Obi Patience Igwara ETHNICITY, NATIONALISM AND NATION-BUILDING IN NIGERIA, 1970-1992 Submitted for examination for the degree of Ph.D. London School of Economics and Political Science University of London 1993 UMI Number: U615538 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615538 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 V - x \ - 1^0 r La 2 ABSTRACT This dissertation explores the relationship between ethnicity and nation-building and nationalism in Nigeria. It is argued that ethnicity is not necessarily incompatible with nationalism and nation-building. Ethnicity and nationalism both play a role in nation-state formation. They are each functional to political stability and, therefore, to civil peace and to the ability of individual Nigerians to pursue their non-political goals. Ethnicity is functional to political stability because it provides the basis for political socialization and for popular allegiance to political actors. It provides the framework within which patronage is institutionalized and related to traditional forms of welfare within a state which is itself unable to provide such benefits to its subjects. Ethnicity as identity and as pragmatic pursuit of economic and political advantage are, therefore, the routes to the political centre and so contribute to the legitimacy of the state. Nationalism is functional to political stability because it legitimates state power. However, as an elite ideology to legitimate the control of state power and struggles for it, nationalism articulates ethnicity and destabilizes the society, creating an identity crisis for individuals and communities. As the people increasingly resort to religion to correct their identity crisis, new political actors arise to challenge the existing order, using established religious ideologies to criticise and challenge the oppressive structure of elite-led secular nationalism. The Nigerian experience demonstrates that nationalism is best understood as a result of a continuous tradition in which legitimation claims of a social order are sustained and challenged rather than the result of modern industrialization. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Glossary/Tables 4 Acknowledgements 6 List of abbreviations 8 Introduction 12 One Theories of Nation-building and Ethnicity 16 Two Nationalist Ideologies in Nigeria 42 Three A More Plural Federation 68 Four ‘Ethnic Arithmetic’ in Nigeria 95 Five Social Engineering 124 Six Indigenization and Mass Mobilization 151 Seven Cultural Nationalism 174 Eight Cultural Nationalism and Religious Policies 203 Nine Ethnicity in Nigeria 230 Ten Nationalism in Nigeria 258 Eleven Holy Nationalism 277 Twelve Conclusion 301 Appendix I Nigeria’s National Symbols 314 Appendix II Nigeria’s Military Coups 318 Appendix III Nigeria’s Heads of State 318 Appendix IV State & Ethnic Origins of Members of Shagari’s Executive Cabinet 1979 319 Appendix V State & Ethnic Origins of Members of the Supreme Military Council under Buhari 1985 322 Appendix VI State and Ethnic Origins of Members of Babangida’s Council of Ministers 1987/88 323 Appendix VII State and Ethnic Origins of Members of theAFRC 1988 325 Appendix VII Who is Dominating What? Ethnic Staffing in four Federal Corporations 327 Bibliography 329 4 GLOSSARY OF TERMS Wazobia a term fabricated from the three major languages using the Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo words for come respectively (wa Yoruba, zo Hausa and bia Igbo). Naira major unit of Nigerian currency Kobo minor unit of Nigerian currency agbada Yoruba dress babariga Hausa for similar dress juju Yoruba music owambe Yoruba dance adire tie-and-dye (traditional batik) cloth TABLES Three 1. % of total share of national resources on the basis of equality of states, 1954-1963, 1963-1967 State share of Distributable federal resources in the 19-State structure 3. States by Region 4. Ethnic origins of Nigeria’s heads of state 5. Ethnic control of the 12-State Federation and their status in terms of minority or majority control Ethnic control of the 21 -State Federation and their status in terms of minority or majority control 5 Four 1. State & ethnic origin of presidential candidates, their deputies and party chairmen 2. Cut-off marks for admission into Unity Schools by States 3. University placements for first degree courses 1983-84 by States 4. Applications for first degree courses 1984-85 by States Five 1. Number of Primary School Pupils by State 2. Deployment of NYSC members by State and Sex 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have helped me in various ways to produce this thesis. I wish to use this opportunity to thank all of them. My very special thanks to Mr. Dennis Okafor, to Ukachi Eke, to Mrs. Georgette Okigbo, to Maria Therese Fumi Shotunde, to Anne Okigbo, to Dr. Pius Okigbo who partially funded this study, to Professor Peter Clarke at Kings College, London, to the West African Seminar group at The University College, London, to Dr. Luigi Solivetti at the University of Rome, to Professor James Mayall at the LSE, to the parish priests at the Sacred Heart Catholic Church, Quex Road, London, namely Rev. Fr. Matthew O’Shea, Rev. Fr. Mossie Lyons, Rev. Fr. Ray Warren and Rev. Fr. Tony Clancy, to Rev. Fr. David Barnes formerly of the Catholic Chaplaincy University of London, to Rev. Sr. Francis Nolan and to the Gospel Sharing Group at the Holy Family Convent, Aberdare Gardens, London, to Margaret Holmes, to my brothers, Jeremiah Igwara and Ejima Vincent Igwara, to Professor Anthony Smith at the LSE, to Professor Michael Mann, to Professor Abner Cohen, to Professor Peter Morton-Williams and his wife, Mercy Morton-Williams, to Michael Burrage at the LSE, to the LSE Sociology Graduate seminar group and to the staff at SOAS library. I am especially indebted to Stacey Meekins who typed most of the manuscript, to my daughter, Chinyere, for her patience and love, to Dr. Kelvin Knight for caring about me and for reading most of the script and helping me with my English, to Professor John Peel who partially supervised my work and enabled the production of this thesis, and to my supervisor, Professor Percy Cohen, for sharing his knowledge and wisdom with me. I hope that all of the above who see this manuscript will consider that they have contributed towards a worthwhile project. I would like to use this opportunity to pay tribute to the memory of my late brother, Lieutenant Commander Anthony K.O. Igwara, who died in a ghastly accident involving a Nigerian Air Force plane shortly before I submitted this thesis for examination. The plane crash was fortunate for Nigerian nationalism as it acquired national martyrs for its ideals. The federal government declared the 170 or so officers who died in the disaster national heroes and used the opportunity to secure a holy ground, that is a national cemetery at FCT Abuja, as resting place for the saints and martyrs of its civic religion. May his soul and the souls of all the Nigerian heroes departed rest in peace. This thesis is dedicated to the greater glory of God. Obi Igwara Department of Sociology London School of Economics January 1993 8 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABU Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria AFRC Armed Forces Ruling Council AG Action group CAN Christian Association of Nigeria CDC Constitution Drafting Committee COP Committee of Patriots CRC Constitution Review Committee CSSMN Christian Students’ Social Movement of Nigeria CUP Cambridge University Press DPA Distributable Pool Account FC Federal Character FCT Federal Capital Territory Abuja FESTAC Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture FLEC Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda FNLA Front for the National Liberation of Angola FRCN Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria FUT Federal University of Technology GNPP Great Nigerian Peoples’ Party HND Higher National Diploma IDB Islamic Development Bank IMF International Monetary Fund 9 Izala Izalatu bidi’a wa Iqammatu Sunna JAMB Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board JHSN Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria JMAS Journal of Modern African Studies MAMSER Mass Mobilization for social Justice, Self reliance and Economic Recovery MPLA Movement for the Popular Liberation of Angola MSS Muslim Students’ Society NACRA National Advisory Council on Religious Affairs NCE Nigerian Certificate of Education NCNA National Council for National Awareness NCNC National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons National Council of Nigerian Citizens (after 1962) NDLEA National Drug Law Enforcement Agency NEPA Nigerian Electric Power Authority NEPU Nigerian Elements Progressive Union NFC National Festival Committee NIPOST Nigerian Postal Services NISER Nigerian Institute for Social and Economic Research NNA Nigerian National Alliance NNDP Nigerian National Democratic Party NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation NOM National Orientation Movement NPB National Pilgrim Board 10 NPC Northern Peoples’ Congress NPE National Policy on Education NPN National Party of Nigeria NPP Nigerian Peoples’ Party NRC National Republican Convention