The Response of African Americans to the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970

‘Black America Cares’: The Response of African Americans to the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 By James Austin Farquharson B.A, M.A (Research) A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Education and Arts Australian Catholic University 7 November 2019 Statement of Originality This thesis contains no material that has been extracted in whole or in part from a thesis that I have submitted towards the award of any other degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution. No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgment in the main text of the thesis. ‘Black America Cares’: The response of African Americans to the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 Abstract Far from having only marginal significance and generating a ‘subdued’ response among African Americans, as some historians have argued, the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) collided at full velocity with the conflicting discourses and ideas by which black Americans sought to understand their place in the United States and the world in the late 1960s. Black liberal civil rights leaders leapt to offer their service as agents of direct diplomacy during the conflict, seeking to preserve Nigerian unity; grassroots activists from New York to Kansas organised food-drives, concerts and awareness campaigns in support of humanitarian aid for Biafran victims of starvation; while other pro-Biafran black activists warned of links between black ‘genocide’ in Biafra and the US alike. This thesis is the first to recover and analyse at length the extent, complexity and character of such African American responses to the Nigerian Civil War. Drawing on extensive use of private papers, activist literature, government records and especially the black press, it charts the way African Americans conceptualised, over time and in complex ways, their varied understandings of issues such as black internationalist solidarities, territorial sovereignty and political viability, humanitarian compassion and great power realpolitik, as well as colonial and neo-colonial influence in Africa. The thesis initially explores the longer twentieth century history of African American engagement with Nigeria by way of establishing context, before providing in-depth analysis of the key initiatives and events that comprised African American engagement with the civil war. Chapters move chronologically and thematically to discuss direct diplomatic efforts to broker peace, African American responses to alleged genocide in Biafra, the rise and fall of pro-Biafran political support, and the latter’s loss to what emerged as a stronger political bloc of those supporting Nigerian political unity. Situated methodologically and historiographically at the intersection of scholarship on black internationalism and the international history of the Nigerian Civil War, this thesis demonstrates the way the civil war not only provoked intense activism, but did so in ways that fundamentally connected with the central ideas, themes and concerns of the black freedom struggle in the United States. Acknowledgements Writing my acknowledgements has been a daunting undertaking, particularly due to the sheer amount of people that helped make my thesis possible. Although a relatively monastic undertaking spent reading, haunting archives, testing the limits of my eyesight in online databases, and tapping incessantly at my computer, I could not have completed this thesis without the support of those around me. My principal supervisor Professor Michael Ondaatje has gone above and beyond, in his task of guiding me through my PhD. It is over ten years since I took my first American history course with Michael in the Maths building at the University of Newcastle as an undergraduate. Michael, with his infectious passion for history and teaching, is one of the reasons I decided to dedicate myself to the study of the United States and to become a historian. He has been a critical intellectual influence who has shaped my approach to writing history and to the broader world. As a supervisor, Michael has pushed me to be the best historian and writer I can be. I am immensely thankful for his support and encouragement during the highs and lows, both professionally and personally, of the PhD. As a fellow cricket tragic, I always appreciated our chats on the state of the West Indies team, and frequent Ashes discussions. I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Associate Professor Mark Chou and Dr. Michael Thompson. Mark was an invaluable source of advice and a careful reader of my work. His penetrating questions and keen eye for detail was critical in the development of my thesis. Mike joined my supervisory team in the final six months of the thesis, but his insights and the depth of his scholarly knowledge have been invaluable. His expertise in Christian internationalism added and enhanced key aspects of my work. His enthusiasm for the project and his considered advice were important in getting me over the line. I owe a debt of gratitude to Professor Dirk A. Moses and Dr. Lasse Heerten for their assistance and encouragement in publishing my chapter in Postcolonial conflict and the question of genocide: the Nigeria-Biafra War, 1967-1970 in the Routledge Global 1960s and 1970s series. In July 2016, Dirk and Lasse took a chance with me in asking me to contribute to their edited volume on the Nigerian Civil War. The experience of research, writing and editing this chapter was a key component in the development of the core arguments and ideas of my thesis. Research for this thesis involved visits to numerous archives in the United States, as well as the use of several online databases. I would like to thank the staff at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C, the Hoover Institution Archives at Stanford University and the Amistad Research Center at Tulane University in New Orleans for their help. I would also like to extend my thanks to Dr. Brian McNeil for providing me with scanned copies of many critical files and documents from the Nigeria/Biafra Clearing House, at the Swarthmore College Peace Collection. I have been fortunate enough to have been influenced and inspired by some fantastic postgraduate historians both in Australia and overseas. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Sarah Dunstan, Dr. Marigold Black, and Dr. Holly Wilson, for their support and intellectual encouragement over the years. At Australian Catholic University, I have also been surrounded by a supportive network during my PhD. In particular, I would like to thank Jessica O’Connor, Sarah van Ryn, Debra Phillips, Kelsie Bancroft, and Antoine Mangion. I could not have asked for a more entertaining and supportive workplace. It has been a privilege to have been on this journey with you all. Writing this thesis would not have been possible without wonderful friendships. During both the highs and lows of researching and writing, I was lucky to have so many terrific people in my life. My gratitude to them is enormous. I would especially like to acknowledge Benedict Cutler, Maraika Ropte-Cutler, Bryce Robinson, Crystal Amethyst Egan, Jodie Watts, Jessica Woodruff, Adrian Shuter, Timothy Masters, Rhea Thrift, Jennifer Dunstan, Ellen Temble, Alexander Kennedy, Jessica Circosta, Peter Kompara, Celeste Moore, Hilary Cam, Nicola Enilane, Jack Crombie, Sarah Estela, Natalie Hazelwood, Alex Hurcombe, Darren Coghlan, Andy James, John Evans, Kahlia Jenkins, Felicidade Lay, James Harris, Danielle Chiaverini, Rachael Burgin and Anthea McGeary. My grandparents James Meek Farquharson, Edna Austin-Coe, Lorensz (Billy) Solomonsz and Mary Siegertsz, whose memory I cherish, helped inspire my interest in history. Their lives in the United Kingdom and in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) intersected with the defining themes and events of what historian Eric Hobsbawn called ‘the short twentieth century’. This thesis, with its focus on the First and Second World Wars, the end of European empire in the Global South, and the fragility of the post-colonial nation-state, is an attempt to better understand their world and the individuals that they were. I have been very fortunate to have so much love and support from my immediate family over the past four years that has sustained my academic endeavors. Cleopatra, our beloved border collie, was the ultimate form of stress relief and guaranteed to make me smile no matter what the circumstances. She is sorely missed. My sister Kate has been a pillar of support and encouragement over the years. She and her partner Liz have helped keep me grounded and encouraged me every step of the way. Finally, I would like to thank my Mum and Dad, Marguerite and Colin Farquharson. I have been so lucky to have parents that have emphasised the importance of education and striving to achieve your best. Over the years they have encouraged (and in some cases tolerated) my passion for history. From a young age our home was not only filled with books but also with discussions and deliberations on a range of historical and contemporary issues. It was here, around the dining table or on our family road trips, that my curiosity about the past was forged. Their frequent WhatsApp calls and wise words have kept me motivated and focused. To use a cricket analogy, my parents always reminded me to ‘keep my eye on the ball’, during my PhD. Their love and guidance made this thesis possible. I cannot thank them enough. This thesis is dedicated to them. Abbreviations AAAR – African Academy of Arts and Research ACOA – American Committee on Africa

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