplocos theifolia Taxus wallichiana Berberis asiatica Berberis insignis

Tsuga dumosa Viburnum erubescens Berberis napaulensis Berberis wallichiana

Viburnum grandiflorum Zizyphu sincurva Boenninghausenia albiflora Colebrookea oppositifolia

Colquhounia coccinea Cotoneaster acuminatus

Cotoneaster microphyllus Daphne bholua

52 Adhikari et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1

Shrubs Shrubs

Daphne papyracea Desmodium elegans Neillia rubiflora Phyllanthu sclarkei

Desmodium multiflorum Edgeworthia gardneri Piptanthus nepalensis Prinsepia utilis

Gaultheria fragrantissima Hypericum cordifolium Randia tetrasperma Ribes acuminatum

Hypericum hookeranum Indigofera heterantha Rosa brunonii Rosa macrophylla

Rubus calycinus Inula cappa Lonicera ligustrina Rosa sericea

Maesa chisia Mussaenda treutleri Rubus ellipticus Rubus pentagonus

Shrubs Climbers

Sarcococca saligna Sarcococca wallichii Ampelocis susrugosa Aristolochiagriffithii

Spiraea canescens Swida oblonga Ceropegialongifolia Cissampelospareira

Clematis montana Viburnum cylindricum Viburnum mullaha Clematis connata

Wikstroemia canescens Zanthoxylum armatum Cochlianthus gracilis Euonymus echinatus

Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Hedera nepalensis Hedyotis scandens

Holboellia latifolia Hoya edenii

53 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Adhikari et al.

Climbers Climbers

Jasminum humile Jasminum officinale Tetrastigma serrulatum

Piper mullesua Rubia manjith

Rubus acuminatus Rubus paniculatus

Sabia campanulata Schisandra grandiflora

Smilax aspera Smilax elegans

Smilax ferox Smilax menispermoidea

54 Molecular conformation of then published Ziziphus budhensis and its religious and economic values

M. L. Pathak1*, H. C. Li1, B. Xu1, X. F. Gao1, K. K. Pokharel2, and A. B. Nagarkoti3 The newly described species, Ziziphus budhensis was confirmed as Chinese Jujuba, Z. xiangchengensis on the basis of their DNA analyses. Z. budhensis was explained as a new species on the basis of some morphological differences in 2015. In the Year 2016, the DNA samples were collected from the type locality of Nepal, and the molecular analyses were carried out. The type specimens and the other available images from the different herbariums were examined. Besides, the protologue and the type images were studied carefully. The result showed that though there were some differences in the habit and the habitat of the plant, the previously described new species, Z. budhensis was found to be same as the Chinese species, Z. xiangchengensis. This study also showed the importance of the molecular work of Z. budhensis and confirmed it morphologically distinct although it was very close to the Chinese species.

Key words: Molecular conformation, Rhamnaceae, Ziziphus budhensis, Z. xiangchengensis

he genus, Ziziphus is characterized as warm- the species was explained as a new species. This Ttemperate and subtropical plant. The plants year, the DNA samples were collected from the are mostly shrubs or small to medium-sized trees, type locality of Nepal, and the molecular analyses erect or straggling, often climbing, evergreen or were carried out. The type images and the other deciduous, often spinose with alternate leaves available images together with the specimen from (Chen and Schirarend, 2007). There are about 100 China were re-examined. The result showed that Ziziphus species reported throughout the world though there are some differences in the habit and (Mabberley, 2008); the number has been reported habitat, the previously described new species was up to 170 species (Islam and Simmons, 2006). found to be the same as the Chinese species, Z. Among them, 17 species are reported from India xiangchengensis. (Bhandari and Bhansali, 2000), 12 from China (Chen and Schirarend, 2007), 7 from Bhutan Taxonomic description and distribution (Grierson and Long, 1991) and 7 including Z. Ziziphus xiangchengensis Y. L. Chen and P. K. budhensis are reported from Nepal (Bhattarai and Chou, Bull.Bot. Lab. N. E. Forest. Inst., Harbin Pathak, 2015; NHPL, 2011; NHPL, 2012). So far, 5: 88. 1979. about 275 names (including all taxa) under the Ziziphus budhensis Bhattarai and M.L. Pathak. genus, Ziziphus have been reported (TPL, 2013). Indian J. Pl. Sci. [Jaipur] 4 (2): 73. 2015 Most of the Ziziphus fruits are edible (Outlaw Jr. Z. xiangchengensis is a spinose 2–3 m, sometimes et al., 2002). up to 8m tall small trees or shrub. Stem- glabrous; young branches- red-brown, densely pilose The most commonly named “Bodhichitta” or whereas old branches- gray-brown, flexuose, “Buddha Mala”, a new and endemic species glabrous, old branches without spines. Leaves to Nepal in 2015 was described as Ziziphus alternate, or 2 or 3 in fascicles; stipular spines budhensis. The name was honored to Lord 2, both erect or one recurved, 1–1.6 cm, slender; Buddha, the light of Asia, born in Lumbini, Nepal petiole 5–8 mm, sometimes up to 10 mm, sparsely before 2500 BC. At that time, the species was also pilose; leaf blade abaxially pale green, adaxially compared with some species reported from China. dark green, ovate or ovate-oblong, 2–4 cm × However, due to some morphological differences,

1 Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, Post code: 610041, China. *E-mail: [email protected] 2 Department of Forest Research and Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal 3 Freelance Researcher, Godawari Municipality, Lalitpur

55 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Pathak et al.

1.5–3 cm, papery, abaxially glabrous to clustered hairy in vein axils, adaxially glabrous, 3-veined from base, veins prominent on both surfaces, mid-vein without conspicuous secondary veins, base asymmetric, sub-rounded, margin crenate- serrate, apex obtuse or rounded. Flowers yellow- green, few- to 10, sometimes up to 14, fascicled in axils of leaves, without peduncles. Pedicel 4–5 mm, ferruginous pilose. Sepals ovate-triangular, densely ferruginous pubescent, apex acute. Petals 5, creamy white, spatulate, cuccullate clawed, ca. 2 mm, initiated along with stamen; stamens shorter than petals. Stamens pentandrous extrose, exserted, ca. 2 mm, anther 2 lobed cordate dorsi fixed. Ovary globose, glabrous; style 2-fid (rarely 3-fid), drupe yellow-green, globose, generally 1.2 (sometimes 0.6 cm) x 1.5 cm in diam; apex mucronulate, with persistent calyx tube at base; fruiting pedicel 5–7 mm, sparsely pilose; mesocarp thin (0.5–1 cm), corky; endocarp cartilaginous; stone ca. 4 mm, 2-loculed and with 2 seeds. Seeds compressed, convex on one face, obovoid, ca. 6–10 mm, sometimes up to 15 mm. Flowering in March–April and fruiting in July– August (Fig. 1A and 1B).

Z. xiangchengensis is rarely distributed in West Sichuan (Xiangcheng) and the Yunnan Province of China (2,200–2,800 m) and a few places of central Nepal (1,000–2,000 m). One of the interesting facts about the distribution is that, Fig. 1: A tree of Z. budhensis (A) and its this plant is reported only in the two places of Flowering branch (B), Kharpakot (1,900 m), China, viz. the Sichuan Province and the Yunnan Kavrepalanchok District, Nepal Province, and there are only four specimens (including types) at Chengdu Institute of Biology Specimen Examined (CDBI), six specimens at Kunming Herbarium (KUN) and very few are at National Herbarium - The Holotype and the Isotype of Z. budhensis, of China (PE). The distribution is very limited; KATH, C. N. 20701, Kharpakot (1,900 m), however, the presence of this plant in the Tibet Kavrepalanchok District, (Fig. 2) and Autonomous Region is under investigation. Due to this, the previous fact regarding the evolution - Holotype and Isotype of Z. xiangchengensis, of this species is quite mysterious. CDBI, C. N. 2994, Xiancheng, Sichuan (2,800 m), 1979, China. (Fig. 3) Note: The description of the plant is based on the type literature of Z. xiangchengensis (Chen and Chou, 1979), the type literature of Z. budhensis (Bhattarai and Pathak, 2015) and the Flora of China (2007).

56 Pathak et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1

Methodology

A small piece of young leaves sample was collected from the type locality of Z. budhensis, Kavrepalanchok district of central Nepal (KATH Holotype: C.N. 20701, 1,900 m). DNA was extracted from the silica-dried material fragments using the TIANGEN plant genomic DNA extraction kit (TIANGEN Biotech., Beijing, China) following the manufacturers’ protocols. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS): ITS-A and ITS-B were used as primer in this study. a b c PCR was carried out following the same methods as Xu et al. (2013).The amplified fragments were purified with the TIAN quick Mini Purification j g h i Kit (TIANGEN). The sequencing of the purified PCR products was done by the help of Invitrogen e f (Shanghai, China). The Sequencher 4.1 (Gene d Codes Corp., Ann Arbor, MI, USA) was used to assemble and edit complementary strands. The sequences obtained for each fragment were initially aligned using Clustal X 1.8181.

Fig. 2: Fertile branch of Z. budhensis with The DNA sequences obtained from the Company flowers (a); Leaf dorsal side X1 (b); Leaf were edited using the Sequencer 4.4. The edited ventral side X1 (c); Flower X6 (d); Sepal X6 sequence was blasted in ncbi (www.ncbi.nlm. (e); Petal X6 (f); Gynoecium and Ovary X6 nih.gov) and aligned. For phylogenetic tree, the (g); Stamen X6 (h); A flower with sepals and model suggested by Tamura and Nei (1993) was petals with stamens x6 (i) and Longitudinal selected. The aligned sequences were used to section of a flower X6 (j), KATH Holotype: make a phylogenetic tree using MWGA6 (Tamura C.N. 20701 (1,900 m), Source: Bhattarai and et al., 2013). A maximum likelihood tree (Fig. Pathak (2015) 4) was constructed, and the maximum parsimony was also observed.

A B C

Fig. 3: The type images of Z. xiangchengnensis deposited at the CDBI, CN 2994 Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, China (A and B) and its three faced-seed (C) (Source: www.cvh.org.cn)

57 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Pathak et al. Results

To show the genetic differences, Maximum Likelihood Methods are shown in Fig. 4. Table 1, below demonstrates the pair-wise distances among the different Ziziphus species. The genetic difference between Z. budhensis and Z. xianchengnensis was found to be only 0.004. The molecular result was also compared with that of Li et al. (2009). The findings revealed that they were almost the same species. Later on, the type specimens of Z. xianchengnensis (Fig. 3: A, B, C) were examined at the Chendgu Institute of Biology (CDBI), which were almost the same as that of Z. budhensis from Nepal. When this species was described for the first time, there was no any information about the flower characters. This time, a full description has been provided with flower and fruit characters.

Though there were some differences about the habit, distribution and shape of some flowering parts between the two type descriptions, the important characters- the faces of the seeds and the convex shape on one side of the seeds were remarkable. The DNA analysis showed almost Fig. 4: Molecular phylogenetic analysis using no difference at all while the morphological the maximum likelihood method differences might be due to the different habitats and the other environmental factors. The detail The evolutionary history was inferred by using description of the species is given under the the Maximum Likelihood Method based on the taxonomic description. Tamura-Nei Model [1]. The tree with the highest log likelihood (-2050.2307) is shown. The initial trees for the heuristic search were obtained

Table 1: Pair-wise distances among the Ziziphus species

58 Pathak et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 automatically by applying the Neighbor-Join Li, L., Peng, J. Y., Bai, R. X. and Zheng, B. Q. and BioNJ Algorithms to a matrix of pairwise 2009. The phylogenetic relationships of distances estimated using the Maximum genus Ziziphus Mill. Native to China based Composite Likelihood (MCL) approach, and on RAPD analysis. Acta horticulturae (840): then selecting the topology with the superior 107–116. log likelihood value. The tree is drawn to scale, with branch lengths measured in the number of Mabberley, J. D. 2008. Mabberley’s Plant- substitutions per site (next to the branches). The Book: A Portable Dictionary of Plants, analysis involved 29 nucleotide sequences. All the their Classification and Uses. Third edition, positions containing gaps and missing data were Cambridge University Press, UK. eliminated. There were a total of 498 positions in NHPL. 2011. Catalogue of Nepalese Flowering the final dataset. The evolutionary analyses were Plants-II (eds) Rajbhandari, K. R., Bhattarai, conducted with the help of MEGA6 [2] Software. K. R. and Baral, S. R., Department of Plant Acknowledgments Resources, National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (NHPL), Godawari, Lalitpur We are thankful to the local people of the Nepal, 210. Kharpakot VDC of Kavrepalanchok district, Nepal for their cooperation during our field visit NHPL. 2012. Catalogue of Nepalese Flowering in June, 2016. Plants-III (ed) Rajbhandari, K. R., Bhattarai, K. R. and Baral, S. R., Department of Plant References Resources, National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (NHPL), Godawari, Lalitpur Bhandari, M. M. and Bhansali, A. K. 2000. Flora Nepal, 255. of India (Oleaceae-Connaraceae) (ed) Singh, N. P., Vohra, J. N., Hajra, P. K. and Singh, D. Outlaw Jr, H. W., Zhang, S., Riddle, K. A., K., Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India Womble, A. K., Anderson, L. C., Outlaw, 5: 221–245. W. M., Outlaw, N. N., Outlaw, E. C. and Thistle, A. B. 2002. The jujube (Ziziphus Bhattarai, K. R. and Pathak, M. L. 2015. A New jujuba Mill.): a multipurpose plant. Economy Species of Ziziphus (Rhamnaceae) From Botany 56 (2): 198–200. Nepal Himalayas. Indian Journal of Plant Sciences 4 (2): 73. Tamura, K. and Nei, M. 1993. Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in Chen Y. L. and Chou, P.K. 1979. Materiae Ad the control region of mitochondrial DNA in Floram Rhamnaceae Sinica Rum. North- humans and chimpanzees. Molecular Biology Eastern Forestry Institute, Harbin. Bulletin of and Evolution 10: 512–526. Botanical Laboratory 5: 88. Tamura, K., Stecher, G., Peterson, D., Filipski, Chen, Y. L. and Schirarendin, C. 2007. Ramnaceae. A. and Kumar, S. 2013. MEGA6: Molecular In Flora of China (Hippocastanaceae through Evolutionary Genetics Analysis version 6.0. Pentaphylaceae), vol. 12 (eds) Wu, Z. and Molecular Biology and Evolution 30: 2725– Raven, P. H., St. Louis Missouri Botanical 2729. Garden Press. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/ china/mss/volume12/Rhamnaceae-MO_ Xu, B., Gao, X. F. and Zhang, B. 2013. Lespedeza edited.htm accessed on 19 December, 2016. jiangxiensis, sp. nov. (Fabaceae) from China based on Molecular and Morphological Data. Grierson, A. J. C. and Long, D. G. 1991. Flora Systematic Botany 38 (1): 118–126. of Bhutan, Rhamnaceae. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh 2, UK (Part 1), 136–141. TPL. 2013. The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species, Version 1.1 (September, Islam, M. B. and Simmons, M. P. 2006. A 2013). www.theplantlist.org accessed on 17 Thorny Dilemma: Testing Alternative December, 2016. Intrageneric Classifications within Ziziphus (Rhamnaceae). Systematic Botany 31 (4): 826–842.

59 Use of forest land for national-priority infrastructures in Nepal

U. R. Sharma1

Forest conversion has been identified as one of the several bottlenecks affecting upon the major infrastructure projects in Nepal, especially in the energy and transport sectors. Nepal’s policy requires at least 40% of its land cover under forest. This means if any forest land is converted to non-forest land, it must be compensated with an equivalent area, preferably in the similar ecotype in the nation. In addition, a specified number of trees must be planted for the number of trees felled in the project site, and the site must be managed and protected for five years by the developers. These provisions have led to growing resentment between the developers and the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC), leading to delay in providing forest lands for infrastructure projects. With a view to develop mechanisms for the government to rapidly provide forest land for nationally important infrastructure projects, the Government databases were examined to analyze the forests handed over to the developers for non-forestry uses. The data showed that a total of 14,028.4 ha of forest area were handed over to the developers for non-forestry uses until the end of 2015. On an average, 263.8 ha forest area was found to be handed over to the developers between the period of 2010–2013. However, there is a declining trend of forest handed over for non-forestry purposes in the recent years. The decline could be due to the strict enforcement of the legal provision which limits the conversion of forest areas to non-forest areas except in the case of the “national priority projects”. It has been recommended that the conversion of forest for infrastructure development should be examined with a holistic perspective by taking all the related components of forest conversion into consideration, from providing forest land for replacement planting. It is recommended that the Forest Product Development Board (FPDB), a parastatal organization under the MFSC, should be entrusted with the work of plantation related to forest conversion. The fund for this work should flow directly from the developers to the FPDB. The possibility of forming a land bank to facilitate the work of the FPDB is also recommended.

Key words: Forest clearance, forest conversion, infrastructure, land bank, plantation

epal’s 40.3% of land is covered with forest pride projects. With regard to the three sub- N(DFRS, 2015). Forest has remained the components of the bottleneck related to land, the backbone for development, especially for the topic of discussion in this paper is related to forest sectors such as agriculture, environment, tourism clearance and land replacement. and infrastructure. Forest sector contributes significantly to the national economy, but the Forest lands are managed by two separate contributions are mostly in the form of intangible government agencies- the Department of Forests benefits. (DoF) and the Department National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), both under the “Land acquisition, right-of-way and forest Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation. The clearance delays” has been identified as one of DoF manages its forest areas under the provisions the several bottlenecks affecting upon major of the Forest Act, 1993 (MFSC, 1993) while infrastructure projects in Nepal, especially in the DNPWC manages its forest areas under the the energy and transport sectors (APPIIC, 2016). provisions of the National Parks and Wildlife These bottlenecks affect upon the national- Conservation Act, 1973 (MFSC, 1973). As the

1 Freelance Researcher, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: [email protected]

60 Sharma Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 provisions in these two Acts in providing land for International Development (DFID)on January for non-forest uses are different or non-existent, 5, 2017 in Kathmandu also provided materials for the processes of seeking clearance are different. discussion. There are several ambiguities and lack of clear directions if such lands can be converted for non- Results and discussion forestry uses in the case of protected areas. Forest lands handed over for non-forestry uses The forest policy of Nepal states that the nation The cases of handing over of the forestlands for will maintain at least 40% of its land under forest non-forestry uses have been recorded in the DoF (MFSC, 2014). It creates a situation that forest Database, 2015. The Database consists of the cannot be converted for non-forestry uses unless records from the Fiscal Years 2005/06 to 2015/16. at least an equivalent area, preferably of similar During this period, there were 385 such cases, ecotype, are added somewhere else in the nation. totaling 14,028.3 ha (Table 1). The database does In addition, the developers are required to plant 25 not seem to be complete; however, it provides an times the number of trees felled in the leased forest indication of demand for forest for non-forestry land (MFSC, 2006). The number of trees required uses over the periods. to be planted for one tree (>10 cm diameter) felled is usually 25. However, the number has Table 1: Forest land handed over for various been reduced to 2 in the case of the hydro power purposes during the period of 2005/06–2015/16 projects keeping in view the energy crisis in the nation. Several officials share their views that S.N. Category Area (ha) modalities of doing this type of swapping areas 1. Tourism-related: resorts, 199.4 and planting trees are being done on ad hoc basis hotels, cable-cars and parks without any specific policy or legislative support. 2. Plantations 1690.4 There is a growing resentment from developers 3. Energy: hydropower plants, 1460.9 against the requirement of procuring equivalent transmission lines and tunnels private land in the similar ecological zone, plant trees on that land, manage and protect the site for 4. Herb plantations and gardens 256.0 five years (APPIIC, 2017). The Investment Board 5. Office buildings and 3724.6 of Nepal (IBN) and several other government municipality/VDC projects agencies associated with the development sectors 6. Cement industries and 340.8 have expressed that this requirement of the MFSC quarries should be revised, and the MFSC should accept 7. Wildlife farms 256.4 cash compensation for the use of forestland 8. Resettlements 2,816.5 (APPIIC, 2017). Several attempts have been made in the past to resolve these issues mentioned 9. Communication towers 11.8 in the Forest Land Handover Guidelines, 2006 of 10. Nepal Army 1,291.3 the Government of Nepal. 11. Police 379.1 12. Social work, hospitals and 856.5 The objective of this study was to develop schools mechanisms for the government to rapidly provide forest land for nationally important infrastructure 13. Drinking water, roads and 744.6 projects, and to effectively manage the new sites irrigation channels received as compensation. Total 14,028.3 Source: DoF Database, 2015 Materials and methods The information needed for this study was Similarly, the MFSC Database (2015) shows the gathered from the analyses of data available size of forest areas handed over for non-forestry in the government databases, especially set- uses during the period of 2010–2013; the forest up for the forests handed over for non-forestry areas so handed over ranged from 0.003 ha to purposes. The deliberations in the consultation 147.610 ha. The forest patches were handed workshop jointly organized by the MFSC and the over for different purposes such as hydropower Accelerating Private and Public Investment in generation, transmission lines, public buildings, Infrastructure Component (APPIIC), Department waste disposal, city parks, mining for cement

61 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Sharma industries, landfill sites, settlements, sites for forest patches for infrastructure development factory, drinking water supplies, cableway projects; infrastructures are defined as nationally construction, construction of towers for important roads, bridges, irrigation canals, communication, irrigation canals and roads. The drinking water supplies, telecommunication analysis of the data showed that the area of forest towers, transmission lines, hydropower dams, converted to non-forestry uses was 263.8 ha per sites for industries and alike. So far, the largest year, on an average, ranging from 84.1 ha in 2010 areas of forest handed over for infrastructure to 518.7 ha in 2011 (Fig. 1). development projects were in the F.Y. 2011/12 (598.1 ha) followed by the F.Y. 2008/09 (502.8 ha, Table 3). The handover of the forest areas had sharply declined during 2014–2016.

Table 3: Total Forest land handed for infrastructure development during the period of 2006/2007–2015/2016 Number of S.N. Fiscal Year Area (ha) reported cases 1. 2006 /2007 10 231.7 2. 2007/2008 6 77.1 3. 2008/2009 21 502.8 Fig. 1: Forest patches handed over for 4. 2009/2010 2 7.0 infrastructure projects during 2010–2013 (MFSC Database, 2015) 5. 2010/2011 5 38.2 6. 2011/2012 14 598.1 Table 2 reflects a declining trend of forest 7. 2012/2013 14 353.5 handover for non-forestry uses. This may be 8. 2013/2014 15 238.3 because the forest patches handed over in the recent years are less for resettlement purposes, 9. 2014/2015 10 79.8 and the government seems strictly enforcing the 10. 2015/2016 4 10.3 provision of not providing forest land for projects Total 1473.4 that cannot qualify as “nationally important”. Average 231.68 Also, a close examination of data between the two Source: DoF Database, 2015 databases (MFSC and DoF) shows that none of the two databases is entirely complete and there Discussion and recommendations are several entries missing in both the databases. Nevertheless, the data can provide an overview Problem Context of the situation, and throw lights on emerging trends. The MFSC, in the recent past, had a field-based evaluation of the execution of forest conversion Table 2: Total Forest/Forest land handed decisions with respect to the infrastructure over to non-forestry uses during the period of development. It was found that the agreed terms 2011/12–2014/15 and conditions between the infrastructure projects and the GoN were not fully implemented. The Number of S.N. Fiscal Year Area (ha) sites received from the developer for plantation reported cases as compensation were mostly never planted. 1. 2011/2012 19 642.5 Several sites were illegally encroached by 2. 2012/2013 19 447.5 squatters. The promised investment for plantation 3. 2013/ 2014 20 245.9 and supervision hardly materialized with the 4. 2014/2015 16 137.5 responsible district offices. On the other hand, the lease payments were overdue (MFSC, 2014). All Total 1473.4 these lapses have prompted the MFSC to review Source: DoF Database, 2015 the entire process of providing forest land on lease for infrastructure development. There were only a few cases of handing over the

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The Forest Act, 1993 has a provision of Article With the holistic approach, the project can avoid 68, to make forest land available for infrastructure creating a large ecological footprint despite development if the project meets the following cutting down trees and removing vegetation from three criteria: (i) It is a nationally important the ground. This is because an equivalent private project, (ii) It makes no significant environmental land is added somewhere else in the country, impact, and (iii) There is no alternative other most likely in the lowlands, where the growth of than using the forest land. These provisions are vegetation is faster than the one in the mountains. further clarified in the Guidelines entitled, “Work In the case of hydropower projects, there is an Policy to Make Forest Land Available for Other added carbon sequestration benefit as the use of Purposes” (MFSC, 2006). The implementation of power in the country reduces the consumption of the Guidelines has greatly helped, but still there firewood. are delays due to ambiguities as explained above. Plantation management through Forest The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Product Development Board Act, 1973 has not made a very explicit provision for granting Protected Area (PA) land for To resolve the issue of forest conversion and to infrastructure development. The Article 6 of the make it a complete package, the role of Forest Act has been interpreted for granting PA land Product Development Board (FPDB) becomes for this purpose. Another Guidelines entitled important. The FPDB has been an institution under “Work Policy on Infrastructure Development and the MFSC which has extensive experience in Operation within Protected Areas” (MFSC, 2009) block planting and managing the plantations over has been under implementation; PA land can be several decades. One of its successful projects granted under the provisions of this Guidelines. is the Sagarnath Plantation (falling mostly in However, there are several issues related to this the Sarlahi and Mahottari districts located in the Guidelines, which need to be resolved. southern part of the Central Development Region of Nepal), where it had planted trees in more Conversion of forest land for infrastructure than 10,500 ha of land, and has been managing development should not be only viewed from the the site since 1981 (FPDB, 2016). In 2017, the perspective of infrastructure project. Unless all the APPIIC has proposed a management model (Fig. components of forest conversion, from providing 2), which provides key functions of planting forest land to replanting and managing the new trees and managing such sites for the FPDB. The sites received or procured as compensation are model proposes that the fund for such work would addressed, it would be incomplete. In the absence directly go to the FPDB from the developers who of such a holistic approach, the problems of are required to provide land compensation for delayed forest clearance will continue to prevail. using forest land.

Fig. 2: Proposed Mechanism of Land Replacement (Source: APPIIC, 2017)

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Establishment of a land bank Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation/ Department for International Development The MFSC is also exploring the possibility of (United Kingdom), Kathmandu, Nepal. creating a land bank to facilitate the work of the FPDB. The land bank, if approved by the GoN, DFRS. 2015. State of Nepal’s Forests. Forest would be established after acquiring about 100 ha Resource Assessment (FRA) Nepal Project, of private land in a block from the money FPDB Department of Forest Research and Survey would receive as soft loan or as disbursement (DFRS), Kathmandu, Nepal. from the Government. The proponents of infrastructure, who are required to make land DoF. 2015. Database (electronic) on Forests compensation, would buy land from the land Handed Over for Non-Forestry Uses. bank and would enable FPDB to gradually Department of Forests (DoF), Kathmandu, pay back loan and recover the administrative Nepal. expenses. This modality would greatly help cut FPDB. 2016. Official Records (as of November down delays in obtaining forest land for national 16, 2016). Forest Products Development priority projects. Board (FPDB), Kathmandu, Nepal. Recommendations MFSC. 1973. National Parks and Wildlife In order to rapidly provide forest land for Conservation Act, 2029 B.S. Ministry of nationally important projects, the MFSC must Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC), act to harmonize procedures within the Ministry Kathmandu, Nepal. and with the other related ministries. It should MFSC. 1993. Forest Act, 2049 B.S. Ministry undertake legal reforms in the relevant Acts, of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC), Regulations and Work Policies in order to facilitate Kathmandu, Nepal. the concerned departments (DoF and DNPWC) to process requests without any delay. Tree-planting MFSC. 2006. Work Policy to Make Forest and the management of plantations including Land Available for Other Purposes. procurement of private land for exchange of Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation forest land should be entrusted to an independent (MFSC), Kathmandu, Nepal. institution, such as the FPDB. Besides, the capacity of the concerned officials, especially MFSC. 2009. Work Policy on Infrastructure the officials of the district forest offices and the Development and Operation Within FPDB should be enhanced, and the offices of the Protected Areas. Ministry of Forests and protected areas should be built for effectively Soil Conservation, (MFSC), Kathmandu, executing the work of forest clearance, land bank Nepal. and management of new plantation sites. MFSC. 2014. Forest Policy, 2071. Ministry References of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC), Kathmandu, Nepal. APPIIC. 2016. Inception Report. Accelerating Private and Public Investment in Infrastructure MFSC. 2014. Report on the Forests Handed Component (APPIIC). IMC Worldwide, Over to Other Non-Forestry Uses in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC), Kathmandu, Nepal. APPIIC. 2017. Report on Stakeholder Consultation on the Use of Forest Land MFSC. 2015. Database (electronic) on Forests for National Priority Infrastructure. Handed Over for Non-Forestry Uses. Accelerating Private and Public Investment Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, in Infrastructure Component (APPIIC). Kathmandu (MFSC), Nepal.

64 Detection, assessment, and updating the maps of encroached forest areas: a case study from Bara district, Nepal R. K. Rimal1*, R. Maharjan1, K. Khanal2, S. Koirala2, B. Karki1, S. M. Nepal2 and H. L. Shrestha3

Forest encroachment is an illegal expansion of cultivable land and settlements within the jurisdiction of forests. It has been the key threat to forest management for the last several years in Nepal. The Department of Forests (DoF) is the responsible authority for detection and assessment of forest encroachment throughout the nation and updating the forest maps accordingly. Detection and preparing the updated maps of encroached forest areas is necessary for sustainable management of forests. Traditionally, the extent of forest encroachment is assessed through estimation by the front-line forestry staff. The new approach combines the aerial photographs, the cadastral maps prepared by the Department of Survey and the Google Earth Imagery to spatially locate the encroachment. This method will work as a desktop tool for the forest manager such that appropriate strategic actions can be taken immediately. Additionally, it will bring a transparency on the forest governance to identify the location of areas of interest like point location for forest-based industries or proposed sites for development of infrastructures on the ground. The local communities may use the tool to identify the actual location of the forest boundaries, and exert social pressure to relinquish the encroached forests, if any.

The result showed that 8,540 ha of the forest area in Bara district was found to be encroached during the period of last 50 years, between 1964 and 2014, of which 71% (6,038 ha) happened to be encroached in the first three decades, indicating the retarding trend of encroachment in the later years. The methodology used to assess the encroachment of forest in Bara district can be easily scaled up to other districts too, and will eventually help to assess the country’s overall forest encroachment. Since the boundary delineation will be done on the basis of the cadastral maps, the output will be used as a robust evidence to defend the forest-related cased in the court during the legal arbitrations

Key words: Cadastral map, change detection, encroachment, forest cover loss

n Nepal, forests are managed through different The forests in Nepal are facing degradation Imanagement regimes, under the jurisdiction and depletion due to several proximate causes of the Government of Nepal. The protected including uncontrolled forest fire, overgrazing, area network (national parks, wildlife reserves, unsustainable extraction of forest products conservation areas, buffer zones and protection for local consumption and development forests) comprises 23.39% of the total land area infrastructures such as transmission lines, roads, of the country (DNPWC, 2016). This is followed canals and hydro-power due to population growth by the community-managed forest which covers (Geist and Lambin, 2001; DFRS, 1999). Besides, 1.79 million hectares, about 27% of the total forest other socio-economic trends such as migration of area in Nepal (DoF, 2016). Other forest regimes people from the mountains and hills to the Terai fall under the government, private, collaborative and other accessible areas have also impacted and leasehold forest management systems. upon the forests. A report indicates that migration

1 Department of Forests, Babarmahal, Kathmandu. *E-mail: [email protected] 2 World Wildlife Fund Nepal, 3 EbA South Project, Ministry of Population, Kathmandu, Nepal

65 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Rimal et al. within the nation is also responsible for forest of the forest cover. The change in forest cover cover loss mostly in the Terai region (WWF, by several actors and drivers can be detected, 2014). assessed and updated both at national- and district-levels using these dataset. In the Nepalese context, forest encroachment is the illegal conversion of forested land to other This pilot study aims to detect forest land uses, such as agriculture and settlement. It encroachment and update forest maps in Bara is one of the major drivers of deforestation and district using cadastral maps, google image and forest degradation in Nepal (Acharya et al., 2011) historical images, and provide a methodology for which is more prominent in the Terai and Siwalik the encroachment detection that can be used to regions. Some encroachments have been done update forest maps for all the districts of Nepal. illegally in the Terai forests, especially along the East-West highway, for the expansion of local Materials and methods markets. Study area

Satellite Remote Sensing (RS) coupled with The study was carried out in Bara district which is Geographical Information System (GIS) is one located in the south-central lowland Terai region of the viable techniques to monitor the changing of Nepal. The district is bounded by Rautahat pattern of forests. Satellite data from several district on the east, Parsa district on the west, moments in time allows the creation of land Makawanpur district on the north and India on the cover maps over the large spatial extents and south (Fig. 1). It is located between 26o 61’–27o more frequent time intervals than with expensive 02’ N latitudes and 84o 51’– 85o16’ E longitudes. and detailed field studies (Nagendra, 2001). Human encroachment on forest land gives rise to the change in another type of land use. Further, land use change by human activities through encroachment has become a proximate factor that catalyzes the deforestation and forest degradation (Tole, 1998). It was estimated that 80,635 ha of forest area was encroached (published in Rising Nepal dated September 28, 2007) and this trend of encroachment is seemingly increasing. Hence, detection of forest encroachment provides useful information for planning and sustainable management of forests. Fig. 1: Map showing the location of the study The problem of forest encroachment has become Area a sensitive issue over the years. The government The northern part of Bara district covering 60,914 of Nepal has formulated the policy of Forest ha was set aside as the study area which covered Encroachment Control and Management Strategy, 59,348 ha forest land and 1,566 ha non-forest land 2012’ to address the problem, but the scientific using the 1964 Aerial Photographs. The area on and reliable data on forest encroachment are the southern part has been digitized as settlement unavailable. The Department of Forests (DoF) area in the Cadastral Map and was, therefore, not felt the direct need of GIS/RS based updated included in the study. The conversion of forest forest maps to address the problem. Various time and Non-forest land within the area of 60,914 ha series forest cover data such as the 1964 Aerial was the major focus where the change detection Photographs, the 1960s National Forest Inventory was analyzed. (NFI) data, the 1990s NFI data and the 2010– 2014 NFI data produced by the Department of Methodology Forest Research and Survey (DFRS) and the 1994 and the 1996 Topographic Maps of Nepal and the The available data from the Google Earth, digital cadastral information produced by the Topographical Sheets, Cadastral Map, historical Department of Survey(DoS) are available. These data, 1964 Aerial Photographs and various time data can be analyzed for temporal monitoring series satellite images were gathered and scanned.

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These data were geo-referenced by using ArcGIS Data source 10.3 to avoid errors by providing adequate ground control points. This was followed by Table 1 shows the different data and maps used geo-spatial analysis where the geo-referenced for change detection analysis, and their sources. cadastral maps were digitized. These data were Results and discussion overlaid on the Google Earth images for detecting the encroached forest areas. On the other hand, Land use various time series data were analyzed to find out the change in forest area during the different Bara district went through severe changes in its time periods. Different geo-processing tools land use during the last 50 years (1964–2014). such as clip, mosaic, dissolve, union, merge and This change was mainly due to industrialization spatial join were used to generate precise results. and migration of people from the mountains and This was followed by digitization of the various Hills to the Terai. The analysis of data shows time series data to generate polygon of forest that the Non-forestland increased from 1,566 and Non-forest areas, and the encroached forest ha to 10,106 ha during the period of 50 years, areas were identified with the help of the ArcGIS from 1964 to 2014 (Fig. 3). The Non-forestland Software. The attribute data were obtained from increased to almost 5 folds during the last 30 the digitized maps, and were analyzed (using years, from 1964 to 1994, and 6 folds in 2014 than the MS Excel Sheet). The detected areas were in the base year (1964). The major reason behind verified in the field through field observation this was the rapid establishment of big industries and consultation with the District Forest Officer and expansion of settlement areas. Bara district and other stakeholders. Fig. 2 highlights the lies close to the Indian border, and so it is easier methodology applied in this study. to import raw materials from India, leading to the establishment of major industries, which has subsequently led to the reduction in the forest area in the district. The forest area was found to have decreased from 59,348 ha to 50,808 ha during the period, from 1964 to 2014.

Fig. 2: Methodological framework Fig. 3: Land use change in Bara district during 1964–2014

Table 1: Data acquisition Data Year Characteristics Source 1964 Aerial 1964 Black and white, 300 DPI, Department of Forest Research and Photographs 10,000–12,000 Scale Survey (DFRS) Topographic maps 1994 1:25000 scale Department of Survey (DoS) High-resolution 2014 High-resolution imagery Google Earth Google Image Cadastral Map NA Parcel Map National Land Use Mapping Project (LRMP) and Department of Land Information and Archive (DOLIA)

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Forest encroachment during the period of low as compared to the one in the earlier 30 years 1964–1994 (1964–1994) of the study period (1964–2014). There was a loss of 2,502 ha of forest, and the The DoS had conducted a survey of Bara district major changes were observed in the Ratanpuri, in 1964, and developed a cadastral map of the Kakadi and Bharatganj VDCs, comprising almost district. During the survey, the settlement areas 58% (1,446 ha) of the total forest loss (Fig. 5). including the cultivated land were demarcated, and the rest of the areas were considered as forest. All the lands based on the ownership (kitta) of the people were digitized. In 1964, the total forest land within the study area was 59,348 ha while the cultivated land was only 1,566 ha. This provided the baseline for the forest cover change analysis. During the period of 1964 to 1994, Bara district observed the expansion of industrial area and human migration from the mountains and the Chure hills to the lower Fig. 5: VDC-wise forest cover loss in Bara flat land which was the major cause for the district from 1994 to 2014 encroachment of forest areas in the Terai. Besides this, the forest loss was also triggered due to the Forest encroachment and forest change resettlement program at Nijgadh in Bara district. analysis The resettlement was done from Shaktikhola and Campadada of Makawanpur district to As has been already mentioned beforehand, Nijgadh in Bara district. Besides, the promotion significant forest areas in Bara district were of medicinal plants in almost 300 ha in the the found to have been converted into other land uses Kakadi Village Development Committee (VDC) during the period of 1964 to 2014 (Fig. 6a, 6b, also reduced the forest area of the district to 6c). Considering all the causes of forest loss as some extent. These government programs along encroachment, highest encroachment happened with the establishment of industrial areas and between the period of 1964 and 1994. The area illegal expansion of cultivated lands as well as of encroached land accounted to 6,038 ha which settlements were the main causes for the decrease was about 60% of the total encroachment (Fig. 7). of 6,038 ha of the forest area in the district. The study showed that Nijgadh, Ratanpuri and Dumarwana VDCs of Bara district had suffered a huge loss of forest during the last fifty years, from 1964 to 2014 (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4: VDC-wise forest cover loss in Bara district from 1964 to 1994 Fig. 6a: Forest encroachment in Bara district Forest encroachment during the period of in 1964 1994 to 2014 During the later 20-year period, from 1994 to 2014, the conversion in the land use was relatively

68 Rimal et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 2014) are indicated in the Table 2.

Table 2: VDCs-wise assessment of forest en- croachment during 1964–1994 and 1994–2014 VDC-wise Forest to Non-forest Area (Ha) Amlekhganj 324 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 199 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 124 Bharatganj Sinaul 522 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 227 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 295 Bhodaha 15 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 15 Dumarwana 1,069 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 822 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 248 Fig. 6b: Forest encroachment in Bara district Haraiya 564 in 1994 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 325 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 239 Jitpur 0 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 0 Kakadi 727 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 392 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 334 Karaiya 109 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 73 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 35 Kolbi 4 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 4 Manaharwa 331 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 192 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 139 Nijgadh 1,103 Fig. 6c: Forest encroachment in Bara district Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 1084 in 2014 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 19 Parsauna 53 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 48 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 6 PipraSimara 360 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 332 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 29 Ratanpuri 2,673 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 1857 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 815 Sapahi 556 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 337 Forest to Non-forest (1994-2014) 219 Sihorwa 88 Fig. 7: Forest encroachment in Bara district Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 88 during the periods of 1964–1994 and 1994– Tetariya 42 2014 Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 42 Umajan 2 Encroachments in the different VDCs of Bara Forest to Non-forest (1964-1994) 2 district during the last fifty-year period (1964–

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Grand Total 8,540

Note: Non-forest denotes the forest loss caused by humans, such as cultivation, settlement and other developmental activities, but the forest loss due to natural calamities has not been considered.

Categorization of forest conversion Over the years, forests were either encroached or cleared off for different purposes such as the expansion of settlement for cultivation, establishing various infrastructures including government/public buildings, playgrounds, temples, community buildings and so on. These Fig. 8: Type of forest encroachment in Bara forest encroachments can be re-classified as the district forest encroachment/conversion for- cultivation, settlement, construction of government Conclusion infrastructures and construction of social infrastructures. The conversion of forest for The encroachment analysis was based upon the purpose of cultivation was found to be the visual interpretation techniques. The analysis highest accounting for 7,510 ha followed by has been done at the scale of 1:1000 with ground settlement with 911 ha. Similarly, the conversion truthing. If the Google maps and high-resolution of forest for the purpose of the construction of satellite imageries are available at the time of government structures such as the government forest survey, the encroached forest areas can be offices, schools, roads, health posts and so on, and easily detected by updating the forest cover maps. accounted for 26 ha followed by the construction In this study, an area of 8,540 ha was found to of social structures such as playgrounds, temples be encroached in the district in the last 50 years and community buildings, accounting for 24 (1964–2014). Most of the forest encroachments ha. Besides these categories, about 1,636 ha of were found to have been done during the period forest area were found to be at the stage of being of 1964–1994 when 6,038 ha forest had been cleared off, and so were categorized as potential encroached whereas only 2,502 ha forest area conversion. was found to have been encroached during the period of 1994–2014. Table 3: Categorization of forest conversion S. N. Forest conversion type Area (ha) Besides, the methodology used to assess the encroachment could have been more effective if 1. Cultivation 7,510 differential GPS were used. The reference error 2. Settlement 911 of the Aerial Photos used during the process of 3. Government 26 geo-referencing and the low-resolution aerial 4. Social 24 photographs are some limitations of the study. 5. Potential conversion 1,636 If this methodological framework is accepted, this pilot project can be applied to detect the Total 10,106 encroached forest areas in the other districts of the nation. This analysis will provide a base for Figure 8 shows the types of encroachment in Bara detection and management of the encroached district: forest areas. Furthermore, the definition of encroachment needs to be standardized, which has become a major gap in policy. Forest losses due to forest-fire, landslides, and soil erosion are natural phenomenon, and were not considered under this study.

70 Rimal et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Acknowledgements DoF. 2016. Community Forestry Bulletin 2016. Department of Forests (DoF), Ministry of We would like to thank the Hariyo Ban Program, Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, WWF Nepal for providing all the resources Nepal, 48. required to carry out this study. Similarly, we are also thankful to the Department of Forest Geist, H. J. and Lambin, E. F. 2001. What Drives Research and Survey (DFRS) for providing us Tropical Deforestation? A Meta-Analysis some necessary data and technical support. of Proximate and Underlying Causes of Deforestation Based on Sub-national References Case Study Evidence. Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium): LUCC International Project Acharya, K. P., Dangi, R. B. and Acharya, M. Office, LUCC Report Series No. 4. 2011. Understanding the forest degradation in Nepal. Unasylva 62 (238): 31–38. Nagendra, H. 2001. Using remote sensing to assess biodiversity. International Journal of DFRS. 1999. Forest resources of Nepal (1987– Remote Sensing 22: 2377–2400. 1998). Publication No. 74. Forest Resource Information System Project. Department Tole, L. 1998. Source of deforestation in of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS), tropical developing countries. Environmental Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Management 22: 19–23. Kathmandu, Nepal, 1–33. WWF. 2014. Assessment of Impacts of DNPWC. 2016. Annual Report 2016. Department Migration on Biodiversity, Forest and of National Parks and Wildlife Reserves Local Communities. Hariyo Ban Program, (DNPWC), Ministry of Forests and Soil World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Kathmandu, Conservation. Kathmandu, Nepal, 1–16. Nepal, 62.

71 Short Note Spatial mapping of forest soil organic carbon in Nepal’s Terai district

S. Khanal1*, S. Paudel1 and S. Chaudhary1

eriodic forest resource assessment is one of 0.17 thousand hectares respectively (DFRS, Pthe key activities for the forestry sector. It 2015a). Kapilvastu district is situated in Lumbini is essential to get the updated information for Zone of Western development region of Nepal. supporting policy formulation and management It spreads ranging from 93 to 1491 m above decisions. Further, in the current context of sea level. The forest area mask was obtained climate change, international initiatives such from recent forest cover mapping done (DFRS, as REDD+ requires periodic reporting of 2015b). On the forested area the sampling grid different forest carbon pools using standard set was generated at the spacing of 500 m. Out of the of scientifically valid methods. The carbon in 2451 regular plots, random sample of 184 were forests is stored in different carbon pools both taken for field measurement (Fig. 1). above as well as below ground. Considering the significance of soil carbon to the total carbon pool, recent forest resource assessment of Nepal has included comprehensive soil carbon sampling so as to provide estimates of this carbon pool (DFRS, 2015a). Often forest resource assessments including soil sampling are also conducted on smaller scale sub-national areas such as districts. The findings from such assessments contribute to understanding of soil carbon and its contribution to total carbon pools.

Research gaps exist in different aspects of forest soil organic carbon (SOC) such as management impact on soil carbon and factors driving its spatial variability. Understandings on such concepts are very imperative for better forest management prescriptions so as to enable more carbon sequestration in forests. With the objective Fig. 1: Map showing the Kapilbastu district, the to identify better methods of resource assessment forested area and the sample plots measured in district level, DFRS had implemented over the forested area of the district. comprehensive forest resource assessment in selected Terai district of Nepal. The forest type Four soil pits were dug in each cardinal direction mapping results has already been published at the distance of 21 meters from the plot center. (Chaudhary et al., 2015). This short note presents The 100 mm long soil corer with a lower diameter the spatial mapping forest soil organic carbon of 37 mm (at its cutting edge) and an upper (SOC). diameter of 40 mm was used to collect separate soil samples from three layers i.e., 0–10 cm, The study was conducted on Kapilvastu district 10–20 cm and 20–30 cm depth. The fresh mass in Terai region of Central Nepal (Fig. 1). Forest, of composite sample was determined onsite. The Other wooded land and shrub land cover 59.02 relative volume occupied by stones in the soil thousand hectares, 1.78 thousand hectares and was estimated occularly by observing the soil pit- walls by using the FAO Guidelines (FAO, 2006). 1 Department of Forest Research and Survey. *E-mail: [email protected]

72 Khanal et al. Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1

The composite soil samples were first air-dried was done in R using random Forest (Liaw and and later oven-dried to constant weight. The Wiener, 2002) and Raster package (Hijmans, oven-dried sample was immediately weighed for 2006). The spatial prediction of SOC was done total bulk density and then sieved through a 2 mm separately for three depths: 0–10 cm, 10–20 cm sieve and soil fine fraction (FF) obtained. The and 20–30 cm. The fourth output layer was total volume of coarse fraction (not passing the sieve) SOC in all three layers combined. For evaluation was determined from water replacement method. of prediction model, k-fold cross validation was The bulk density of the soil fine fraction was done. All the analysis in this paper were done then calculated by eliminating the volume of the using R software. coarse fraction. The bulk-density of the fine soil fraction for each soil layer was used to calculate The average SOC based on 184 sample was the organic carbon stock in each of the 10 cm calculated by depth class (Table 1). The SOC soil layers. The partial wet combustion method varied with the sampling depth having lower SOC (Walkley and Black, 1934) was used to estimate stock on deeper soils. Last national forest resource SOC with a correction factor of 1.3. assessment estimated 33.66 t/ha and 31.44 t/ha SOC for Terai and Churia (DFRS, 2015a). This The soil organic carbon (SOC) stock was district level estimate which combines plots from calculated by multiplying the dry soil bulk density both Terai and Churia is 38.01 t/ha however (g/cm3) by the proportion of OC as analyzed in the unlike this study, the national scale assessment fine fraction (FF) of soil. The final SOC FF, adj accounted for litter and woody debris as well. value was obtained after adjusting the laboratory results with a consideration of the proportion Table 1: Summary statistics for results across (Stone%) of stoniness determined in the field. The all 184 plots measured soil sampling and subsequent SOC estimation Depth No of Average 95% sd se approach was adopted from the national forest (cm) Obs (T/ha) CI resource assessment (DFRS, 2015). 0–10 184 17.75 10.07 0.74 1.48 For spatial prediction of SOC, covariates were 10–20 184 11.04 6.75 0.50 0.99 prepared using Landsat 8 imageries and terrain parameters. Composite of median reflectance 20–30 184 9.21 5.26 0.39 0.77 from Landsat-8 images (using total 81 scenes from year 2015 to 2016) was generated using Earth Elevation was observed as an important covariate Engine platform (Google Earth Engine Team, for SOC content in all depth classes. Similarly, 2015). The study area was in the overlap area of latitude, Landsat 4 band (NIR) and Landsat 1 and Landsat path-row (142–41 and 143–41) and each 2 were also important ones (Fig. 2). had 40 and 41 scenes respectively. Five bands (blue, green, red, nir and swir) were selected. 30m spatial resolution SRTM 1 Arc-Second Global elevation data for the study area were obtained from EarthExplorer (U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center). Slope and aspect were derived from the dem using 9 parameter and 2nd order polygon method available in QGIS. Topograhic wetness index (TWI) layer was also derived based on standard method in Saga 2.1.2 (Conrad et al. 2015).

Random Forest (RF) technique was used to model relationships between field measured SOC Fig. 2: Covariate importance from RF. twi = and environmental covariates. This technique has topographical wetness index, elev = elevation, become increasingly popular in ecology and has slo = slope, road = distance from road, lon= also been applied in estimation of SOC (Yang et longitude, lat= latitude, lan 1 to lan 5 = Landsat al. 2016). The model fitting and spatial prediction reflectance from band 1- 5, asp = aspect

73 Banko Janakari, Vol. 27, No. 1 Khanal et al. Yang et al. 2016 have reported that mean annual References precipitation, NDVI, mean annual temperature, Chaudhary A. K., Acharya A. K. and Khanal S. Landsat TM Band 5 are important predictors to 2016. Forest type mapping using object- explain SOC. Given the relatively small area and based classification method in Kapilvastu lack of high resolution climatic observation, the district, Nepal. Banko Janakari 26 (1): climatic predictors were not used in the models. 38–44. The fitted RF model was applied on the Conrad, O., Bechtel, B., Bock, M., Dietrich, environmental covariates for spatial prediction of H., Fischer, E., Gerlitz, L., Wehberg, J., SOC (Fig. 3). In predicted SOC map the areas in Wichmann, V. & Böhner, J. 2015. System the North had higher SOC for all sample depth for automated geoscientific analyses (SAGA) layers. This variation could be due to the fact v. 2.1. 4. Geoscientific Model Development that those sites are in the Churia Hills compared 8 (7): 1991–2007. to flat plains in areas in the south. The flat areas DFRS, 2015a. State of Nepal’s Forests. have higher disturbance due to human activities Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) Nepal, such as grazing and litter collection compared Department of Forest Research and Survey to Churia, which has typically difficult terrain. (DFRS). Kathmandu, Nepal. However, further study is required in order to understand the variation in spatial distribution DFRS, 2015b. District Forest Cover Maps of of SOC. Performance of the RF models were Nepal. Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) assessed using k-fold cross validation for the RF Nepal, Department of Forest Research and model applied to each of the SOC depth layers. Survey (DFRS), Kathmandu, Nepal. 10 fold cross validation gave the RMSE of 7.1, Google Earth Engine Team, 2015. Google 4.5, 3.9 and 12.3 for layers 0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, Earth Engine: A Planetary-Scale Geospatial 20–30 cm and 0–30 cm respectively. The models Analysis Platform. https://earthengine. using the given covariates had R-squared values google.com around 0.2 for each layers. FAO, 2006. Guidelines for Soil Description (4th edition). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy. Hijmans Robert J. 2016. raster: Geographic Data Analysis and Modeling. R package version 2.5-8. https://CRAN.R-project.org/ package=raster. Liaw A. and Wiener M. 2002. Classification and Regression by randomForest. R News 2 (3): 18–22. USGS, https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/SRTM1Arc Fig. 3: Spatial distribution of SOC stock. The figure was produced using ggplot2 package Walkey, A. and Black, I. A. 1934. An examination (Wickham, 2009). of the digitized method for determining soil organic matters, and a proposed modification Acknowledgements of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37: 29–38. The study was funded by Government of Nepal Wickham H 2009. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics under Forest Research and Survey Project for Data Analysis. Springer-Verlag, New implemented by Department of Forest Research York, USA. and Survey. The authors would like to acknowledge all the forest inventory crew members who took Yang, R. M., Zhang, G. L., Yang, F., Zhi, J. J., part on this field data collection mission. Yang, F., Liu, F., & Li, D. C. 2016. Precise Estimation of Soil Organic Carbon Stocks in the Northeast Tibetan Plateau. Scientific reports, 6.

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Tamang, S. 2013. Nepal Ma Krisi Kranti: Conservation Foundation, Kathmandu, Nepal Sambhawanaka A Ayam. Forum for 262p. Agrarian,Concern and Studies in Nepal 352p. Ahikari, S. M. 2017. Handbook of Aurvedic Morgan, R. P. C. 2013. Soil Erosion and Medicinal Plants: With Sketch Diagrams. Conservation (3rd ed). Wiley India Pvt Ltd, Punya Prabha Adhikari, Kathmandu, Nepal 358p. New Delhi, India 304p. Polunin, O. 2009. Flowers of Himalaya. Oxford Shmulsky, R. 2016. Forest Products and Wood University Press, New Delhi, India 580p. Science an Introduction (6th ed).Wiley India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, India 477p. Jensen, J. R. 2016. Remote Sensing of the Environment 2nd. Pearson Education Inc., India Smith, D. M., 2014. The Practice of Silviculture: 613p. Applied Forest Ecology (9th ed). Wiley India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, India 537p. Josep Raj, A. 2013. Forestry: Principles and Applications. Scientific Publishers, India 805p. Daniel,W. 2014. Biostatistics: Basic concepts and Methodology for Health science (10th ed). Parthiban, K. T. 2015. Objective Forestry: Wiley India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, India VP. for all Competitive Examination (2nd ed). Competition Tutor, India 363p. Chundawat, B. S., 1993. Textbook of Agro forestry. Oxford and IBH publishing, New Delhi, Subba Rao, N. S. 2016. Soil Microbiology (4th India 188p. ed) of Soil Microorganism and Plant Growth. Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India Carrier, J. G. 2009. Virtualism, Governance 407p. and Practice: Vision and Excusion in Environmental Conservation. Berghahn books, Trainter, F. H. 2014. Principles of Forest New York, USA 196p. Pathology. Wiley India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, India 805p. Kraft, M. E. 2015. Environmental Policy and Politics (6th ed). Routledge Taylor and Francis Argyrous, G. 2014. Statistics of Research: With Group, London, UK 340p. a Guide to SPSS. Sage Publication, London, UK 585p. Taank, P. 2009. Advances in Forest Research in India. Cyber Tech Publication, New Delhi, India Singh, R. 2016. Plant Diseases 9th ed. Oxford 264p. and IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India 700p.

Walkar, L. R. 2013. Landslide Ecology. Fisher, D. 2009. The Law and Governance Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK of Water Resources: The Challenge of 300p. Sustainability.Edward Elgar, UK 385p

Nyland, R. D. 2015. Silviculture: Concepts and Ghosh, A. D. 2016. Contemporary Issues in Applications. CBS Publisher and Distributor Trade, Environment and Policy. Ane Books Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, India 682p. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India 201p.

Pyakuryal, K. N. 2016. Land Agriculture and Boyce, J. K. 2007. Reclaiming Nature: Agrarian Transformation. Adroit Publishers, Environmental Justice and Ecological New Delhi, India 304p. Restoration. Anthems Press, London, UK 428p.

Sharma, S. 2001. Procuring Water: Foreign Aid Davis, L. S. 2015. Forest Management: To and Rural Water Supply in Nepal. Nepal Water Sustain Ecological, Economic,and Social

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76 Key Word Index to Vol. 27, No. 1, 2017

Key word Page no. Key word Page no.

Agro-pastoralists 21 Infrastructure 60

Blue sheep 11 Invasive plants 31

Cadastral map 65 Land bank 60

Change detection 65 Leaf biomass 3

Climate change 21, 31 Livestock depredation 11

Conflict 11 Manang 3

Conservation assessments 43 Molecular conformation 55

Disturbances 31 Nepal 21, 31

Ecosystem 31 Non-destructive method 3

Encroachment 65 Panchase 31

Forest clearance 60 Perceptions and trends 21

Forest conversion 60 Plantation 60

Forest cover loss 65 Predator 11

Forest species 43 Prey density 11

Fruit output 3 Rhamnaceae 55

Himalayan tahr 11 Species distribution 43

Himalayas 43 Ziziphus budhensis 55

Impacts 21 Z. xiangchengensis 55

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