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OXFORD • RESEARCH • GROUP prevention works 50 stories of people resolving conflict by Dylan Mathews war prevention OXFORD • RESEARCH • GROUPworks 50 stories of people resolving conflict

Oxford Research Group is a small independent team of was Written and researched by researchers and support staff concentrating on nuclear established in 1982. It is a public Dylan Mathews company limited by guarantee with weapons decision-making and the prevention of war. Produced by charitable status, governed by a We aim to assist in the building of a more secure world Board of Directors and supported with Robin McAfee without nuclear weapons and to promote non-violent by a Council of Advisers. The and Simone Schaupp solutions to conflict. Group enjoys a strong reputation Design and illustrations by for objective and effective Paul V Vernon Our work involves: We bring policy-makers – senior research, and attracts the support • Researching how policy government officials, the military, of foundations, charities and The front and back cover features the painting ‘Lightness in Dark’ scientists, weapons designers and private individuals, many of decisions are made and who from a series of nine paintings by makes them. strategists – together with Quaker origin, in Britain, Gabrielle Rifkind • Promoting accountability independent experts Europe and the and transparency. to develop ways In this . It • Providing information on current past the new millennium, has no political OXFORD • RESEARCH • GROUP decisions so that public debate obstacles to human beings are faced with affiliations. can take place. nuclear challenges of planetary survival 51 Plantation Road, • Fostering dialogue between disarmament. which can only be solved Oxford OX2 6JE those who disagree. In an informal environment collectively and co- operatively. Oxford Research Group Tel: +44(0)1865 242819 Our research on the non-violent with skilled Fax: +44(0)1865 794652 resolution of conflict began in facilitation we is committed to this Email: 1988, resulting in the publication in help to build approach. [email protected] 1992 of Hugh Miall’s study of over bridges of Website: www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk 80 conflicts since 1945, showing understanding as a how many were resolved without means of opening up new Registered charity no: 299436. resorting to war. ideas and making possible significant policy shifts.

2 OXFORD • RESEARCH • GROUP war prevention works

50 stories of people resolving conflict

Written by Dylan Mathews

Published by Oxford Research Group

First published in September 2001 Reprinted in January 2002

Copyright 2001 Oxford Research Group, 51 Plantation Road, Oxford OX2 6JE, . Tel: +44 (0)1865 242819. Fax: +44 (0)1865 794652 Email: [email protected] Website: www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 3 Contents

2 Oxford Research Group Escalating violence 44 Liberian Women's Initiative in 3 Title page 1993 - 1997 24 Montessori School in Lucknow, 4 Contents 46 Local Commissions and the 1992 Council of Evangelical Churches The five chapter titles refer to the 26 The Mediation Network in Northern Nicaragua 1984 - 2001+ stage of the conflict at the time of Ireland 1995 involvement by the organisation 48 Lutheran World Federation profiled. Within each chapter the 28 OSCE High Commissioner on in Guatemala 1988 - 1996 stories are presented alphabetically National Minorities in Estonia 1993 Natal Chamber of Industries by organisation name. 50 30 Partners for Democratic Change in South 1989 - 1990 6 Foreword by Elise Boulding in Hungary 1996 - 1998 52 New Council of Churches 7 Foreword by 32 Patriotic Movement Against Crime in Southern Sudan 1999 - 2001+ 8 Introduction by Scilla Elworthy in El Salvador 1995 - 1999 54 Peace Brigades International 34 Project on Ethnic Relations in Colombia 1995 - 1999 in Romania 1991 - 2001+ 56 Peace Community of San Jose de Before any violence Apartado in Colombia 1997 10 Committee for the Protection of 58 The in 1967 - 1970 People's Dignity in Nigeria 2000 Full blown violence 60 South African Council of Churches 12 East West Institute in the Federal 36 The Borama process in and the Consultative Business Republic of Yugoslavia 1999 - 2000 1991 -1993 Movement in 14 Moral Re-Armament in Meghalaya, 38 Centre for International Development 1990 - 1991 India 1967 - 1972 and Conflict Management in 62 Wajir Peace and Development 16 OTPOR in Serbia 1998 - 2000 1984 Committee in 1992 - 1995 18 Saferworld in Europe 1992 - 2001+ 40 Community of St Egidio 64 Witness for Peace in Nicaragua 20 The Holy See in Chile and in Mozambique 1989 - 1992 1983 - 1990 1978 - 1984 42 Las Madres de Plaza de Mayo 66 Women’s Groups in Somalia 22 St Xavier's Social Service Society in in Argentina 1977 - 1983 1991 - 2001+ Ahmedabad, India 1991

4 Contents Contained violence 92 Search for Common Ground 110 What lessons can be learned? in 1995 - 2001+ 113 Research notes 68 ActionAid in Burundi 1993 - 2001+ 94 Sulima Fishing Community 114 Footnotes 70 Academic Associates PeaceWorks in Development Project in 118 Organisations profiled Nigeria 1997 - 1998 1997 - 2001+ 120 Organisations contacted 72 Amnesty International in Turkey 96 Witness in India 1998 124 Annotated bibliography 1990 - 2000 126 Contribute 74 Christian Peacemaker Teams 127 Acknowledgments in Hebron, the West Bank, Occupied After the violence Territories 1995 -1999 98 Archdiocese of São Paulo in Brazil 76 Conflict Management Group 1979 - 1985 in Ecuador & Peru 1995 - 1998 100 Centre for Peace non Violence and 78 Dartmouth Conference Regional Map key Human Rights in Osijek, Croatia Conflicts Task Force in Tajikistan 1999 - 2000 1993 - 2001+ 102 Christian Health Association of 80 FAFO Institute for Applied Social City / Town Liberia in Liberia 1997 - 1999 Sciences in 1989 - 1993 Neighbouring 104 Lebanon Conflict Resolution Network 82 JAMAA in Burundi 1994 - 2000 Country Country in Lebanon 1999 84 Moral Re-Armament in 106 Moral Re-Armament in and 1974 - 1980 Germany 1946 - 1950 Region 86 Moldovan Initiative Committee of 108 Office of Human Rights of the Management in Moldova 1992 - 2001+ Archdiocese of Guatemala 88 Nairobi Peace Initiative in Capital in Guatemala 1995 - 1997 1994 - 1996 All maps Norwegian Church Aid in Mali are hand 90 drawn from several sources 1995 - 1996 and therefore lack scale or detail.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 5 Foreword

In a world of 10,000 ethnies spilling Each story is unique, yet common Whether efforts begin at governmental The stories are highly condensed, across the borders of the 189 states threads appear in the pattern of the levels or at the grassroots, the stories skilfully summarizing complex of the system, activities described. They include the make clear that locals and national unfoldings of many interrelated violence seems to be everywhere, at following: the creation of special governments (where such exist) need events. Read them as stories! More least from the perspective of listening spaces, whether by national each other. While many of the complete documentation of each story contemporary reporting in the mass leaders or by local activists, conflicts are still simmering, in will be found in the footnotes, as will media. Arms, whether in the hands of women's groups, faith each case a creative references to scholarly analyses of government forces or opposition groups or elders, Offering process has been the conflict-resolving processes at groups, seem to do little for human spaces where stories concrete evidence delineated involving work. But even without looking up a security. And yet the world goes on, of suffering are a continual single footnote, the cumulative effect because peacemakers are also at shared with the of what is possible, relationship- of reading through these stories will work in the midst of violence. Their feared or hated these stories need to be building that holds be to give the reader a powerful activity goes largely unreported, but ‘other’; the promise for an sense of significant peacemaking they represent the path to a more rediscovery of read and pondered by end to violence processes at work in even the most peaceful future, where might does not traditional patterns politicians, civic and the achieving violent conflict situations. The make right. of restitution and activists and policy of new levels of message is of hope, and of reconciliation, with peaceableness. empowerment for peacemakers The editors of this book have brought women's groups and makers. everywhere. together a wonderful collection of elders often playing stories about how local communities key roles; helpful training participate in transforming conflicts in the skills of dialogue by that have been destroying the friendly outsiders, and accompanying lifeways of their society. Offering mobilization of the community's concrete evidence of what is possible, learning and service resources; these stories need to be read and networking among an ever-widening pondered by politicians, civic activists circle of affected communities, and and policy makers. careful involvement of locals with regional and national leaders and elites. Professor Emerita of Sociology, Dartmouth College, USA

6 Foreword Foreword

With increasing globalisation the It is important to recognise, as this At present the culture of achievement, The people whose work is described interests of profit now tend to great diversity of effort demonstrates, profit, power and fame has seeped in the following pages, and those who determine which group or nation that there are no set answers to the into the collective mind. We accept it will be interested in reading about should be supported and how, which problems that beset us. The historical as easily as we accept, and ignore, them, have different values and are of should be helped in its struggle with a setting, the culture, the character of inequalities of wealth or position. But a different mind. Their culture is the neighbour and why; whom to arm and the people involved, the in so doing we have , one we celebrate in with what weapons. Looking around nature of the issues smudged, defaced and a quite different way: with love and this planet we see hatred concerned, demand turned away from our service and, if necessary, sacrifice. responding to hatred, violence to wise and Looking wonderful and violence, inhumanity to inhumanity. experienced, rather around this planet universal I am profoundly encouraged by the These terrible knee jerks could kick than text book, inheritance: the effectiveness of the varied the world to pieces. treatment. today we see hatred qualities of approaches and methods described responding to hatred, wisdom, courage here. They are human approaches What's to be done? The work of all and the capacity applied by human beings to human Thankfully many people have begun these violence to violence, for love. How do problems. These are infinitely diverse, to wake up. Even some governments organisations and inhumanity to the shams of as are we, but like the streams that have established effective agencies individuals is done inhumanity. celebrity compare form a river, they also flow together in for working on situations of conflict by women and men with these? loving concern and intelligent respect and the situations that could lead to who see what needs to for each other. violence. This essential book gives be done and are doing it, powerful examples of what the often at great personal cost and awakened have achieved, the many in conditions of discomfort and millions of individuals and the 240 danger. And they are educating, as non-governmental organisations listed this book will educate, those who at the end of the book. haven't fully realised what is happening.

Professor Emeritus of Peace Studies, , UK

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 7 Introduction

Here are 50 short accounts from all These include: Nor can we be sure that the The objective is for the obstacles to over the world of what ordinary people early warning; protection of human interventions described here will disarmament to be overcome, and for are doing to stop war and killing, rights; promotion of democracy; necessarily lead to a long-term those in positions of power over armed only with integrity, stamina and support to indigenous dispute durably peaceful outcome. Also, of weapons of mass destruction to hear courage. These stories show how resolution; stakeholder dialogue; course, there are many other the point of view of those who powerful non-violence can be. They election monitoring; community examples where people tried to avert envisage other ways of addressing give an indication of what works, who mediation; bridge-building; war, and failed. threats and offer very different does it, where, and how much it costs. confidence-building and security perspectives on how to build national measures; civilian peace What we do know is that a and global security. In enabling this Contained in these pages are stories monitoring; violence steep learning curve is dialogue, O.R.G. uses many of the of how ordinary people do ; economic "in some taking place in terms of methods described in these stories: extraordinary things. They need to be and technical countries it is easier what can be done, active listening, trust-building, known about. The people and assistance; arms how much it costs, brainstorming, mediation, role-play organisations doing this work at the embargoes; and cheaper to buy an and what constitutes and so on. coalface typically operate discreetly or economic sanctions; AK 47 than to...provide best practice. These without fanfare, and are usually too peace-keeping; a decent meal" tools must now be But the emphasis is different. In these busy to write about what they do. reconciliation US State made available far stories, the purpose of the measures; restorative Department more widely, to intervention is usually immediate – it Experience in what makes for justice and humanitarian communities across the is to prevent or stop people getting effective non-violent intervention in diplomacy. globe struggling to create killed, tortured, injured, or driven from conflict is growing exponentially. In sustainable peace in areas of their homes. Our purpose is to enable 1980 there were only a handful of This book builds on the able work conflict. These tools need to be more those with some power over hugely analyses of conflict interventions; two done by others; a glance at the readily available than weapons. destructive weapons - people who decades later there is an extensive annotated bibliography will show that incidentally often feel quite powerless body of knowledge. In addition to detailed analysis of conflict At this point a connection may be - to gain a wider view of how their inter-governmental agencies working management and conflict resolution is made between the work described in decisions affect the global picture, to prevent and mitigate conflict, there now readily available. Here we do not this book, and the work carried out by rather than the supposed national are now several hundred non- attempt an examination of the types of the Oxford Research Group with interest. The purpose, timescale and governmental organisations (NGOs) structural factors which are at the root nuclear weapons decision-makers. scope may be different, but the competent in the field. The application of the crises faced by people in the Over many years O.R.G. has brought approaches used have striking of theory and development of best stories - namely depletion of those who design, build, and similarities. practice are producing effective tools resources, economic injustice, commission or strategise with and techniques for conflict mistreatment of minorities, militarism, weapons to meet their counterparts transformation. environmental collapse. from other countries, and their informed critics.

8 Introduction Well over 100 million people died in Britain spends twenty times its OSCE The reason for the delay in Two: since conflict inhibits foreign and war in the twentieth century. At the contribution on continued military understanding is the relative obscurity domestic direct investment, it is in the beginning of the century, 80% of those operations to ‘contain’ Saddam of much of this work, so that many interests of business and international deaths were military personnel; at the Hussein. NATO’s core budget for policy level officials are simply corporations to support the non- end of the century that figure administration only is 47 times that of unaware that concrete preventive violent resolution of conflict. Indeed in reversed, and 80% of those who die the whole OSCE budget, while its strategies have been practised some of these stories industrialists now in armed conflict are civilians. member countries spend effectively in a number of places. have themselves played a pivotal role. Whereas previously most conflicts approximately $430 billion on Inspired by this, Oxford Research were between nations, now the vast defence, 215,000 times the This is what our report Group is establishing a fund to put majority are within nations. Twenty of OSCE budget. The result shows: that there is a those working at the frontline the 34 poorest countries in the world of such policies is that The UK multitude of effective with one another, and to channel are either involved in violent conflict or in conflict areas government recently ways to prevent and resources and money directly to help emerging from it. Conflict massively around the world, allocated £110 million resolve conflicts, them resolve conflict and assist in reduces the willingness of domestic warlords have instant p.a. to conflict resolution without the use of post-conflict reconciliation. It is hoped and foreign investors to invest in a access to weapons efforts co-ordinated violence. There are that the fund will grow, in partnership country, thus increasing poverty. and attention is between three ministries. two implications. with other likeminded organisations concentrated on the This is a step in the One: non- and with international corporations, to Governments are still subsidising violent, while potential right direction. governmental multiply the application of effective arms exports. A US State Department bridge-builders and organisations can be techniques, and to increase the level paper comments ‘in some countries it peacemakers have few efficient and cost effective of support available to those working is easier and cheaper to buy an AK 47 tools and fewer resources. in preventing and resolving silently with so few resources. than to…provide a decent meal’ – conflict, and this work could be rather disingenuous given that the US This is beginning to change. Some contracted out to them at a fraction of For each one of these stories, there is the largest arms exporter in the national governments are beginning to the cost of military intervention. NGO are hundreds more out there, and world. Governments also commit vast realise that war prevention works, and participation could usefully become a thousands more people ready to sums of money to military to provide some funds for it. The UK matter of deliberate multilateral policy commit their energy and talents to the interventions in conflict situations, government recently allocated £110 and receive much greater government prevention of bloodshed. Just imagine which rarely solve the problem. million p.a. to conflict resolution efforts and intergovernmental funding. The what could be done if the tools co-ordinated between three stories in this book demonstrate time developed by the people in this book Meanwhile funding for non-violent government departments. This is a and again the extraordinary cost- were made available worldwide… conflict prevention and resolution step in the right direction. effectiveness of non-military conflict work is grossly under funded. One transformation. example: the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe is the main intergovernmental conflict prevention organisation. Director, Oxford Research Group

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 9 2000 Committee for the Protection of People’s Dignity Nigeria

Nigeria Background In 1998 a company contracted by the Involvement • Abuja US multinational, Chevron, arrived in The conflict over Nigeria’s vast oil Responding to the the Ngor Okpala/Uratta region of Imo wealth, which accounts for over 90% escalating tensions in the to conduct seismic tests to Niger State of the country’s export earnings, has area, the Committee for the 1 ascertain whether there were any oil been raging for over forty years . Protection of People's Dignity Delta fields in the area. Fearing that the Under the military dictatorships of (COPPED) in association with its arrival of the oil companies into the Babangida, Abubakar and Abacha, partner in the region, the Eastern The first hurdle that COPPED faced area would lead to the destruction of community-led protests over the Youths Democratic Forum, arranged was whether or not it would be their environment and the exploitation destruction of their environment and to meet the groups of youths in Ngor welcome in the area. Fortunately, of their communities, a number of livelihoods caused by oil drilling were Okpala and Uratta. COPPED’s student background and youth groups emerged to demand the often brutally put down by the military large youth membership worked in its cessation of tests until adequate and the dreaded mobile police forces COPPED was set up in 1995 by a favour. The University of Lagos arrangements were made to protect (MOPOL). In addition, very little of the group of student leaders from the Student Union had been a key pro- their interests. wealth generated by the drilling has University of Lagos in response to democracy force during Abacha’s rule, ever filtered down to the communities, 's clampdown on the rise earning it the respect of young people Packaging a series of demands, creating massive resentment and of student activism. COPPED’s aim throughout the country. This which included compensation for any anger. was to re-invigorate the youth of reputation gave COPPED essential damage done to the environment, Nigeria who through years of leverage when meeting the youths these groups warned the company Communities have also been pitted intimidation and violence at the hands face to face for the first time. that they were willing to resort to against each other over the small of the junta were becoming violence if their needs were not met. amount of compensation that is increasingly disenchanted and COPPED’s next task was to dispel the In the past, throughout the region, entitled to them and oil companies marginalized. Since 1995 its range of potentially explosive rumours, such threats had resulted in tragedy. have been complicit in some of the activities has been broad, from accusations and misconceptions that In November 1999 in the village of region's most notorious incidences of campaigns against university campus popularly circulate when oil is Odi in the a group of violence. Even the transition to gangs and AIDS awareness outreach discovered in an area. This ‘truth youths went on a rampage, killing 12 democratic rule has offered little programmes to conflict prevention telling’ they see as the first step to policemen in response to what they comfort for the region, with extra- and human rights advocacy. clearing a path for the non-violent say was the failure of the government judicial killings by security forces and resolution of the conflict. Importantly, to fulfil its promise of relief for the inter-communal conflicts over land this includes the historical background region. As a result of the murders, the and compensation rights still to oil exploration in Nigeria and how it army was sent in and the town was commonplace. has been used by successive completely destroyed, resulting in dictatorships to divide communities. dozens and possibly hundreds of deaths.

10 Committee for the Protection of People’s Dignity Nigeria 2000 Internally displaced: Deaths: Unknown For More information: Unknown See www.essentialaction.org/era/eraCall.html for an excellent Refugees: resource on the environmental problems in Nigeria. See also Cost of Involvement: Unknown www.copped.org for more information about COPPED. $100,000 Annual budget of COPPED.

A second element of their talks with With a long history of collusion Outcome the youths revolved around the between multinational oil companies, The case of Odi, and many others, After hearing the case put forward by lessons that could be learnt from other the state and the security forces, shows how the commercial COPPED the youth groups decided to communities that had been through COPPED emphasised the importance exploitation of the region, without retract their threat of violence. similar experiences. With an of not scaring the company off. Such adequate recompense for the affected However, this may well be a extremely poor communications a move would have limited the communities and coupled with severe temporary peace. ‘We need support infrastructure and a history of opportunity for a transparent and open environmental degradation may lead to hold and consolidate peace’ says animosity between certain ethnic consultation process and may have to a growing number of groups who, Peter Claver Oparah, Secretary groups, communities in the region unwittingly pushed the oil company seeing no alternative, will resort to General of COPPED. ‘Our task is have had little chance of learning from towards more clandestine and violence to achieve justice. Herculean and we are only each other's experience with oil finds. provocative methods. just able to keep the This has led to many similar crises Peter Claver Oparah says that ‘youths peace in this area. If appearing throughout the region, The final stage of the remain the engine room of a vibrant the oil exploration and some in very close proximity to one process was to invite as well as the conscience drilling continues without another. COPPED believe that by members of the youth of every nation. Where there is no ‘We need proper consultation with increasing people's spatial and groups to participate in way, it is up to the youths to chart a the local communities historical awareness, similar disputes the democracy and support new pathway through which the these youth groups will stand a better chance of being human rights courses, people can walk into freedom.’3 This to hold and certainly resort to resolved peacefully. which COPPED have run is what COPPED set out to achieve violence.’2 in various conflict prone consolidate back in 1995: to galvanise the youth Lastly, COPPED began to teach the areas throughout the of Nigeria to chart a better course for peace’ While the youths some basic negotiating skills. region. With the their country. They remain true to their Peter Claver overwhelming majority The confrontational approach that had curriculum built around vision today. While democratic rule of protests by been adopted by the youths was the core concepts of Oparah, has returned to Nigeria much work communities in explained by COPPED to be ‘democracy and Secretary remains to be done. With adequate the Niger Delta counterproductive and would not help governance’ ‘justice and General of support COPPED may well become a and beyond them towards their stated goals. Thus the rule of law’ ‘conflict potent force for change in Nigeria. COPPED have been peaceful, COPPED impressed upon the group prevention and resolution’ many of which have been the need to retract their demands and and ‘gender issues’ the idea was met with massive violence, the allow the oil company to ‘anchor’ ie to institutionalise non-violent worrying trend is the tendency of complete their seismic tests, so that approaches to conflict and thereby communities to ‘fight back’ when they (and the community) could reduce the probability of such provoked or threatened. ascertain what, if any, oil existed conflagrations occurring in the first beneath their soil. place.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 11 1999 - 2000 F.R.Y. • Belgrade

Bosnia - Bulgaria East West Institute Herzegovina Serbia Serbia / Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Montenegro • Niksic • Pristina Kosovo

With increasing control of all forms of The conference brought together Worryingly, Macedonia Background media within Serbia, he used the During his years in power, Slobodan representatives of pro-democracy some participants NATO bombings to strengthen his Milosevic oversaw the gradual forces from the Federal Republic of predicted an impending or a hand by arguing that the West was disintegration of the political, Yugoslavia (FRY) including the major ‘fascist coup’ by forces close to the intent on destroying the Serb people. economic and social infrastructure of opposition parties, trade unions, Serbian Radical Party leader Vojislav His indictment for war crimes made Serbia, the dissolution of Yugoslavia, NGOs and independent media along Seselj. Amid continuing international many pro-democracy leaders warfare on a scale not seen in Europe with key figures from the international isolation and a crippling embargo the increasingly nervous, seeing that if since WWII and increasingly community (EU, Council of Europe, participants felt that Serbia Milosevic had no-where to run he suffocating international isolation and OSCE etc). This was the first time desperately needed to re-engage with would most likely fight harder than sanctions. The NATO bombing of that anti Milosevic groups from all the rest of the international ever to maintain his power and Serbia between March and June 1999 sectors of Serbian society had been community so that it could begin to authority within Serbia. Elections, 4 in response to the Serb violence in brought together. The US-based East work towards an open society. therefore, would be a sham and in all Kosovo only deepened the crisis. West Institute, founded in 1981 as a probability would end in violence and While the figures speak for think tank on traditional security When discussing the obstacles that further repression. Meanwhile the themselves - such as damage to issues had, since the collapse of lay in their path towards the goal of a opposition forces were viewed as Serbia's infrastructure estimated at , focused on research, free and democratic society, it was felt weak, fragmented and indecisive, over $4bn - the psychological costs networking and low-key conferences that the removal from office of lacking the credibility to mount a were similarly high. to help support the development of Serbia's current leadership was not serious threat to the regime.3 This democracy and free enterprise in enough: pro-democracy forces were view was particularly prevalent among One source describes the prevailing Central and Eastern Europe and too fragmented to mount a credible western governments who largely mood amongst the Serbian population Russia. Its early work - acting as a alternative to the current system. As a ignored them. as being one of deep uncertainty, bridge between East and West, result, two important initiatives were building confidence in order to reduce launched. The first was the creation of victimisation and isolation.1 It is no wonder, then, that the International Involvement the risk of armed conflict, had been a ‘Community for Change’ - a Crisis Group called Milosevic ‘the In July 1999, just after the devastating praised by key politicians consortium of pro-democracy forces single greatest cause of instability and NATO bombing campaign, the East over the years and was widely which would engage the Serbian respected. At the Bratislava meeting, population and the international conflict in South-eastern Europe’.2 West Institute and the Slovak Ministry The removal of Milosevic, however, of Foreign Affairs organised a Serbian pro-democracy participants community in a common vision for the seemed a monumental task. conference in Bratislava, Slovakia, voiced their concerns that the country. The second key outcome entitled ‘The Future of the Federal economic and political situation in the was the setting up of a Task Force to Republic of Yugoslavia in the context FRY would deteriorate even further assist in the formation of the of post war reconstruction’. and that Milosevic would tighten his Community for Change and to grip on power. develop a comprehensive action plan for the future of the FRY.

12 East West Institute Serbia / Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1999 - 2000 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unavailable See www.iews.cz/frytf/index2.html for a complete overview of the Unavailable Bratislava process. For an interesting look at the dissolution of Yugoslavia Refugees: read 'The Death of Yugoslavia' by Laura Silber and Alan Little (Penguin Cost of Involvement: Books, , 1996). For a look at the rise and fall of Milosevic read Unavailable $240,000 'Milosevic and Markovic: The End of the Serbian Fairytale' by Slavoljub to December 2000 Djukic (McGill-Queen's University Press, Canada, 2001).

EWI, which was serving as the When, on July 6th, Milosevic changed A Bratislava II conference scheduled Outcome Secretariat for the Task Force, the constitution so that the President for July 7th - the day after the After a comprehensive and immediately set to work, organising a of the FRY would be elected by a constitutional changes - was devoted exhaustive campaign mounted by the series of meetings between popular vote and early presidential entirely to the task of working towards united opposition, the election results September 1999 and February 2000 elections would be held, the pro- a common vision for the elections. yielded a clear victory for Kostunica’s which brought the Community for democracy forces were given an The meeting covered every major DOS coalition. When Milosevic Change into close contact with opportunity to prove to themselves issue from nominating a presidential attempted to have the results international actors such as the and to their many sceptics (both candidate and preparing the election annulled, a wave of non-violent Council of Europe. Here they were inside and outside the country) that campaign to strengthening horizontal protests spread throughout the able to discuss some of the most vital they were able to unite and win at the networking. country and he was forced to concede issues that faced the country. At the polls. This was a decisive defeat. The DOS went on to win the same time, the Task Force organised moment. Up until this Soon after, nearly all of Serbian elections in December and meetings in Belgrade which soon point many experts the opposition parties many members of the Bratislava became an important forum for the especially in the west, grouped together to 'The analysts Process Task Force became representatives of the opposition argued that the form the Democratic of the Left probably members of parliament, some even parties to meet each other and with opposition, united or Opposition of Serbia could not have joining the Cabinet. NGOs, trade unions and the media. not, would not win predicted such a (DOS), nominating the elections. The Vojislav Kostunica It is difficult to know to what extent the This gradual process of coalition International Crisis degree of unity even as their presidential Bratislava Process contributed to the building played a significant role in the Group recommended in their worst candidate. A massive successful overthrow of the Milosevic decision by all the main opposition that the international ‘Go to vote’ campaign nightmares.' regime. However, members of the groups to call for early general community not support was launched and Task Force, some of whom are now elections, followed by street protests if these flawed elections lest preparations were made members of the government, privately the demand was not met. Such a they hand Milosevic a sham to field trained observers in attest to the importance of the move had been proposed at the first victory, further commenting that each of the 160 municipalities in initiative, pointing out that it did meeting in Bratislava in July 1999 and ‘serious doubts remain about the Serbia. As the Serbian newspaper provide the first real opportunity for was followed by intense discussions capacity of the opposition to mount a Danas noted ‘The analysts of the Left the pro-democracy forces to meet and at the Task Force Belgrade meetings. credible campaign...nor is there a probably could not have predicted coalesce around a common strategy. consensus behind any one figure as such a degree of unity even in their an agent of change and an alternative worst nightmares.’6 to Milosevic.’5

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 13 1967 - 1972 Moral Re-Armament Nepal India Delhi Assam India Background The media of the time predicted a However, around catastrophe on two fronts: one, that the dinner table that Following India’s independence in the struggle for an independent state night, listening to his MRA's 1947, the North East of the country carved from a part of Assam would MRA hosts, Nichols-Roy approach to was plagued by a series of become violent; second, that the began to hear how non conflict resolution secessionist uprisings. In 1956 the threatened break-up of their state and violence can work, how it is to 'engender a struggle for an independent the inflammatory language from some has been used elsewhere to heightened spiritual ‘Nagaland’ by indigenous peoples of the hill leaders would provoke resolve conflicts and how sensitivity in both parties turned violent, and even the promise clashes between the people living in MRA were willing to help him, if and to thereby induce them of full statehood within India did little the plains of Assam and those in the he would let them. He was to enter into a genuine and to quell the uprising. In 1965 another hills. Given the instability that intrigued. MRA had already deep dialogue marked by a armed movement was launched, this characterised the region during this gained a reputation around the reciprocal sense of moral time in the Mizo Hills area. time, both scenarios were likely. world for its pioneering work in obligation.’1 industrial and interclass relations and Against the backdrop of increasing so when they invited Nichols-Roy and At the MRA centre Nichols-Roy and tension and escalating violence Involvement other key officials to the opening of his delegation met political figures throughout the entire region, a new In October 1967 the beleaguered their centre in Panchgani, in nearby from all over the world, including conflict began to emerge, this time in General Secretary of the APHLC, Maharashtra state, he readily French Socialist MP Irene Laure, who the hill area of Assam and headed by Stanley Nichols-Roy, attended a accepted. had tirelessly worked to build bridges the All-Party Hill Leaders Conference dinner in New Delhi organised by of reconciliation between Germany (APHLC). The roots of this conflict members of Moral Re-Armament MRA was launched in the UK in the and France following the war. Her began in 1960 when Assamese (MRA). Extremist factions within 1920s by an American Lutheran story, of how she had cast aside her became the state's official language. Nichols-Roy's party were becoming pastor called Frank Buchman in hatred of the Germans and now This angered the indigenous peoples more aggressive in their agitation for response to what he saw as a need embraced them in order to build a in the hill area, who had been largely statehood and increasingly hostile for a ‘moral and spiritual awakening’. new future, profoundly inspired left alone under British rule and were towards him, accusing him of The core MRA philosophy is that Nichols-Roy.The personal care given accorded special status under Nehru weakness and of being 'too soft' on social change can only be achieved to the APHLC leaders at this formative in order to preserve their way of life. the issue. In the eyes of many through personal transformation. and tense time was critical. The visit Now, through the APHLC, the hill commentators, there was a real risk MRA encourages the individual to became the first of many, and while people of Assam were clamouring for that the APHLC would be hijacked by search, through ‘times of silence’ the details of the talks that were their own state. these extremists who would lead the party down the path towards violence. which connect the individual to God, conducted during this time are for spiritual growth and a clear sense unavailable, they clearly had a deep of direction. impact on the leadership of the APHLC.

14 Moral Re-Armament India 1967 - 1972 Internally displaced: For More information: Deaths: Unknown See www.mra.org.uk (International Moral Re-Armament web site) Unknown or www.mraindia.org/ for the Indian MRA site. Also read the books Refugees: by Michael Henderson published by Grosvenor Books which give a Cost of Involvement: Unknown good overview of the work of MRA as well as inspiring stories of Unknown forgiveness and reconciliation.

Said Nichols-Roy: ‘My visit to For instance, the MRA film ‘Voice of For the everyday man and woman, The films and plays, which were also Panchgani convinced me that MRA is the Hurricane’ called for humanity and most of whom would never have shown in other areas experiencing the ideology to bring sanity and peace racial understanding in British East seen a Western film or musical, these violence such as the Mizo Hills, had a to India's troubled North-East, and to Africa, telling the story of a group of stories of personal transformation similarly deep impact. After 25,000 help it play its rightful part in Asia and white liberals attempting to bridge the may well have made a significant people in the area had watched the the world.'2 Others noticed the change divide between black revolutionaries contribution to the process of MRA plays and films a member of the in Nichols-Roy too. B.P. Chaliha, Chief and right-wing white colonists. tolerance building and District Council said ‘But for Moral Re- Minister for Assam since 1956, said: understanding amongst armament there would be bloodshed ‘You know, that man Nichols-Roy is the people of the and violence in the hills of Assam different. He used to be hard. He used Nichols-Roy and area. After seeing today.’5 to be stubborn. I am so impressed B.P. Chaliha were China the MRA films with his change that I am now so impressed one Assamese Outcome prepared to work unitedly with him’.3 with these soldier said: The profound change in Nichols-Roy films when ‘We are and many others, which ushered in a With this Nichols-Roy, B.P. Chaliha they first 'But pointing our new level of cooperation with the and the policy makers in New Delhi saw them guns at Assamese leaders and the Indian began working together to resolve the that not only Assam for Moral someone government, finally paid off. On April issue of statehood for the hill people, did they Re-Armament we claim to 2nd 1970 the new state of Meghalaya and with it the threat of violence request that Meghalaya there would be our (‘Abode of the clouds’) was born. At began to diminish. every be bloodshed countryman. the official inauguration of the state, legislator in and violence You can do the Indian Express wrote: ‘Since the What then followed was a remarkable Assam watch in the hills this for a time, Meghalaya formula emerged there ‘outreach’ programme in Assam which them, but of Assam but at some has been little tensions between the saw thousands of people from all Nichols-Roy today.' stage you must people of the hills and of the valley. walks of life watching a range MRA personally say something to The birth of “Abode of the clouds” produced morality films and plays accompanied MRA, him. Our trouble is we seems to have generated a climate of based on true stories drawn from sometimes even acting as don't know what to say to goodwill what few believed possible around the world. This initiative was projectionist, as they travelled the him that will reach his heart. You even a few months ago.’6 For many not in fact intended to ‘prepare’ the region. have shown us the way.’4 population for the inevitable people, the role of MRA was clear. ; rather it was part of MRA's B.P. Chaliha said: ‘MRA has ongoing mission to promote tolerance, transformed the climate of Assam. peace and interclass relations. That is a fact.’ Even Nehru agreed, saying that they had ‘abated the hate in the Hills.’7

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 15 1998 - 2000 Hungary OTPOR • Szeged

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) Romania • Belgrade Bosnia - FRY Background Within Serbia the situation had been Otpor, which means ‘Resistance’ in Herzegovina getting progressively worse for Serb, made its debut in December Serbia, in the twilight years of the several years. In 1998 the state 1998 with a graffiti-spraying campaign twentieth century, was in the words of introduced a new draconian law that across Belgrade. Then they were a the International Crisis Group, gripped Kosovo required all university professors to minuscule self-styled non-ideological Montenegro by a ‘democratic despotism’1, where sign what was effectively a ‘movement’ calling for, among other Macedonia elections were free but not fair and ‘declaration of loyalty’ to the state. things, the removal of Milosevic, true Albania where increasing state tyranny Those who refused were fired. In democratisation and constitutional suffocated the freedom of expression addition all university governing and guarantees for human and civil rights and assembly of anyone voicing supervisory bodies were to be for all. Yet in the space of eighteen dissent at the Milosevic regime. appointed by the state, including the months the ranks of Otpor swelled Meanwhile the horrors of Bosnia and deans of each faculty. Such a move exponentially, numbering an of Kosovo had shown the world just was intended to stifle the nascent pro- estimated 70,000 members by the how destabilising President Slobodan democracy movement, which was summer of 2000. Tapping into a vast Milosevic was both regionally and Citizens of the city were encouraged gathering momentum across pool of energetic and frustrated young internationally, and yet it seemed that to write their birthday wishes and campuses throughout the country. people throughout the country, Otpor no-one was sure how to remove him messages to Milosevic on a giant very quickly became a credible threat from power. The 78 days of NATO birthday card. Otpor wrote its own to the establishment. bombing only appeared to strengthen Involvement message which read 'Thank you for his hand by confirming what he had In response to the imposition of this the childhood you have taken from us, From the very beginning Otpor had no been telling the people for years, law, students from the University of for the unforgettable war scenes you leader, eschewing any form of namely that there was a worldwide Belgrade began boycotting lectures have given us...Happy birthday, Mr hierarchy. ‘The idea was, cut off one conspiracy against Serbs2. Indeed, at and classes. Their demands, for the President, may you celebrate the next Otpor head and other 15 heads would the conclusion of the NATO newly state-appointed deans to be one...in the Hague.'5 All the while, instantly appear’ said one Otpor bombings, US President Clinton dismissed and for all professors who Otpor members canvassed the member.4 This made it increasingly reiterated that President Milosevic had been fired to be reinstated, began country spreading their message, difficult for the state to shut them continued to pose an ‘extraordinary’ to gather more and more support daubing walls with their slogans and down. Their tactics varied enormously. threat to regional peace and stability.3 despite, and indeed because of, logos, daring to be bold and On one occasion Otpor activists held increasing state violence against outspoken critics of the regime when a birthday celebration for Slobodan them. Amid mounting pressure the the rest of the country was largely Milosevic in the city of Nis which drew state capitulated, agreeing to the silent. students’ demands. With this over 2,000 supporters. unexpected victory the movement known as ‘Otpor’ was born.

16 OTPOR Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) 1998 - 2000 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unavailable See www.otpor.net for a range of articles on Otpor. Unavailable

Refugees: Cost of Involvement: Unavailable $4,000,000

Following the NATO bombings, After Helvey’s training, Otpor put When the opposition forces united to Outcome international support for Otpor grew. together a user's manual based on fight the election and began On the eve of the elections, the In March 2,000 in Budapest, the US Sharp’s research and trained many of mobilising for the massive ‘Go to International Crisis Group commented based International Republican their 70,000 members throughout the Vote’ campaign, Otpor was ready. that Otpor's unconventional non Institute (IRI) organised a seminar for country. The training served Otpor Since most Otpor members were violent actions - their graffiti and fly Otpor members on non-violent well. ‘We learned that fear is a students who were entitled to vote, poster campaigns and their resistance. The event was run by powerful but vulnerable weapon they already represented a significant daring acts of theatre - made Robert Helvey, who based his because it disappears far faster than voting block. However, many Otpor fun of public officials and teachings upon Gene Sharp’s seminal you can recreate it’, said one Otpor members were also covertly trained humanised the faces of three volume work ‘The Politics of activist.8 in election monitoring, just the regime. ‘In doing so Non Violent Action.’ Underpinning this across the border in Szeged, Otpor, and in mocking its work is the simple logic that political Perhaps the most striking example of Hungary. These people went on which means leadership’, they said, power can most efficiently be their effect on the regime came on the to train others and so by the 'Resistance' ‘the students and their controlled at its source6 - that the day Milosevic announced the dates time of the election there were associates managed to power of tyrants, even in the most for a presidential election. Otpor, almost 20,000 election in Serb, made break down some of monolithic of states, relies to a certain having been tipped off by a monitors, two for every polling its debut in the fear that has extent on the degree to which society government insider a fortnight earlier, station, making it impossible for December silenced most Serbs grants the tyrant that power. had over 60 tonnes of election Milosevic to successfully rig the 1998 with a for so many years. The ready and waiting which results. consequent decrease During the seminar, Otpor activists was immediately distributed graffiti- in tension could learned how to organise a strike, how throughout the country. The When the results which handed spraying embolden more voters to communicate with symbols, how to propaganda included over 5,000 cans the presidency to Vojislav campaign to cast aside their play hide and seek with the police, of spray and around 2.5 million Kostunica were annulled, Otpor across anxiety and cast their how to respond to interrogation and, stickers with the slogan ‘He's sprang into action calling its ballots for their crucially, how to infiltrate the regime's finished’, a well as Otpor T-shirts and supporters to converge at Belgrade. genuinely preferred ‘pillars of support’ - the police, mobile phones to help maintain various locations throughout the candidate.’9 Others judiciary, media and so on. The communication between the groups. country. While many observers agreed. ‘Through marches seminar evidently had a great impact Otpor had successfully infiltrated thought the uprising was and mockery, physical courage and on the activists. ‘This was the first Milosevic's ‘pillars of support’. spontaneous, the targets had been mental agility, Otpor grew into the time we thought about this in a carefully selected in a well thought out mass underground movement that systematic, scientific way’ said one strategic plan. The uprising, which stood at the disciplined core of the Otpor member. ‘We will go back and met little resistance from the state hidden revolution that really changed apply this.’7 security forces, gave Milosevic no Serbia.’10 option but to concede defeat.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 17 1992 - 2001+ Saferworld Europe

Background The same logic applies to the supply Involvement was being drafted, Saferworld began of larger weapons. Following the Gulf engaging other likeminded non There is a wealth of evidence that The failure of the international War in 1991 the question of arms governmental organisations (NGO) in demonstrates the direct correlation community to establish constraints on export controls became a key issue its efforts. By the time the document between the failure to control the conventional arms exports prompted for many western countries. How, was officially launched in Brussels in supply of weapons and the incidence the UK non governmental they asked, was Saddam Hussein 1995, 40 NGOs stood behind it. of violence. In Albania, following the organisation Saferworld to take action. able to accumulate such a vast array collapse of the pyramid savings of weaponry, so much of which had Reactions to the document were, schemes in 1997, angry crowds In 1993 Saferworld, an independent been bought from Western countries? however, mixed. While a small overran police stations and army foreign affairs think tank working on The willingness of Western countries number of NGOs argued that the barracks stealing approximately international security issues, engaged to supply arms - or the means to document was not far reaching 700,000 machine guns, 3.5 million a team of international lawyers to produce those arms - to Iraq despite enough and was even grenades and several billion rounds of draw up a model text for a European the severe tensions in the region not ‘counterproductive’, others, including ammunition. As a result, literally 'Code of Conduct' on arms transfers.2 only increased the prospects of war in several EU governments (notably the overnight the protests turned into a Such a code aimed to elaborate on what was the most militarised region UK and France) as well as violent armed rebellion and a state of the set of eight common criteria on earth but also raised the stakes of representatives from the defence emergency was declared. ‘The effects proposed by the EU following the Gulf any resulting war. It also raised very industries saw it as a threat to future of this supply are clear for all to see’, War. These included considerations serious questions for the supplier export opportunities. Thus they were said one commentator at the time. such as whether the importing country nations who fought in the subsequent resolutely opposed to it. ‘Should tensions rise in either was in a region of tension, whether since their soldiers were Macedonia or Kosovo, in the country may use the weapons for threatened by weapons their Saferworld realised that in order to these countries are markedly more internal repression and whether the government had sold to the Iraqis. unblock much of this resistance, likely to be supplied with weapons country adhered to international widespread support for the Code from supporters in Albania’1 - thus norms regarding issues such as While a flurry of activity by the P-5 across the EU was needed. This is raising the prospects of armed terrorism. However these criteria were (largest arms sellers) states signalled precisely what they set out to achieve. conflict. What followed in those not binding and lacked clear a renewed sense of urgency in A vital part of the strategy was to bring regions bears tragic witness to that interpretation and as such were curbing the export of conventional on board high profile charities such as prediction. largely ignored. weapons, this was soon dashed by an Amnesty International, Save the unprecedented selling spree by the Children, and Christian Aid. At the same time as the model text US and other major suppliers to countries where there were significant As Elizabeth Clegg from Saferworld tensions or regional instability. notes, ‘the involvement of mass

18 Saferworld Europe 1992 - 2001+ Internally displaced: briefings produced by the British American Security Information Council at Deaths: Unavailable www.basicint.org. For a more detailed look at the development of the EU Code Not applicable of Conduct read the chapter written by Ian Davis entitled 'Development of a EU Code of Conduct on Arms Exports' in a forthcoming book under consideration Refugees: by SIPRI/OUP 'The Regulation of arms and dual-use exports by EU member Cost of Involvement: Unavailable states: a comparative analysis of Germany, Sweden and the UK'. Unvailable

membership organisations in warship contract with Taiwan in 1994, was almost in sight. However, even export license applications. Within the supporting particular policies is France supplied $6.4bn worth of as the Code was being deliberated by space of a year 193 export licenses essential in order to show that those military hardware, including frigates the EU decision makers, the working had been denied, and the denial policies have the support of a and Mirage fighters.4 group continued to feed suggestions notifications were then circulated to all significant sector of society.’3 By the and analysis in order to prevent it EU members states to inform them of end of 1997 their efforts were paying In May 1997 the Labour party came to from being watered down. This was the reason for their decision. In off, with 600 NGOs across Europe power. The following year it was the reinforced by consistent public addition 13 non-EU states aligned and 300 MPs from 8 member states turn of the UK to take the rotating EU pressure applied by a Europe-wide themselves with the Code, four of pledging their support for the Code. presidency. This was the perfect coalition of NGOs, who ensured which were among the world's top 30 Critically, the UK Labour party who opportunity to see whether that the issue was arms suppliers.5 Since 1998 were in opposition at the time, the Labour government consistently in the Saferworld has continued to work endorsed the Code and agreed to would honour its political limelight. towards tighter implementation of the include it as part of their plans for a commitments. The Within EU Code and its wider adoption. ‘Responsible Arms Trade’ under their key, according to Outcome much-touted ethical foreign policy. UK government the space of a Back in 1979 US Senator William At the end of May officials, was to Proxmire commented that supplying 1998 EU foreign Whilst momentum began to build persuade the year 193 export arms to the may not be ministers finally across Europe, Saferworld French ‘like throwing a lighted match into a agreed the Code established a working group to government to licenses had gasoline tank, but it is like adding of Conduct. Under consider what measures would be agree to the more gasoline to a tank that has French threats to necessary in order to create a robust preparation of a joint been denied. exploded in flaming destruction over pull out of the entire EU Code. Despite the best efforts of UK-French draft of the and over in the past few years.’6 agreement, all the the lawyers who had drafted the Code that could be While the EU code of conduct is by no ‘softer’ options were model text, there were still concerns presented to the other EU means a panacea, especially as adopted. While many non that the code would be interpreted partners. After much persuading the some non EU countries may be more governmental organisations including differently, as had already been French agreed and the first draft was than willing to supply arms with less Saferworld were disappointed at the proved by the ‘creative interpretation’ circulated to EU partners in Jan 1998. restraint, it is likely that there is less EU's decision to adopt a less by certain member states of the eight fuel in some of the world's more comprehensive code, the fact was common criteria. For Saferworld, who had been unstable gasoline tanks. that a politically binding code now working for eight years on the existed. For instance, while the German development of the Code, the end For more information: Government refused to agree a EU arms exporting nations now had Visit Saferworld's website at to subscribe to a set of guiding www.saferworld.co.uk. Also see the principles before considering arms

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 19 1978 - 1984 The Holy See Bolivia Argentina and Chile Paraguay Chile

Background As a last ditch attempt, Chile formed a Samore's goals were to The Beagle Channel, a strip of water special working group to consider all persuade both sides to that bisects the southernmost tip of possible options available to them. (a) refrain from using force South America, had been the source Since a judicial solution had already to resolve the dispute, Argentina Uruguay of tension between Argentina and failed, they believed that mediation (b) arrange for the military Chile for over 100 years. Both from a country with moral and political situation to revert to the countries claimed it as theirs, and power would be the only solution. At status quo ante Buenos Aires • the top of their 'wish list' was the (c) resume dialogue, and fighting had flared up on more than After one occasion. At stake were several Vatican. While both sides initially (d) work towards a agreed, President Videla of Argentina settlement. Samore also considerable small islands and their maritime Santiago • was promptly ‘disauthorized’ by the reiterated that he was not shuttle diplomacy, extensions (30,000 square miles) with Samore brokered the Act possible fishing and oil rights. In 1971 Junta and the military gave the order there to mediate; rather to invade the disputed islands on the he was to use the Holy of Montevideo, an both countries decided to submit the agreement which satisfied all issue to arbitration at the International 21st or 22nd December. See's 'good offices' in search of a solution. four of his original aims. Court at the Hague. The verdict gave While this was a significant the islands to Chile, while Argentina Involvement So began a series of achievement in itself, the task of retained the navigation rights to its Papal Nuncio, Pio Laghi, who had shuttle visits between mediating this long standing naval base in the channel. already been following the unfolding Rome, Santiago and dispute had only just begun. events, asked President Videla Buenos Aires, with To the surprise and shock of the whether a three-way direct Samore first gathering as The mediation began in early 1979, Chileans, the Argentineans declared communication between Videla, much information about with the Pope suggesting that the the decision null and void, arguing Pinochet and the Pope would each side's position, and then parties should concentrate on the that the court, amongst other persuade the parties not to go to war. later acting as a messenger 'points of convergence' i.e an misdeeds, had shown a bias towards Videla reasoned that it might work and delivering proposals from each issue where there was little Chile. In early 1978 the Presidents of so Laghi immediately set about side to the other. As the meetings conflict of interest. The Pope also both countries met in an attempt to contacting Rome. On December 23rd progressed Samore began to draft requested that the media be kept thrash out a deal, yet no progress at 10am, on the day of the planned proposals of his own, based upon his away from the negotiations and all could be made. After continued invasion, Pope John Paul II notified judgement of the situation as announcements would be carefully deadlock, both countries began both sides that he was sending his presented to him by both sides. When managed by the Vatican. This way preparing for war. personal envoy, Cardinal Samore, to it became clear that neither side neither side could use the media as speak with both sides. Argentina would compromise, Samore decided part of its negotiation strategy. pulled back its ships and reopened its that he should seek an agreement borders, only hours away from war. that would transfer the matter to papal mediation.

20 The Holy See Argentina and Chile 1978 - 1984 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown See Intermediaries in International Conflict by Thomas Princen None (Princeton University Press, 1995) and Words over War edited by Melanie Refugees: C. Greenburg, John H. Barton and Margaret E. McGuinness (Rowman and Cost of Involvement: Unknown Littlefield, Maryland, USA, 2000) which both feature chapters on the Papal Not available intervention in the Beagle Channel conflict.

Each side met with Samore and the In 1983 Samore died, and was Outcome Chile, then, was desperate for a mediating team separately. It was also replaced by Secretary of State The treaty awarded the islands in foreign success. However, even if we agreed that any change in position or Cardinal Agostino Casaroli who, as dispute to Chile but the maritime accept this argument, it should not be agreement by both sides was not the most important man in the Vatican boundary was tailored to overlooked that during the six years of binding until an overall settlement was after the Pope, added a great deal of accommodate Argentinean concerns. negotiations, peace was maintained 1 reached. This way, Samore began to weight and increased impetus to the Both countries also agreed to promote during some very rough times. create some flexibility amongst the renewed talks. Soon after another economic ties. two sides' positions. Importantly, the confidence building measure, largely In a final analysis, then, the talks may information passing between each brokered during informal meetings In evaluating the impact of the Papal have been critical not only for their side was strictly controlled by Samore, outside Rome between the chiefs of intervention, commentators have pivotal role in helping reach a which gave him considerable the two delegations, a Declaration of noted that by 1984, the domestic settlement through direct mediation influence as a mediator. Peace and Friendship was situation in both countries but also for buying enough Neither side knew what signed. had changed time - keeping the peace the other side offered considerably and that Pope John Paul for long enough- to or what the response From here on the this may have been II notified both sides enable the political was to an offer that pace of the talks one of the most climate in each they may have accelerated and that he was sending his country to change important factors personal envoy, Cardinal made. Later on, the mediation for the resolution to allow for the this convention team signalled that of the conflict. Samore, to speak with both settlement to take was amended so a settlement was For instance sides. Argentina pulled back place. that both sides in sight. At this Argentina had its ships and reopened its would be told of Beagle point Casaroli made the transition borders, only hours each others position, reverted to the Channel from military away from war. but only after any original ‘ground rules’ dictatorship to a potentially inflammatory ie proposals between the democracy. This change statements had been two sides would not be had a significant effect on the discreetly edited out. transmitted to the other side but way in which the talks developed, as left with the mediation team thus military men were replaced by Despite these valiant efforts, by 1980 giving them sufficient leverage to civilians. In Chile, the country became there was still no progress. The Pope extract the best possible concessions increasingly isolated, more so after therefore decided to put forward his from both sides. This tactic was 1982 when Pinochet dismissed the own proposals for a settlement. While successful and by October 1984 both entire cabinet and replaced them with these were accepted by Chile, sides announced that they had his military cronies. Argentina objected to them, without reached a settlement. rejecting them outright.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflicts Oxford Research Group 21 1991 China Saint Xavier’s Social Service Society

Nepal India Pakistan Delhi

Background The causes of the violence have St Xavier’s had been working in These varied over the years. In recent times Ahmedabad since the 1970s and had were made Interfaith coexistence interrupted by • Ahmedabad it has been alleged that the ruling concerned itself primarily with relief up of interfaith violence has been a feature Hindu party, the BJP, has ‘engineered’ work, providing food and health care members of many Indian for years. riots between and Hindus as to the most disadvantaged of the slum from one of the India However the general upsurge in a means of solidifying their political dwellers. Over the years its formal, officially support for the Hindu right, and the base and of making the Congress programme of activities broadened to registered corresponding rise of Hindu Party - which is largely in favour of a include issues such as human rights, committees that extremism as exemplified by the secular state - appear weak.2 the environment and gender. they set up to help destruction of the Babri Masjid However, their move into conflict coordinate youth, Mosque in Ayodhya in 19921, has prevention and mediation was not, credit and women’s exacerbated tensions between Hindu Involvement according to Fr Prakash, a planned programmes. According and Muslim communities. This is In 1991 Saint Xavier’s Social Service process. Rather it seems that it was to Fr Prakash the peace especially true of areas with severe Society (hereafter referred to as St more a ‘gut reaction’ to the plight of committees were expected social deprivation, as is found in Xavier’s), under the leadership of Fr the people that they had been serving to, ‘automatically safeguard some of the sprawling cities. Prakash, began to look into the for years. They saw that violence in the peace of the area...[they] Ahmedabad is one such example. reasons for the violence in the slums. the slums only made the lives of must respond to propaganda at its Two million, or 40% of the entire Fr. Prakash recalls: ‘We decided to those already seriously very roots.’4 population, live in slums - vast and take a look at the why of the whole disadvantaged even worse. Therefore labyrinthine shanty towns adjoining thing...what has to be done to change promoting ‘interfaith harmony’ An exmaple of their work in action the main city. Most of the houses in the situation? We looked at the life of seemed to be a logical extension of occurred in Shahpur slum in the the slums are fashioned from the poor; how they are constantly their relief work. winter of 1991, when a group of whatever can be salvaged - pieces of subjected to many dehumanizing Hindus approached the area intent on corrugated iron, plastic sheeting, processes.We looked at the The range of peace initiatives killing Muslims. On learning of this timber - and most lack even basic politicians who don’t want to come to launched by St Xavier’s included imminent trouble, the Hindu members sanitation facilities. It is in these grips with the situation poor people street plays, peace festivals and of the Shahpur peace committee cramped, dirty and severely deprived are in. We concluded that the poor public awareness - what they called quickly mobilised, confronting the areas that most of the interfaith are being used.’3 ‘myth busting’ in order to counter crowd and saying to them ‘you kill us violence has been concentrated. inflammatory propaganda spread first.’ The mob retreated and no mostly by Hindu extremists. One of violence occured. As the most interesting projects has been intercessionaries, by physically the setting up of informal ‘peace placing themselves between the mob committees’ in each of the slums in and their intended victims, they were which it operates. able to prevent violence.

22 Saint Xavier's Social Service Society India 1991 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown See www.cdainc.com for the full text of the Unknown ‘Local Capacities for Peace Project’ analysis Refugees: of St Xavier’s Social Service Society. Cost of Involvement: Unknown $100,000 Annual running cost of St Xavier’s.

Another example of the work of the In this way the community meetings Outcome Part of their success must be peace committees is through ‘myth act as a safety valve, allowing the attributed to their long history of As the above examples illustrate, St busting.’ During periods of increased local people to ask questions and working in the area. They have been Xavier’s has been successful in tension, leaflets are often distributed learn the truth. The essence of this in the slums for almost 30 years and preventing violence and reducing by extremists in an attempt to incite, strategy, according to Fr. Prakash, is thus are not seen as outsiders. Over interfaith tension in some of the areas usually, anti Muslim violence. Often, ‘to counter false propaganda as soon the years they have gained the trust in which it works. Fr Prakash also children are paid to distribute the as it takes off-bit by bit and point by and respect of sections of the points to the fact that the main leaflets and even though many slum point.’6 community. Yet there have also been newspaper in Ahmedabad has dwellers are illiterate, one study notes numerous outbursts of violence that sponsored harmony-related that ‘the novelty of receiving a piece A measure of St Xavier’s the St Xavier’s has not been able to competitions - proof he says of the of paper with a message for them effectiveness is that the local authority prevent, some of which have been impact the organisation is having on leads them to ask a literate member regularly requests their assistance very serious. And, with only 20 full the community. of their community to read the patrika following a riot. Indeed Fr. Prakash time staff and operating in just 20 of (leaflet) out loud.’5 was appointed to an emergency the 2,400 slums in the city, its impact response committee by the District is clearly limited. However, this does When the committee hears of this Collector and as such was not only prompt the question: imagine if St practice they usually hold a notified immediately of any civil unrest Xavier’s had a presence or peace community meeting where the local but was also allowed to enter areas committee in each of the 2,000? people have the opportunity to learn off limits to the public Imagine what could be achieved whether the allegations are true. The during such then? committee then tries to identify who disturbances. was distributing the leaflets, where We looked at they came from (usually from another the politicians who area of the city) and why people feel the leaflets were distributed in the first don't want to come to place. grips with the situation poor people are in. We concluded that the poor are being used.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 23 1992 City Montessori School China

India Uttar PradeshNepal Pakistan Delhi

Lucknow • Background A wave of rioting spread through the The City Montessori city and then across the country. The School (CMS), set up In October 1990, an extremist Hindu violence left more than 3,000 dead in 1959 and inspired group calling themselves the VHP and countless buildings, shops and by the teachings of announced their intention to destroy communities devastated in its wake. Mahatma Gandhi, is the India the Babri Masjid mosque in the world's largest single school Bombay sacred city of Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. With 40% of the population Muslim, with over 23,000 students. The mosque, a Muslim landmark built Lucknow, the capital city of Uttar The aim of this unique in 1528, was said to stand at the spot Pradesh, braced itself for violence. institution, a pioneer in the field of the Hindu Lord Rama’s birthplace, As Sunita Gandhi, ex The risk of Hindu-Muslim fighting was of progressive education, is ‘to and as such became the focus for anti CMS student, now heightened by the fact that only a make each child a gift to mankind Muslim sentiment amongst militant president of the Council for skeletal police presence remained in and pride of the human race.’ Hindus throughout the country. A Global Education and Lucknow, with most of the police force CMS has gone to extraordinary crowd of thousands attacked the daughter of the founders of being sent to Ayodhya to deal with the lengths to work towards this goal, mosque and were fired on by police, CMS says, ‘You can riots there. guided by the belief that ‘Every child narrowly preventing the mosque's recognise the children that is potentially the light of the world as demolition. The unrest continued, have been brought up in this well as the cause of its darkness.’ however, and on December 6th 1992, Involvement system, they are compassionate a group of Hindus marched on On hearing of the destruction of the human beings; they are world The four building blocks of the 1 Ayodhya and this time succeeded in Mosque, the District Magistrate of citizens.’ curriculum, for instance, are ‘universal destroying the Babri Masjid, literally Lucknow asked the City Montessori values’, ‘global understanding’, tearing it apart stone by stone. School to convene a series of In response to the District Magistrates ‘excellence in all things’ and ‘service meetings that would bring together request, CMS immediately convened to humanity.’ Teachers are known as the heads of all the city’s . a series of meetings in some of their ‘teacher-guardians’ and tend to the Time was of the essence since the buildings located throughout the city. personal and emotional needs of the violence was spreading rapidly Each day the religious leaders from children as well as their educational throughout the country. Many people each community met, prayed for development. sensed that in a matter of hours, not peace, and urged their congregations days, Lucknow would fall prey to the to maintain communal harmony. heightened Muslim-Hindu tensions.

24 City Montessori School India 1992 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unavailable See www.cmseducation.org for more details about the 2000 - 2500 Dec ‘92 - Mar ‘93 school. Also see ‘People Building Peace’, (European Centre (Library of Congress Country Studies) Refugees: for Conflict Prevention, Utrecht, 1999). Unavailable Cost of Involvement: Less than $5000

Each evening the leaders returned to Outcome The second point is the deep John Huddleston, an official with the their communities in an attempt to structural change within the city that IMF, who visited the area during the Lucknow escaped the violence. Given calm tensions. These meetings also CMS has brought about over the past tensions said of CMS, ‘This school its proximity to Ayodhya (only 140km provided an invaluable opportunity for 30+ years. Over 250,000 children system has a track record of more away) and the high percentage of religious and political leaders within have passed through CMS since it than forty years of making a Muslims in the city, the absence of the city to meet face to face, to forge first opened its doors in 1959, the vast significant contribution to the well- violence was remarkable. While CMS links, and to work collaboratively on majority of which have come from being of this city both in terms of cannot claim exclusive credit, few solving the crisis, something that was Lucknow. Given that CMS quality and quantity... during the have denied the pivotal role denied to leaders in other cities such encourages the family to disturbance at Ayodhya many towns that the school played as Bombay, where violence escalated, participate in their in the area experienced civil unrest. during this time. leading to almost 900 deaths, 50,000 Hiring a children’s Lucknow was an exception and many people homeless and with a further development at the have attributed this to the moral The case of CMS number of jeeps 150,000 people fleeing the city.2 school (from impact of the school on the people of highlights several with loudspeakers, the helping shape the the city over a period of time.’3 key points. The At the same time as the meetings curriculum to a first is the role of children and teachers were underway, the students of the myriad of other ‘bridge builder’ CMS took to the streets to try to help appealed directly to the pioneering that CMS played. prevent further violence. Hiring a activities) there can That the District people of the city to number of jeeps with loudspeakers, be little doubt that a Magistrate of the children and teachers appealed refrain from great many families Lucknow saw in directly to the people of the city to violence. in Lucknow actively CMS an impartial third refrain from violence. Each jeep was participated in the CMS party widely respected followed by thousands of children and peace initiative. within the community was their parents singing and carrying critical. Had the predominantly Hindu posters which read: ‘The name of God city officials tried to organise the is both Hindu and Muslim’ and ‘All meetings themselves it is debatable Religions are One’. At great personal whether they would have achieved risk, the marchers directly targeted the same outcome. areas of the city which were in immediate danger of descending into violence. Local people were encouraged to join the march to show their support for a peaceful resolution to the escalating tensions.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 25 1995 The Mediation Network Northern Ireland Scotland

Northern Background However, as a result of growing Most worryingly, there were fears that opposition to the marches and if the situation escalated it would Ireland • Belfast In Northern Ireland few issues are as parades from the Garvaghy Road derail the republican and loyalist Portadown explosive as the annual Protestant Residents Association (GRRA), ceasefires which had been United parades and in particular those Ireland hundreds of Catholics blocked the implemented in late 1994 as part of carried out by the and Kingdom proposed route of the march the nascent peace process. As one England its members. Named after the determined not to let it pass. commentator noted, ‘As in the late Protestant King William III, the Dutch Wales , it was beginning to look as if Prince of Orange, who defeated the In view of the potential for a violent parades and street demonstrations Catholic King James III at the battle of confrontation, the Royal Ulster would lead to civil disturbances the Boyne on 12th July 1690, the London • Constabulary (RUC) decided to serious enough to bring about Orange Order have used parades as prevent the Orange Order from renewed armed conflict.’1 As McAllister notes, a symbol of their Protestant/British marching back to Portadown - the first ‘As proponents of non-violent identity for over 200 years. Since the time this had happened in 188 years. peace-building, mediators assume late 1960s when the violence in Involvement Incensed, the Orange Order that in each situation of conflict Northern Ireland (popularly known as The following day, as tensions demanded that they be allowed to everyone has a perspective which is ‘The Troubles’) began, the continued to escalate, Brendan continue down the Garvaghy Road, valid and needs to be understood. international spotlight has focused on McAllister, Director of the Mediation refusing to be dispersed or re-routed. Therefore mediation is about enabling the annual parades which over the Network, which was established in The RUC brought in an extra 1,000 those in conflict to communicate with years have been marked by violence. 1991 with the aim of promoting a police officers who stood facing the each other, to improve culture of third party intervention in 2 Portadown Orangemen. Thus began understandings and let truth grow.’ On 9th July 1995 members of conflict, was invited by the RUC a tense stand off. However in the case of Northern the Orange Order gathered at the Assistant Chief Constable to help Ireland the rules did not quite apply. local Church of Drumcree, in undertake some crisis mediation. Word soon spread and tensions Portadown, for the annual service McAllister agreed and brought on began to escalate throughout McAllister and Campbell noticed - commemorating the Battle of the board another member of his team, Northern Ireland. Thousands of through years of experience ‘on the Boyne. As they had done so for years, Joe Campbell. By this time there were Orange supporters began arriving in ground’ - that the Irish people were the Orangemen expected to march an estimated 10,000 Orange Order Portadown to stand alongside their reluctant to engage in face-to-face down the predominantly supporters gathered around the compatriots. Four thousand soldiers dialogue with their adversaries. As a Catholic/Nationalist Garvaghy Road church in Drumcree. McAllister and were put on alert. result the Mediation Network on their way back to the Orange Campbell immediately set to work, developed a particular style of Lodge in Portadown. visiting representatives of the Orange mediation more akin to intermediation Order, the GRRA and the RUC. or shuttle diplomacy.

26 The Mediation Network Northern Ireland 1995 Internally displaced: Deaths: For more information: Political violence since 1969. Visit CAIN (Conflict Archive on the Internet) at http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ for 3,600 Unknown (INCORE) the most comprehensive resource on Northern Ireland Conflict on the Refugees: Internet. See www.mediation-network.org.uk for more information on the Mediation Network. For a thorough analysis of the Orange Parades Cost of Involvement: Unknown read Dominic Bryan's 'Orange Parades - The Politics of Ritual, Not available Tradition and Control' (Pluto Press, London, 2000).

This involved acting as a trusted By dawn the next morning the ‘Selling’ this deal to the crowd of angry After 40 hours of deadlock the march intermediary to (a) help facilitate the situation had deteriorated even and determined Catholic protesters, took place. Only a thin line of police flow of information about the conflict further. A deputy chief constable however, proved difficult. McAllister officers was needed to separate the situation to each side, (b) help to (DCC) informed the mediators that suggested to the DCC that if the two groups. The widely anticipated infuse a ‘sense of other’ and there were disturbances throughout residents understood that there would violence did not occur. The work of encourage inclusive and creative Northern Ireland and warned that the be no parade next year, as had been the Mediation Network had lasted 16 thinking in each party by engaging manner in which the stand-off was indicated by senior police officers the hours and as Joe Campbell notes, them in confidential discussions and concluded would directly affect the night before, it would be easier for ‘this was the first formal recognition of analysis of the situation, and (c) carry situation at the other ‘flashpoints’ McKenna to get acceptance of the mediation as a way of resolving messages between the two sides. throughout the region. Meanwhile an proposed formula. According to community disputes.’3 These techniques were used with olive branch was offered by the leader McAllister the DCC responded that particular effect during the Drumcree of the GRRA - Brendan McKenna there would be no question of McAllister is quick to point out that, stand-off. - who announced that if the parades going on without despite the success of their work, it parade went ahead the consent from the did not result in a durable peace. By the time McAllister and Campbell Catholic protesters 'this was community. Indeed, in 1996 the issue flared up had visited all the main stakeholders would allow the first formal again and has done so every July in the conflict, had carried messages themselves to be recognition of Outcome since. In their eyes, what is needed is and facilitated face-to-face physically removed mediation as a way of McKenna addressed process-focused peace work rather discussions between many of them from the streets by the crowd with of than event driven peace. Inspired by and had offered their advice and the police. resolving community Mennonite conflict expert J.P. disputes.' the compromise. A analysis, it was late Monday night, scaled-down march - Lederach, members of the Mediation and tensions remained dangerously In view of the Joe Campbell without its band and with Network believe that it is important to high. Running battles had punctuated disturbances only one flag - would think in generational terms when the tense stand-off as Protestants throughout Northern proceed silently down working for peace, for which building tried to break through the police Ireland, the DCC said that Garvaghy Road. The Orange long term relationships based on 4 barricades. Nearby shops and houses the protesters would have to Order had also agreed to re-route respect and dignity is the key. were attacked and police had fired voluntarily remove themselves in their parade the following day, on the plastic bullets into the crowd. order to eliminate any possibility of a 12th July. In return future marches Protestant emotions were further confrontation between them and the would require the consent of the heightened by speeches given by police. Any such clashes ran the risk residents. McAllister went on to prominent Unionists David Trimble of precipitating violence throughout encourage the protesters to engage in and Ian Paisley, with Paisley telling Northern Ireland. McAllister and a ‘dignified silent protest’ by the side the crowd that there was ‘no turning Campbell arranged for the deputy of the street, which to the surprise of back’. chief constable to pass this view on, many, they did. at a meeting with McKenna.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 27 1993 OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities Finland

Estonia • Narva Tallinn Estonia Russia

Background This was soon followed by the Involvement introduction of a Law on Aliens, which Riga The collapse of the in With tensions running dangerously Latvia many Russian speakers feared was a 1991 led to a rash of inter- and intra- high, the Estonian government quietly prelude to the mass expulsion of all state conflicts throughout many of the contacted the Organisation for non citizens. The combined effect of Lithuania former communist countries. In some Security and Co-operation in Europe both laws significantly raised tensions cases suppressed identity needs (OSCE) to request their urgent Vilnius not only between Estonia and Russia Belarus rapidly resurfaced, often manifesting assistance. but also between Estonians and the themselves as nationalist movements large Russian speaking minority in the that paid scant attention to minorities. The OSCE is Europe's most country. Russia, incensed by the new One of the unique features of the Estonia, one of the Baltic states, was comprehensive intergovernmental laws, cut off its gas supply to Estonia HCNMs role is that the involvement of one such example. instrument for security, conflict and declared that the welfare of these the HCNM is at his own discretion prevention and post-conflict disenfranchised people was a and does not need the approval from During Soviet rule, the percentage of rehabilitation. In early 1992, in Russian national interest. At the same the OSCE Ministerial Council or ethnic Estonians fell from 94% to 61% response to the number of ethnic time the continued presence of ex- indeed from the state involved. Such as the USSR’s ‘Russification Program’ conflicts that were erupting in places Soviet troops in Estonia exacerbated unique powers close the warning- brought workers from Russia, Ukraine such as the Balkans and the already heightened tensions between response gap, allowing what is and Belarus into the country. For the Caucasus, the OSCE decided to the two countries. essentially an independent ‘insider Estonians, not only had they been establish the post of High third party’3 to intervene at a moments invaded by what they saw as a 'brutal Commissioner on National Minorities. International experts were beginning notice. In Max Van der Stoel's own Stalinist neighbour' but they felt that The function of the HCNM, best to fear that the situation might words ‘The sooner third party conflict their culture and identity was being summarised by paragraph three of its escalate out of control. Paul Goble of prevention is initiated, the greater the eroded by the huge influx of 'Russian mandate, is to ‘provide “early warning” the Carnegie Endowment for chance that the dispute will not reach speakers.' and, as appropriate, “early action” at International Peace warned that in a high level of tension and that the the earliest possible stage in regard to Estonia 'We are going to see massive parties may still be willing (and Following Estonian independence in tensions involving national minority conflicts because of the present politically able) to find compromises 1991 a nationalist government came issues.’2 linkage between [Russian] military and accommodate each other’s to power and introduced a law that 4 force and the defence of the rights of demands.’ While the mechanisms restricted Estonian citizenship to the The OSCE responded by despatching available to the HCNM are not legally ethnic Russians.'1 The north eastern descendents of only those people who the HCNM, Max Van der Stoel, to the city of Narva - with its almost binding, he acts with the full support lived in the country before Soviet region in an attempt to defuse the exclusively Russian speaking of the Permanent Council of the occupation in 1940. situation. population and high unemployment - OSCE and in many cases, that of the was singled out as 'ground zero' for a EU and the Council of Europe, thus possible violent conflict. giving his recommendations weight.

28 OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities Estonia 1993 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unavailable See www.osce.org/hcnm.html for the official web site of the HCNM. None Also see the excellent reports written by the European Centre for Refugees: Minority Issues on the work of the HCNM - available online at Cost of Involvement: Unavailable www.ecmi.de and the Foundation for Inter Ethnic Relations (email: $1,400,000 [email protected]) which was set up to support the work of the HCNM. per year for all HCNM operations

As a result of intense discussions with Meanwhile, the extremist Russian Such assurances dashed rumours The leaders of both cities abided by the HCNM, President Meri of Estonia National Salvation Front offered that were spreading throughout Narva their agreement to honour the issued a communiqué in which he armed help to the citizens of Narva and Sillamae claiming that quite the decision. Meanwhile the Law on declared that he was officially and extremists paraded on the opposite was about to happen, thus Aliens and the Citizenship Law were requesting the expert opinion of the Russian side of the Narva river in exacerbating tensions in the area. both subject to the scrutiny of the OSCE in the case of the new Law on battle dress. With the situation critical, HCNM and after a lengthy Aliens. He also announced that he the HCNM rushed to see the Despite the attempts of the HCNM consultation process, both laws were would set up a ‘Round Table of non- presidents of the councils from the referenda went ahead. The amended to incorporate his citizens and ethnic minorities’, which both cities in an attempt results showed that the recommendations. would deliberate on the key issues to persuade them to citizens of the cities facing these communities, and then call the referenda off. ‘the involvement of the were overwhelmingly As Rob Zaagman of the European present the conclusions to the OSCE Failing that, he High Commissioner was in favour of autonomy. Centre for Minority Issues argues, ‘the for comment. requested that should instrumental in dissolving However, the involvement of the High the question of the a potentially dangerous assurances that the Commissioner was instrumental in In Estonia the situation on the ground legality of the standoff and preventing HCNM had won from dissolving a potentially dangerous continued to worsen. In July 1993, referenda be an escalation.’ the leaders of both standoff and preventing an escalation less than a month after the submitted to the Rob Zaagman, European cities and the with unforeseeable consequences.’6 introduction of the new law and partly National Court both Centre for Minority Issues government of Such achievements have been in response to it, the cities of Narva leaders would abide Estonia derailed any replicated elsewhere, on a range of and nearby Sillamae announced that by its ruling, which they agreed to. attempts by extremist elements from minority issues across Europe. ‘Mr they intended to hold referenda to Significantly, they also agreed to all sides to exploit the referenda Van Der Stoel has achieved decide whether they should become respect the territorial integrity of results for their own purposes. something remarkable’ The Economist autonomous zones within Estonia. Estonia. The HCNM also visited magazine recently noted, '...a The government declared the President Meri again and sought Outcome modicum of trust between would be referenda unconstitutional and clarification and reassurances on a warring parties on many of the ragged Through the quiet - sometimes tensions between Russia and Estonia number of issues. edges of Europe.’7 confidential - shuttle diplomacy of the rapidly escalated again. HCNM the situation in the north The President assured him that he eastern region of Estonia did not erupt Russia delivered a series of thinly was not planning to expel Russian into conflict, despite the predictions of veiled threats that if Estonia did not speaking citizens from the country many western observers. The accept the result of the referenda and that the government - while question of the legality of the ‘Russians in Estonia could take on viewing the referenda as illegal - referenda was referred to the National Russian citizenship. And Russia has would not use any force the prevent Court where it was declared the right to defend its citizens.’5 them from being held. unconstitutional.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 29 1996 - 1998 Slovak Republic Ukraine

Austria Budapest Partners for Democratic Change Hungary Hungary Romania Yugoslavia

Background The north eastern Hungarian town of Local authorities, fearing that the With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ever since the Roma1 first arrived in Tiszavasvari is one such case. By situation might escalate, became PDC was formed to apply the skills Europe in the fourteenth century, they 1996 incidences of crime and violence increasingly frustrated that there was and experience of community have been the target of virulent in the town were increasing. The area no body representing the Roma in the mediation to the former communist discrimination and extreme violence. had been particularly hit by the town through which these problems countries of eastern and central In World War II the Roma were the collapse of communism with many could be addressed. Europe. From being primarily a only other to have been large industries closing down leading training provider, offering courses in singled out by the Nazis for to massive job losses. Unemployment Involvement mediation, negotiation, problem liquidation, with between 250,000 and among the Hungarian population As a result of the deteriorating solving and communication, Partners 500,000 killed in the extermination stood at 20%, twice the national situation, Partners Hungary Hungary (PH), soon moved into more camps. average. However among the Roma Foundation - a locally staffed and ‘hands on’ work which is where its population which was divided into two managed Centre of the US based main interest lay. In Central and Eastern Europe, where communities - the Romungro and Partners for Democratic Change - was the majority of Roma live, they were Olah - the figure was much higher. contacted by an academic working at According to a recent study, the the targets of efforts at enforced The Romungro, who traditionally the regional university who knew of fastest growing sector of PDC's work assimilation by the Communist enjoyed a measure of interaction with their work. A meeting was promptly has been in cooperative planning, authorities. With the collapse of the the majority Hungarian population, arranged with the local mayor who which is defined as ‘a methodology Soviet Union the Roma have been suffered from 40% unemployment, was very keen for them to help. which involves third party facilitators politically and economically while most of the larger Olah engaging multiple parties marginalized and have found population lived in abject poverty, Partners for Democratic Change (stakeholders) to work on complex themselves the targets of violence were cut off from both the Romungro (PDC) was set up by attorney and diverse problems’. These and pogroms, most recently in and the Hungarian population and Raymond Shonholtz in 1989, based processes are highly inclusive and Kosovo. As a recent study of the suffered almost 100% unemployment. upon his pioneering work in the US in deliberately involve potential 4 Roma conducted by the OSCE helping launch the Community Board ‘spoilers’ PH's work in Tiszavasvari is concluded, ‘Even against the As crime in the town rose, so too did Program. The idea - to develop the a good example of this approach. backcloth of a decade blighted by the incidences of anti-Roma violence. capacity of local communities to extreme forms of racist intolerance, Among the majority Hungarian express and resolve their own Following their meeting with the the phenomenon of prejudice against population the prevailing opinion was conflicts through conciliation and town’s mayor, PH arranged a series of Roma is singular.’2 that the Olah Roma in particular ‘steal, mediation as effective forms of meetings with all the interest groups in are violent, beat up innocent people, dispute resolution - spread rapidly the town, including local authorities 3 and are arrogant.’ throughout the US and beyond. and representatives from both Roma communities.

30 Partners for Democratic Change Hungary 1996 - 1998 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown See the recent report (March 2000) written by the OSCE High Commissioner Unknown on National Minorities which highlights the treatment of the Roma throughout Refugees: Europe. To learn about Partners for Democratic Change visit www.partners- Cost of Involvement: intl.org. Also see the European Roma Rights Centre (www.errc.org) which is Unknown $268,000 an excellent resource on Roma issues. For other pioneering work on Roma the annual budget for Partners for issues see the Project on Ethnic Relations (www.per-usa.org). Democratic Change, Hungary.

The key problems were identified as Working in small mixed groups the PH began organising cooperative Indeed many of the recommended (a) the lack of Roma-Roma participants came up with a number of planning meetings every fortnight in proposals from the 1997 cooperative (Romungro-Olah) cooperation, (b) proposals, including improvements in order to bring all the stakeholders planning meeting were realized in the difficulties in communication and living conditions, education and work together. At the same time, PH subsequent year. PH’s continued work cooperation between the Roma and prospects for the Roma and, persuaded the Tiszavasvari Roma with the Roma also helped them elect the Hungarian population and (c) importantly, measures to establish Association to take a balanced view of a local Roma Minority Self- open conflicts between Roma and the Roma organizations and leaders who the situation rather than escalating Government (RMSG), which for the Hungarian community. With this could represent their interests. tensions by resorting to first time has given the Roma political information PH set to work organising Within a month of the inflammatory speeches. representation. The setting up of a cooperative planning meeting that it cooperative planning RMSGs had been sanctioned by the hoped would bring all the meeting the As a result Outcome Hungarian parliament in 1994 and had stakeholders together to help address Tiszavasvari Roma of the cooperative As a result of the sprung up very slowly throughout the some of these issues. Preparations Association was cooperative planning country, but with the onus on the local for the meeting took seven months. launched. This was a planning meetings, meetings, a potential Roma population to organise and During this time, PH met with each first: a local Roma a potential crisis crisis was narrowly elect a RMSG few people believed party separately to help them clarify organisation dedicated was narrowly averted. The that one would appear in the agenda for the meeting as well as to representing Roma Tiszavasvari Roma Tiszavasvari. to encourage creative thinking about needs in the town. averted. Association, with the possible solutions. In order to help guidance of PH, investigated The ‘Collaborative for Development participants make best use of the The first major test for the new the causes of the segregation in Action’ study also highlights other very meeting, PH organised a seminar organisation and for PH came just a the school, which was found to be the positive outcomes for PH's work. aimed at helping develop few months later, when it was fear of lice infection from Roma These include increased participation communication skills, interest-based discovered that the local school children. Steps were taken to address of many Olah Roma in community negotiation, and cooperative skills. authorities had held separate problem of lice infestation in Roma planning processes, development of This was especially important for the graduation ceremonies for Roma children and as a result the school concrete and detailed plans to Roma participants, who were at a children. Even worse, the school authorities agreed to teach the improve basic conditions for Roma, severe disadvantage having had no admitted that Roma and Hungarian children in the same classrooms. more positive contact between the two formal education or experience in children were taught entirely Roma groups and importantly, a official activities. separately with Roma children being A recent study conducted by the US marked decrease in Roma-Hungarian 6 forbidden to use the gym or the research group ‘Collaborative for violence. In January 1997 the cooperative school canteen. As the news spread, Development Action’ notes that the planning meeting was held. Each tensions within the town rapidly crisis redoubled the efforts of the local party put forward suggestions for how escalated. authorities to address the problems of tensions in the town could be the Roma community in Tiszavasvari.5 reduced.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 31 1995 - 1999 Mexico

Honduras

Patriotic Movement Against Crime Guatemala El Salvador El Savador Nicaragua San Salvador

Background For a number of complex reasons, Involvement In the Dominican Republic, for each including complications in the gun that was surrendered a gift On 16th January 1992, El Salvador’s Amidst the violence a group of reintegration of ex-combatants, the certificate worth $100 was handed 12 year civil war finally came to an business leaders from the Association state of the economy, the proliferation over, which could be redeemed at end. The conflict, which pitted the of Distributors (ADES) decided that of weapons and the increase in drug selected stores. As Mateo pointed out, government of El Salvador against left they should try and do something to trafficking, violent crime was on the this was not a gun ‘buy back’ scheme wing rebels known as the Frente help. While no doubt motivated by a increase. Most of this violence as such but more a voluntary Farabundo Martí de Liberación genuine desire to help curb the involved military weapons from the weapons return programme where the Nacional (FMLN) exacted a terrible violence that was crippling their war, including M-16s, AK-47s and M-3 gun owner was offered a ‘token of toll on the country. Over 75,000 country, they were also driven by self- hand grenades.1 appreciation for their support of a people were killed, mostly civilians, interest. Many businesses were more peaceful society’. The distinction and over 1,000,000 people displaced. suffering badly as delivery trucks were By 1995 the situation was desperate. was an important one. Since many increasingly being hijacked by heavily In that year alone there were almost guns handed in were worth more than Under the terms of the UN-brokered armed gangs, putting the lives of their 8,000 violent deaths, roughly 21 per $100, a scheme which awarded Peace Accords, the demobilisation of staff at risk. day, a higher figure than during the 12 proper compensation for the over 40,000 combatants began years of civil war. El Salvador had surrender of a weapon would have immediately. A year on and In response ADES launched the become the most violent country in required considerably greater funding. approximately 10,000 weapons had ‘Patriotic Movement Against Crime’ Central America. As a result the been surrendered by the FMLN and (MPCD) in November 1995 in order to government decided to put the army After much discussion, MPCD thousands more had been discovered encourage the government to commit back onto the streets. According to decided that it would embark upon a in hidden caches throughout the more resources to combating crime. one report, ‘There was talk of the programme similar to that run by country, which were subsequently As support for the MPCD mandate return of death squads and the Mateo in the Dominican Republic. Key destroyed. This represented most of grew, David Gutierrez, President of politicisation of criminal gangs, in elements of the strategic plan the registered weapons in the hands MPCD, received word that Fernando effect the restarting of civil war.’2 included seeking support for the idea of the guerrillas. However, there were Mateo, the founder of a ‘Goods for from government, business, civil still an estimated 360,000 Guns’ initiative in the Dominican society and church, engaging the unregistered weapons in private Republic, wanted to launch a similar local, regional and national media and hands - a legacy of 12 years of war project in El Salvador. developing a system for storing, which saw vast quantities of arms flow transporting and destroying weapons. into the country. Despite the best efforts of the UN, the country was awash with weapons.

32 Patriotic Movement Against Crime El Salvador 1995 - 1999 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 577,000 in 1985 (UNHCR) See the International Action Network on Small Arms (www.iansa.org) for 25,000 battle related deaths from more information on the international campaign to curb the trade in small 1979-1992 Refugees: arms. Also see the Bonn International Centre for Conversion's web sites (Correlates of War Project: 250,000 in 1985 (UNHCR) www.bicc.de and www.disarmament.de for excellent resources on www.umich.edu/~cowproj - COW). efforts and strategies to convert military resources to civilian use. Cost of Involvement: $1,300,000 to end of 1999

The first major challenge for the group From the outset close coordination The weekend was a remarkable Outcome was to seek a temporary legislative with the government, military and success. The sheer number and By June 1999 MPCD had carried out amendment to the Fire Arms law, police was vital. The Ministry of variety of weapons handed in 23 separate collection sessions. which prohibited citizens from Defence (MOD) developed a prompted MPCD to give out almost During that time, over 10,000 carrying military weapons, so that sophisticated system for the $60,000 worth of vouchers, despite weapons were handed in, more than people could carry their weapons to destruction of the weapons collected, only having $4,500 in the bank. The were collected by the official United the MPCD disposal facility. while the National Police Force (PNC) success of the weekend also Nations Observer Mission to El Fortunately MPCD had good contacts was responsible for the destruction of presented MPCD with another Salvador Disarmament programme within government who rallied to their any explosive material. However, problem. Many people shortly after the war. cause and so on 12th September the while representatives from the handed in weapons not amendment was passed by the army, MOD and PNC were covered by the amended law, While critics have noted that the total Legislative Assembly. present at the collection such as grenades and number of weapons collected by site to help identify the explosives. Thus the MPCD is overshadowed by the figure By the time the first collection session weapons, assess their following day MPCD El Salvador reportedly circulating throughout the began on 21-22nd September 1996, a potential danger and requested a further had become the country as well as the number still total of $4,571 had been raised. The determine their value, change to the law most violent being registered every month, the session ran over a weekend, and was they were instructed to which was immediately country in Central impact of the MPCD programme preceded by extensive publicity in the stay out of uniform so as accepted. America. As a result cannot be overlooked. On one hand local and national press in order to not to intimidate or the government the 10,000 weapons collected generate awareness of the event. The frighten people. Profoundly encouraged decided to put the represent accidents and violent cathedral at the centre of the capital by the response to the army back onto crimes that did not happen.4 Another was chosen as the collection site, The entire process was first collection weekend, the streets. point made by the British American partly because the people were anonymous. While every further collections were Security Information Council notes deeply suspicious of returning weapon was documented by the arranged the following that the MPCD initiative has had ‘a weapons to a military facility where MPCD, MOD, PNC and the Rotary weekend and on many psychological as well as practical they might be accused of Club (who had supported MPCD from weekends thereafter. By the end of impact in El Salvador; the perception sympathising with the guerrillas. the beginning) no personal details the second weekend MPCD had that a weapon is necessary for were taken down and no questions given away vouchers worth $103,000 protection and self defence has asked. This absolute anonymity, despite only having $19,500 in funds. diminished.’5 designed to instil confidence in people In view of the runaway success of the considering dropping off a weapon, programme the President intervened, contrasted with the thorough auditing offering MPCD almost $300,000 to of every weapon handed in so that help them honour all the vouchers there was maximum transparency and that they had given out as well as to accountability.3 continue with the programme.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 33 Ukraine 1991 - 2001+ Moldova

Project on Ethnic Relations Hungary Romania Transylvania

Romania Black Federal Bucharest Sea Republic of In 1990, violent clashes erupted in the ‘Communism had not allowed ethnic Yugoslavia Background Bulgaria Transylvanian town of Tirgu-Mures in rivalries to be an active issue’ says A look at the history of the region a dispute over Hungarian schools in Kassof. ‘But we knew a lot of the reveals that Transylvania - with its the area, which the local authorities leaders and could see from some of PER's decided to initially focus on predominantly Romanian speaking used to raise the spectre of Hungarian their attitudes that things could turn bringing together the decision making population - has, for the greater part or . According nasty.’3 elites. This was based on the view of nine hundred years, been under to one report agents of the former that with newly ex-communist Hungarian rule. However, with the political police were involved in the Kassof’s previous job as director of countries, which still had a highly break-up of the Austro-Hungarian ethnic violence aimed at the the International Research and centralised political system, it was Empire following , Hungarians.1 The violence that Exchanges Board (IREX) - a US important to engage the centre first. Hungary lost 75% of its land, including threatened the region had long been institution that managed the American Transylvania, which was awarded to anticipated by some experts. Said scholarly exchanges with Eastern Before the meeting, Hungarian and Romania. While the Vienna Diktat of one, ‘Transylvania is the potential Europe and the USSR during the Cold Romanian representatives rarely had 1940 gave Northern Transylvania setting for one of the most War - provided the essential leverage face-to-face discussions, despite back to Hungary, this decision was troublesome ethnic minority crises of to enter the simmering conflict. IREX some limited encounters within the short lived. Having sided with the Axis the current age.’2 was well known and well respected by parliament. It was made clear that the powers during World War II, Hungary both Romanian and Hungarian PER facilitated meeting was an was stripped of Transylvania during officials and this, coupled with PER opportunity for protected, open, and the of 1946 Involvement Executive Director Livia Plaks's honest discussion rather than a and it has remained part of Romania In 1992 the Project on Ethnic personal contacts as a native staging ground for posturing over ever since. Relations (PER) launched an intensive effort to bring Romanian Transylvanian, gave the new ‘official’ positions. For PER the key organisation the opening it needed. aim was to convince the protagonists Since then, relations between officials and Hungarian leaders to expand definitions of their self- Transylvania's Romanian majority and together to seek a resolution to this PER promptly convened an ‘unofficial’ interest in order to encompass the large Hungarian minority (1.7 escalating conflict. Founded in 1991 meeting involving key Romanian behaviours more appropriate to million) have often been tense, by Allen Kassof, PER was created in government ministers and resolving inter-ethnic conflict.4 This especially during the communist anticipation of the serious interethnic representatives from the UDMR, the was a significant challenge since it period under Nicolae Ceausescu's conflicts that were to erupt in central, political party representing the required skilled dialogue and assimilationist policies in the 1960s, eastern, and south-eastern europe, majority of the Hungarian population compromise which, according to 1970s and 1980s. The collapse of the following the collapse of communism. in Romania. Plaks, were not historically part of Soviet Union and the overthrow of Central and Eastern Europe's political Ceausescu re-opened the question of system. the status of the Hungarians and gave voice to nationalists on both sides.

34 Project on Ethnic Relations Romania 1991 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For more information. Deaths: Unknown See www.hungary.com/corvinus/lib/rum.htm for a very good resource 8 on Hungarian/Transylvanian issues. Also see www.per-usa.org for more Refugees: information on the work of the Project on Ethnic Relations. Cost of Involvement: Unknown $1,100,000 Expenditure in 1998 for all of PER's work.

‘The lack of compromise comes from As Livia Plaks notes, ‘We showed the During a meeting held in Switzerland However, one of the most significant living in an undemocratic society.’5 she Romanians and Hungarians what in 1993, the PER team had their first outcomes was that it helped pave the argues. As such, PER encouraged they could lose if interethnic conflicts breakthrough. After several days of way for members of the Hungarian the participants to develop these skills were left unmanaged - that they could intense discussions the two sides minority to join the coalition - thus giving PER a pedagogical role - end up with an isolated and declining agreed, among other provisions, to government in 1996 - a first, for which so that the talks stood a better chance economy and the possibility of losing reinstate bilingual public signs and to PER is credited by both senior of making real progress. out to their neighbours.’6 create a council of national minorities. Romanian and Hungarian officials as Seemingly modest concessions such having had a highly important role. According to Kassof, despite initial To facilitate its work, in as the use of PER has consolidated this resistance to face-to-face interaction 1991 PER had bilingual public achievement by their long-term both sides agreed that continued established an office in the two sides agreed signs carries commitment to the region, which has dialogue was important. Given that the Romanian capital, to the reinstating enormous yielded results both locally and the first step for two opposing sides in Bucharest, and in 1992 and establishment of symbolic nationally. the process of conflict transformation, added an office in the bilingual public signs significance and deciding to engage, is the easiest to town of Tirgu Mures, can make the Perhaps the most important success, describe but often the hardest to do, scene of the violence difference between however, is PER’s role in helping the the agreement to meet and to which had precipitated the inter-ethnic co- leaders develop essential dialogue continue to meet was a very important crisis. From these offices, existence and inter- skills. ‘You taught us the art of one. many local initiatives ethnic conflict. dialogue’, said several of the leaders were launched, including involved in the talks. 8 Romania is now A series of roundtables followed in workshops with journalists Outcome held up as an example of what can be Romania, Switzerland, and the United and meetings between Hungarian and achieved, despite the fact that many Over the following years, through States. As the process moved Romanian school teachers - all challenges lie ahead. The fact that the PER-convened meetings, a pattern of forward, PER also invited powerful designed to ‘ground’ PER’s work in new government, elected in 2000, has inter-ethnic dialogue was established international observers including the reality as well as to demonstrate a decided to expand the scope of at the highest political levels, leading US government, the EU and commitment to the process. Sensitive agreements favourable to the to further breakthroughs such as the ultimately NATO. Not only did they to the charge laid at the door of other Hungarian minority, even though the creation of 300 additional university serve as witnesses, they reminded NGOs of ‘parachuting’ in and out of Hungarian party is no longer a places for training teachers for participants of the ‘larger world conflict situations, PER began to coalition partner and despite the large Hungarian language secondary outside’ - one which Romania was embed themselves into the fabric of vote for of the nationalist Romanian schools. keen to be a part of. Romanian and Transylvanian society. party, shows that the framework for As Kassof says ‘the participants need dialogue that PER helped to establish to know that we will stick with the is now deeply institutionalised. process indefinitely.’7

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 35 1991 - 1993 The Borama Process

• Mogadishu Somalia Somalia Kenya

Background Following the overthrow of Barre, one As faith in the SNM administration In reconciling warring clans, the of the splinter groups called the SNM faded, a remarkable grassroots peace Guurti brought in poets and religious Divided into six distinct and (Somali National Movement), which initiative began to take shape, leaders, who play a major role in predominantly nomadic clan-families, was based in the north-west of the spearheaded by the traditional council Somali society. Somali people place a pre-colonial Somali society was country, decided to secede. While the of elders from each community, very high value on poetry, which in a characterised by an almost total area had been a separate known as ‘Guurti’ whose authority had largely nomadic society acts in much absence of formally institutionalised protectorate under colonial rule started to resurface during the anti the same way as television and radio authority. This ‘radically egalitarian’ (known as British Somaliland) the Barre war. Between 1992 and 1993 does in the west - addressing all social structure was effectively turned secession was motivated more by a all sectors of society gathered aspects of Somali life. The Guurti also on its head with the advent of colonial fear of being further marginalized together to initiate a series of peace employed modern tools in order to rule. Traditional mechanisms for under Ali Mahdi, a member of one of conferences aimed at ending the facilitate the peace process. Radios conflict management began to the southern-based clans who violence in the region. Starting at the were used to communicate with disappear and with them the most unilaterally declared himself President local level, where the emphasis was estranged or hostile groups, effective method for ensuring some after Barre’s exit. The north-west had on addressing inter-clan tensions and especially to prepare much of the measure of co-existence between the also seen some of the worst excesses specific local issues, these groundwork prior to a meeting clans, where competition and conflict of the civil war, with the Barre regime conferences gradually progressed between warring clans. In addition, over natural resources was virtually levelling entire cities and upwards to district, regional and local peace committees were assisted commonplace. This decline was inflicting at least 50,000 deaths. The national levels. Through this process, by a secretariat and a technical rapidly accelerated by the autocratic area was now desperate for peace. seemingly intractable issues such as committee. They also began rule of General Mohammad Siad the disarmament of clan militias were communicating with each other to Barre who took power in a coup in resolved, as well as conflicts over exchange information about 1969. Involvement Unfortunately the newly installed SNM resources and livestock. suspected or anticipated stock thefts. In this way they acted as an early Opposition to Barre's repressive administration failed to live up to In order to enforce and implement warning network which was able to regime soon grew and after a expectations, proving incapable of these local peace agreements, the intervene at a moment’s notice, often prolonged and hugely damaging civil formulating coherent policies for the Guurti appointed joint security before the alleged crime was due to war Barre was finally overthrown in economy, health, education and most committees which were placed at take place. 1991. This, however, precipitated the importantly law and order. In sensitive buffer-zones separating disintegration of Somalia, as the particular, the failure of the new warring clans. Formed mainly of local fragile anti-Barre coalition began to government to re-organise and disarm elders, these committees were splinter and fight each other over the disparate anti-Barre guerrilla intended to respond rapidly to issues control of the country. Between 1991 forces led to the rise in banditry and such as stock theft and violent attacks and 2000 Somalia was without a clan warfare. by bandits. government, effectively ceasing to exist as a country.

36 The Borama Process Somalia 1991 - 1993 Internally displaced: For More information: Deaths: Unknown See the study commissioned by ActionAid called 'Peacemaking endeavours 100,000 battle related deaths for of contemporary lineage leaders: a survey of grassroots peace all Somalia 1981 - 1991 (Department of Refugees: conferences in 'Somaliland'' by A.Y. Farah (ActionAid, London 1993) which Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala gives a thorough analysis of the peace process instituted by the Guurti in University, Sweden) Unknown Somaliland. For an interesting look at the importance of clan loyalties in Somalia read Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society by Cost of Involvement: I.M, Lewis (Red Sea Press, 1995). $100,000 for the Borama National Conference

With the collapse of the state, the In total 48 mini conferences were held Outcome The author of the study, A.Y. Farah, Guurti also stepped in to introduce followed by three more extensive goes onto say that, ‘The supreme While the rest of Somalia descended new laws to contain the continuing conferences, the last and most achievement and symbol of the vigour deeper and deeper into chaos, the problem of stock and property theft. important of which was held at of these traditional grassroots newly formed Somaliland Republic First, they agreed to bury the past. It Borama and lasted several processes is demonstrated in the was stable and relatively was clear that over the years, all the months. At the Borama appointment by the peace elders of peaceful. Since 1993 clans had perpetrated acts of violence conference 150 Guurti the new Somaliland government’ - there have been against each other. In the spirit of representing all the unprecedented in Somali history.1 periodic bouts of reconciliation, they all agreed to groups in the The Guurti violence, some concentrate on present and future region not only Many challenges lie ahead for this also employed modern of which have problems since these alone produced self styled republic. To date, the tools in order to facilitate the been very constituted a significant workload. separate international community has refused serious, but Second, in an unprecedented ruling, local and peace process. Radios were used to recognise the new state and thus it on the whole the Guurti announced that the national has been starved of much needed to communicate with estranged or the area is responsibility for acts of violence or peace foreign aid. Similarly, the newly still far from theft would be placed upon the entire charters but hostile groups... installed government of Somalia (Sept the violence family of the alleged perpetrator. Thus also created 2000), the first in almost nine years, is that has if the offender was unable to pay an executive unlikely to countenance the partition plagued the compensation for his crime, the government of the country. Yet these obstacles rest of the burden would be placed on the family. which replaced should not obscure the remarkable country. As a result, incidences of theft fell the SNM interim process that brought a reinvigorated significantly. administration. sense of hope and optimism to this According to one war-ravaged people. study of the local peace This remarkable ‘bottom conferences in Somaliland, up’ participatory peace initiative commissioned by the UK-based NGO was carried out with very little outside ActionAid, success can be measured help. Only the Borama conference by the trust and confidence that is received substantial funding from the shared between previously warring international community. The rest clans - so much so that herds from were financed through community different clans graze together on once self-help. disputed border areas.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 37 1984

Centre for International Development and Conflict Management Lebanon

Beirut • Background On another level, however, the Involvement Thus problem solving Lebanon conflict is an imported one. workshops attempt to The Lebanese conflict has been In 1984, the Center for International Lebanon Following the creation of Israel in create the conditions described as a series of civil Development and Conflict 1948 and the six day war in 1967, for adaptive learning fought for political control of the Management (CIDCM) at the Lebanon received hundreds of by providing a space country as well as one in which the University of Maryland organised two Israel thousands of Palestinian refugees. where frank, face to Middle East conflict found a new problem-solving workshops on the After Yasser Arafat and the PLO were face analytical discussions staging ground in a weak nation state. conflict in Lebanon. These were driven out of Jordan, Lebanon can take place. For Azar, the spearheaded by professor Edward became their base, with parts of emphasis on creating an analytical On one level the conflict sees the Azar as part of his ongoing research 1 Beirut becoming Arafat's fiefdom. framework - where participants can Christian (largely Maronite ) into the dynamics of ‘Protracted While the Lebanese Sunni population delve deeply into the nature and population whose political dominance Social Conflicts’. Both workshops fully supported him, others, most causes of the conflict - rather than was enshrined in a ‘National pact’ with were attended by a mixture of notably the Maronites and Shiites, zero-sum bargaining was essential. the growing Lebanese Muslim academics, political advisors and bitterly resented his presence. population in 1943, fighting to hold consultants who represented the The guidelines for the meeting were onto the reigns of power despite the various Lebanese religious and The first bout of fighting that began in based upon those drawn up by fact that the Christian population had political communities. dwindled from just over 51% in 1943 1975 was largely between the academic John Burton, another Maronite militia known as the pioneer in the field. The key points to around 30% by 1975. This view The problem solving approach taken Phalangists and the PLO. However, were that (a) discussions should be sees the Muslim population such as by Azar and his team for the as fighting intensified, militias allied to informal and should be between the Sunni, Shiite and Druse were Lebanese workshops was based upon one of the 17 different religious sects persons nominated by key leaders but fighting for greater political the assumption that violent and in Lebanon began to carve the not representing them, (b) discussions representation in line with a shift in the prejudicial or peaceful and country up, region by region, town by should be analytical i.e. structured so demographic balance in their favour. cooperative thinking and behaviour town and in places like Beirut, literally as to reveal the hidden motives and are learned phenomena, and that street by street. Some were aided by intentions of the parties, (c) a panel of what is learned therefore can be temporary alliances with other militias individuals drawn from several modified.2 and with the help of outside forces - disciplines should serve as a third most notably the Syrians, Israelis and party, and (d) no party would be Palestinians, leading to the required to compromise or submit to destabilization, polarization and influence or power in any way that dismemberment of the country. would prejudice its basic needs.3

38 Centre for International Development and Conflict Management Lebanon 1984 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 810,000 1975-1990 Read ‘The Management of Protracted Social Conflicts’by 167,000 (COW) Edward Azar (Dartmouth Publishing, UK, 1990) for a concise Refugees: analysis of the causes of the war and the CIDCM intervention. Cost of Involvement: Unknown A good first hand account of the conflict is Thomas Freidman’s Not available ‘From Beirut to Jerusalem’ (Harper Collins, London, 1998).

The aim of the first workshop was to When problems arose, the panel used The first meeting was an Outcome determine whether a united Lebanon a variety of techniques to get the ball overwhelming success with all parties As Azar summarises, ‘CIDCM was desired as a homeland for the rolling again. For instance one agreeing on a shared vision for problem-solving workshops among various Lebanese communities. deadlock was ended when the panel Lebanon as an independent, unified specific groups in conflict often start Almost immediately it became clear portrayed the experience of other Arab country and a meeting place with sparks flying but end in warm that participants had not been able to societies with protracted social between and Islam. handshakes.’6 This aptly described communicate with each other across conflicts such as Srilanka and Cyprus. Importantly the group drew up a list of what happened at the two forums held the ‘green line’ in Beirut that This comparative method was used shared needs and values relating to in Maryland in 1984 and stands as separated the two sides. Thus the first with great effect. As Azar notes issues such as security, identity, one of the clearest outcomes of the day of the talks was taken up by a ‘As the panel of facilitators equality and participation. talks. This relationship building sharing of information and papers. compares cases and By creating a shared 'CIDCM developed into an informal network of Despite the fact that the participants speaks about other vision for the future problem-solving community leaders, many of whom came ‘armed’ with position papers conflicts and how of their country the maintained communication in spite and other lobbying materials, the those have failed workshops among specific participants had (and probably because) of the facilitators were able to move the or succeeded groups in conflict often start made a vital step continued instability and violence in participants away from this potentially and why, then with sparks flying but end in towards the Lebanon. This network appears to paralysing scenario into a more new creative transition from a warm handshakes.' have flourished and by 1988 the creative space. Soon the talks ideas emerge, war to a peace group drafted a paper called the became more intense and as Azar and the mentality. ‘National Covenant Document’, which recalls, ‘high levels of tension filled participants outlined ideas for beginning the the air, emotions were clearly become excited The second reunification of Lebanon and initiating revealed and deadlocks were by new insights into workshop built a much needed healing process. encountered at different times.’4 their own dilemma upon the success of and its dynamics.’5 the first by asking, The list of principles that made up the The role of the facilitators was well ‘What kind of united National Covenant Document was defined. It remained neutral; its main It was also felt that the talks Lebanon was desired?’ While included as a basis for the Taif task was that of questioning and should be absolutely confidential. the question was not fully addressed Accords held in in making observations rather than Carried out under the guise of an a joint declaration was issued which October 1989 and which ended the proposing solutions. Each facilitator academic seminar, no publicity was clarified many of the key issues that war. While fighting continued, the was selected for his or her intimate allowed and only when there were had plagued Lebanese politics for Accords did begin the transition from knowledge of the conflict (especially substantive results at the end of the many years. All parties also war to peace and as such the CIDCM the social-psychological factors second meeting was the press emphasised the need to co-exist as contribution stands as an important affecting parties in the conflict), cross informed. communities and to work together in piece in the process. cultural experience and sensitivity. some framework yet to be designed to reconstruct the country.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 39

1989 - 1992 Malawi

The Community of Sant’Egidio Mozambique Mozambique Zimbabwe

South Africa Maputo Background FRELIMO’s support for the African Involvement National Congress (ANC) and its On April 25 1974, Portuguese The Community of Sant’Egidio Marxist-Leninist ideology also brought When the Kenya sponsored talks collapsed, taking with it 's originally became involved in similar economic and military broke down, RENAMO leader Afonso strife-ridden empire. From her former Mozambique through their friend Dom retribution from South Africa. Thus by Dhlakama travelled to Rome to meet African colonies, nearly a million Jaime Gonçalves, Archbishop of the time Mugabe won power in members of the Italian foreign Portuguese settlers fled, bleeding Beira. The Community, a Catholic Zimbabwe in 1980, RENAMO had a ministry. The meeting was organised those countries of most of their skilled association founded in 1968 to live new and covert backer, South Africa, by the Community, and Dhlakama labour. Mozambique was no the gospel while serving the poor, was and its forces already numbered signalled his willingness to initiate exception, with the exodus of 200,000 concerned at the restrictions and 12,000 men, largely recruited from the dialogue with FRELIMO in Rome of the country's most needed human repression of the in sections of the population alienated under the auspices of Sant’Egidio. capital. Under intense pressure from Mozambique by FRELIMO. by FRELIMO’s repressive policies. Mozambican President Chissano had the main nationalist movement known RENAMO had also gained a already encouraged the Community to as FRELIMO (Frente da Libertação de This concern broadened as the gruesome reputation as the ‘Khmer pursue the possibility of dialogue with Mocambique) who argued that it Community began to learn more Rouge’ of Africa, through a catalogue RENAMO and thus the stage was set should take power immediately and about the war, and soon they began of atrocities meted out on the civilian for a meeting. without elections, Portugal to organise deliveries of humanitarian population, and as the war intensified aid to the country. Through these acquiesced, despite the fact that the The first meeting took place in July Mozambique's entire infrastructure efforts, members of the Community country was manifestly ill-prepared for 1990 at the Community’s and economy began to fall apart. began to develop close ties with a smooth transition to independence. headquarters, a beautiful sixteenth FRELIMO in addition to the growing century restored convent in the centre Between 1984 and 1989 various relationship it enjoyed with the Italian FRELIMO’s economic policies as well of Rome. At the talks were four attempts were made to broker a deal government and the Vatican who as its own brand of scientific observers: two from the Community of between the two sides in the conflict. knew of and had supported the did little to help the country off to a Sant’Egidio (Andrea Riccardi and South Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Community's humanitarian work. By good start. Furthermore its support for Matteo Zuppi), one from Mozambican the US all tried but failed, and all the the late 1980s the Community had 's ZANU nationalist civil society (Archbishop Jaime while the war was inflicting terrible even managed to build good movement which was fighting Ian Gonçalves) and one from the Italian damage on the country. connections with RENAMO through Smith's minority regime in Government (Mario Raffaelli). The their involvement in negotiations to (Zimbabwe) led to the creation of the tranquil setting and close attention win the release of a Portuguese Sister Rhodesian-backed Mozambican paid by the Community to the needs who had been kidnapped by the insurgent movement, RENAMO, of each group was vital in creating an group. which launched military attacks on environment conducive to dialogue. FRELIMO’s forces as well as the civilian population.

40 The Community of Sant’Egidio Mozambique 1989 - 1992 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 5,000,000 War Torn Societies See Accord - an International Review of Peace Initiatives. No3, 200,000 battle related deaths Project (WSP) - www.unrisd.org/wsp published by Conciliation Resources -for an overview of the entire (COW: www.umich.edu/~cowproj) process. See also Cameron Hume’s book 'Ending Mozambique's Refugees: War' (United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington, 1994) for an in depth account of the Sant'Egidio negotiations. For more Cost of Involvement: 2,000,000 (WSP) $350,000 information on Sant’Egidio see www.santegidio.org/ total contribution from St Egidio

Meanwhile behind the scenes a whole Prior to each meeting, the mediating For example the Italian, US and The UN was given the responsibility of team unpaid volunteers provided all team would talk with each side to Portuguese governments provided overseeing the transition from war to the services needed to ensure that explore the possibilities for progress, various forms of support, including peace which led to the holding of the the meetings went smoothly, from as well as brainstorming and sharing financial, logistical, military and legal first free elections in October 1994. secretarial and translation to catering information. No meeting was ever assistance as and when necessary, and transportation. Throughout the allowed to occur unless positive President Mugabe of Zimbabwe Looking back it is true to say that the meeting, Riccardi and Zuppi conclusions were foreseen. helped foster direct personal collapse of the Soviet Union, the end encouraged the parties to focus on Success, then, was built dialogue between Chissano of the Cold War, the fall of the what united them rather than what incrementally. and Dhlakama Government in South divided them so that ‘in the spirit of towards the end of Africa, a particularly devastating mutual understanding, they can The Community also ‘The precondition 1992 and Tiny Rowland drought in the early 1990s and a engage in a dialogue in which they carefully managed all for successful of the British mutually damaging military stalemate discuss their points of view.’1 contact with the human multinational Lonrho flew all paved the way for each side to international press and communication Dhlakama to and from consider pursuing dialogue. However, At the end of that meeting a some of the talks were is a positive meetings in his personal since several efforts at negotiation remarkable breakthrough was held secretly. According to jet and provided had failed, it is likely that the achieved when both sides agreed to Andrea Bartoli, a member psychological RENAMO with financial Community of Sant’Egidio brought to ‘dedicate themselves fully, in a spirit of of the Community, another space.’ support. These inputs, the table something extra. One of the mutual respect and understanding, to important factor for the Andrea Bartoli and many others, added most important qualities was that it the search for a working basis...for success of these momentum to the was trusted by both sides. As Bartoli building a lasting peace.’2 Given that meetings was the process, helping move notes ‘In so delicate a negotiation, the FRELIMO had hitherto refused to creation of synergies the parties closer possibility of relying on trustworthy even acknowledge RENAMO, this between all the parties involved. towards a settlement. interlocutors was an essential element blueprint for future talks was the ‘These interpersonal bonds became in fostering trust between the two crucial stepping stone on the road to significant assets that enabled Outcome sides themselves’4. Bartoli adds, ‘The peace. members to better cope with precondition for successful human For two years the meetings continued difficulties encountered in later stages communication is a positive in Rome, culminating in October 1992 Subsequent meetings followed this of the process.’3 psychological space’.5 That the in the signing of a comprehensive breakthrough with the team of four Community of Sant’Egidio created peace accord. This document soon being asked to act as fully As the talks progressed an precisely that space is perhaps one of included provisions for the fledged mediators. extraordinary variety of state and non- their greatest achievements, for it demobilisation and re-integration of state actors became involved in the enabled the parties to the conflict to combatants, the creation of a new process. creatively explore new opportunities Mozambican Defence Force, creation for achieving peace. of political parties and freedom of movement and freedom of the press. War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 41 1977 - 1983 Bolivia

Paraguay Las Madres de Plaza de Mayo Brazil Argentina

Background Soon the junta declared all political Yet they persevered, agreeing to return to the square the following In 1976 a military coup ended the activity illegal, the judiciary was filled week and the weeks thereafter. Argentina Uruguay Peronist era and ushered in a period with sympathisers of the regime and At the same time, in order to enlist of repression which soon became all forms of media were either the support of other mothers, the Buenos Aires • known as the ‘Guerra Sucia’ - the dirty censored or subjected to routine women went from house to war. Spearheaded by Gen. Jorge threats. Civil society was house, spreading their Rafael Videla, the coup was driven by comprehensively shut down. One of the message. ‘Out of every five a combination of (heavily most striking houses visited, three wouldn't influenced by Catholicism, European Involvement aspects of this open the door, and when they group was how they fascism and nazism) and National On Saturday 30th April 1977, 14 did they didn't speak or trust us. used the avowedly Security Doctrine (NSD). NSD, women met at the Plaza de Mayo, at But there were two which would Catholic regime’s rhetoric enthusiastically propagated by the US the heart of Buenos Aires, to protest 2 receive our message.’ of ‘family values’ against through its army-run ‘School of the at the disappearance of their loved itself. In searching for their Americas’, emphasized amongst ones. For almost a year these women By October 1977, despite children, the women were in other things that the military had a had been seeking answers, knocking increasing police threats and effect demanding that their responsibility to do anything on the doors of the Interior Ministry as intimidation, the mothers had traditional role as mothers, necessary to protect the country from well as police stations and jails gained quite a reputation for wives and carers of the family be Communist subversion. throughout the country in a desperate their protests at the Plaza de respected. This perhaps explains attempt to learn what had become of Mayo. For instance during a visit The killings and disappearances why they were initially ignored by the disappeared, the Desaparecidos. by the then US Assistant Secretary of began immediately, continuing the the regime, since they were mothers Now, at the Plaza de Mayo, State for Inter-American Affairs, work done by earlier paramilitary - not political activists - which enabled surrounded by the institutions of the , the women were forces such as Argentine Anti- them to slowly but surely build support regime - including the Presidential warned to leave the Plaza de Mayo by Communist Alliance. While the junta for their cause. Palace and the Interior Ministry - they the state security forces. The women claimed that its aim was to destroy brought their search for the truth out refused. Soldiers soon arrived, leftist armed subversion, the real Their work was fraught with danger. into the open. decked in riot gear, and took aim at targets included anyone who dared to Within the space of one week - as the the women. As the soldiers readied mothers prepared to place an oppose the regime such as workers, Hebe de Bonafini, one of the original their weapons the women shouted advertisement in the national union leaders, intellectuals and mothers and now head of the group, ‘fire!’ causing the journalists newspaper, La Nacion, to highlight students. 60% of the estimated recalls their first meeting. ‘Nobody assembled to see Todman meet with their cause - three of their members, 30,000 people that disappeared paid the slightest attention to us and President Videla, to turn their including their founder, were abducted during the ‘’ were young 1 we realised it had been a failure.’ cameras on them. Such publicity was adults in their twenties. and killed. quickly transmitted around the world.

42 Las Madres de Plaza de Mayo Argentina 1977 - 1983 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Of the dozens of books written about the Mothers and the human rights situation in 15 - 30,000 (various sources) Argentina, see ‘Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza De Mayo’ by Marguerite Guzman Bouvard (Scholarly Resources, USA, 1994), ‘Circle Refugees: of Love over Death: Testimonies of the Mothers of the Plaza De Mayo’by Cost of Involvement: Unknown Matilde Mellibovsky (Curbstone Press, Connecticut USA, 1997) and ‘The Politics Unknown of Human Rights in Argentina’ by Alison Brysk (Stanford University Press, USA, 1994). See www.madres.org for more about the Mothers.

Yet such traumatic events only Argentina had quickly become a Outcome If, as several scholars have argued, strengthened the women's resolve. pariah. Privately the regime put the Towards the end of 1979 - around the the level of disappearances fell as a Every time one member of the group blame squarely on the shoulders of time the IAHRC report was released - direct result of international pressure was arrested the entire group the human rights groups, including the the number of disappearances on the regime, then one must credit demanded that they were arrested. It most vocal of groups - The Mothers. dropped dramatically. Soon after, with the Mothers with having played a was all or none. By 1978 the mothers’ a slumping economy and a vitally important role, since they were protests were regularly heard in the By 1980 the women, who by growing civil society not only the first (and subsequently corridors of power, at the UN, the US, now were known as the movement more critical most vocal) group to highlight the OAS and beyond. Under President ‘Association of than ever of the junta, human rights abuses in the country, the US - Argentina’s ‘What started Mothers of Plaza de the generals but were instrumental in mobilising close ally - not only stopped as a small group of Mayo’ and had embarked on their national and international support. As supporting Argentinean applications taken to wearing women in search of their ill-fated attempt to the Commission on the Disappeared for much needed loans from the white triangular capture the (CONADEP), which was set up multilateral banks but also introduced missing children had rapidly scarves Falkland/Malvinas following the return to civilian rule, a ban on private commercial arms developed into a powerful emblazoned with Islands, over states: ‘The springboard for this sales and government-to-government the names of their social movement, which which Argentina universal mobilization of military sales and training. disappeared continues to this day.’ had a long- consciousness was the unsung, children, had an standing claim. heroic achievement of the Mothers of Meanwhile, Argentina was not only office, were the Plaza de Mayo’3. fighting a move by the UN Human publishing a regular Its crushing defeat in the Rights Commission to have the newsletter and were war with the British This reinvigorated civil society country blacklisted, but it was also further strengthening their precipitated the collapse of the continues to serve the country well. defending itself against constant alliances with human rights groups regime, leading to the return of a As Alison Brysk, author of ‘The politics criticism from the OAS Inter-American around the world. All the while their civilian government. Indeed it is of human rights in Argentina’ remarks, Human Rights Commission (IAHRC). relentless pursuit of truth and justice widely acknowledged that human ‘this sea change in social In 1979, following an investigative had emboldened human rights rights groups such as the Mothers consciousness helped transform mission to the country, the IAHRC groups, NGOs, the media and many had so seriously undermined the Argentina from a fractured society issued a damning report on the others to add their voice to the legitimacy of the regime that the where violence was unquestioned human rights abuses of the regime, growing anti regime chorus. What generals were left with little option but across the political spectrum and all based in part on the testimonies of started as a small group of women in to return the country to civilian rule issues viewed as partisan, to a true the mothers. search of their missing children had following the war. civil society with growing respect for rapidly developed into a powerful fundamental rights, greater tolerance, social movement, which continues to and attempts to limit state power.’4 this day.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 43 1993 - 1997 Liberian Women’s Initiative Liberia Sierra Leone Ivory Liberia Coast Monrovia Background While promising sweeping reforms, Over the coming years the NPFL Doe soon revealed himself to be splintered and was joined by other On December 24th 1989 a group of corrupt and brutal, steering the groups, a succession of peace 150 fighters calling themselves the country towards economic, political accords were signed and promptly National Patriotic Front of Liberia That issue was disarmament before and social collapse. As he purged the collapsed and the country descended (NPFL), led by an ex-civil servant elections, which had already proved government of all ‘enemies’ he began deeper and deeper into chaos. called Charles Taylor, invaded Liberia exceptionally difficult to accomplish. to surround himself with members of with the aim of toppling the corrupt The previous year, the Cotonou his own ethnic group, the Krahn. and despotic regime of Samuel Doe. Involvement Accord had been signed, which like its predecessor, the Yamoussoukro As they swept across the country the As the war raged, Mary Brownell, a The attempted coup against him by Accord (1991) made provisions for national army, the Armed Forces of retired school teacher, came up with a former allies from the Mano and Gio ceasefires and disarmament before Liberia (AFL), launched a massive ‘wild idea’ - to form a women’s ethnic groups provoked a vicious elections. Both accords had counter-insurgency campaign. Soon pressure group to speak out against response from Doe, thus raising the unravelled as the factions continued the country was at war. the war. For some time she had been spectre of a war based purely along fighting. struck by the silence of Liberian ethnic/tribal divisions. This is what The roots of the conflict can be traced women in the face of overwhelming eventually happened. As one LWI’s task, then, was far from easy. back to the founding of the state in suffering. Now was a time for change. commentator notes, ‘The war Against formidable odds, including a 1822 by a group of freed American With a few friends she decided to degenerated from a calculated conflict severe lack of finances, LWI slaves. From the very birth of the organise a public meeting at for control of the state to a horrendous succeeded in sending two women to nation, the freed slaves, the ‘Americo- Monrovia's city hall. In front of a slaughter waged along ethnic lines’1 participate in the Akosombo meeting Liberians’ monopolised all positions of packed audience, Brownell spoke. between the Krahn dominated AFL in Accra, Ghana, where leaders were power and authority, excluding ‘We can’t just sit here any longer. We and Taylor's Mano and Gio backed desperately trying to bolster the virtually all the indigenous groups must get our voices heard and make NPFL. Cotonou Accord. Despite being from the interior, whom they our presence felt...We want to be a recognised as observers only they considered ‘savages’. Resentment part of the decision making policies Numerous efforts failed to put a stop made their presence felt, literally finally boiled over in 1980 when a governing our country.’2 to the fighting. The Economic group of men led by Samuel K Doe waiting in the corridors that led to the Community of West African States meeting rooms and lobbying every stormed the presidential palace, killed By January 1994 the Liberian (ECOWAS), which had installed a individual that walked past. While the the President and took over the state. Women's Initiative (LWI) was born. Its Ceasefire Monitoring Group effect of their presence is unclear, it is primary aim was to attend the peace (ECOMOG) after a ceasefire had understood that many of the faction talks and appeal directly to the been signed in November 1990, was and political leaders were impressed warring parties to end the bloodshed. quickly sucked into the conflict, by the LWI’s tenacity and Initially LWI chose to focus on one engaging the NPFL in vicious battles. determination in putting forward their issue that affected everyone. vision and proposal for peace.

44 Liberian Women’s Initiative Liberia 1993 - 1997 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Read the ACCORD issue dedicated to the Liberian Peace Process (published by 1,200,000 1996 150,000 battle related deaths Conciliation Resources www.c-r.org). Also see the report ‘Women at the Peace (US Dept of State) (Uppsala) Table: Making a Difference’ (UNIFEM, New York, 2000) and Best Practices in peace building and non violent conflict resolution (UNIFEM, New York, 1999) Refugees: for more about LWI and other significant women's contributions to peacemaking. Cost of Involvement: 750,000 (US Dept of State) Also visit www.fasngo.org for more about women peace builders in Africa. Unknown

Between the formal negotiations that As consultants, then, the LWI became On one occasion the LWI even The disarmament exercise was punctuated the ongoing conflict, LWI discreet but influential voices in the managed to bring the warlords largely successful, with 85% of increased its advocacy work, peace process. Indeed - perhaps as a together to participate in a workshop combatants voluntarily disarmed. As contacting organisations and result of LWI's constant pressure - the aimed at fostering closer the country geared up for elections, governments around the world in Accra conference introduced the idea communication and a greater LWI sprung into action, training order to focus attention on the of including a woman in the five-man understanding between each side in hundreds of election monitors as well situation in Liberia. They also transitional government, as provided the conflict. as mobilising women throughout the appeared on national and for in the Cotonou Accords. country to vote. The elections, which international radio and television Outcome brought Charles Taylor to power, programmes in order to gain more Whenever the factions reneged on signalled the end of the war. Two further major meetings took public support for their work. their promises the LWI took to the place, at both of which LWI streets, helping organise So what impact did LWI have? ‘I say was present. At the last of In December 1994 another major demonstrations in the capital without any reservation that LWI made these, in August 1996 - an meeting took place that brought all and outside the US a great difference at that peace table’, ECOWAS summit in the warring factions together. Here embassy and UN says Brownell.4 While LWI certainly Abuja - Ruth Perry, a too, at the Accra Clarifications offices. This cannot claim the greatest share of the founding member Conference, the women made sure included two very As consultants, credit for the eventual success of the of LWI, became that their voices were heard, with six successful ‘stay at then, the LWI became peace process, there is little doubt head of the members of LWI forcing their way into home’ that theirs was a significant discreet but influential Council of the conference. Again they were campaigns in contribution. Their relentless lobbying State of the denied official participation on the response to voices in the peace for peace and disarmament at the transitional grounds that they were not direct continuing highest levels, coupled with their process. government. parties to the conflict. attacks on the ability to mobilise large sections of the Under her civilian population population to call for an end to the stewardship a new On the second day of the conference, by various factions and the fighting was a very important timetable for disarmament was before the parties began the official militarisation of Liberian society. component in the process that ended agreed. Shortly afterwards, business, the floor was given over to Effectively paralysing the capital city, seven years of war. disarmament finally began and the the LWI. Brownell recalls ‘It was quite these acts of civil disobedience sent LWI mobilised women to do what they interesting to see those men who did out a powerful signal to the warlords could to support the process. As a not want us to sit at the table, that the people wanted peace. result many women went to the consulting with us on various disarmament sites to hand out drinks pertinent issues affecting the of water and sandwiches to the country.’3 fighters who were handing in their weapons.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 45 1984 - 2001+ Local Peace Commissions and the Council of Evangelical Churches in Nicaragua (CEPAD) Nicaragua Mexico

Background Soon they were joined by They wanted bitterly divided families, Soon they began to win Honduras US military intervention has been a disenchanted Sandinistas and many of whom had loved ones agreements from both Tegucigalpa feature of Nicaraguan history for peasants, many of whom were forced fighting on both sides of the conflict, sides for the community, Nicaragua almost one hundred years. Ever since to serve against their will, as well as to be reunited. They wanted to make such as the return of the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, which indigenous groups from the Atlantic the region safer for civilians caught up kidnapped family Managua effectively signalled to the European Coast who were historically opposed in the fighting. members, the right to the Nicaraguan government. to return to their fields Costa Rica powers that Central and South San Jose America was a US sphere of Contra attacks - on civilians as much This group of determined civilians, in safety to plant and harvest influence, Nicaragua has been as Sandinista forces - quickly calling themselves a local ‘peace their crops and the right to travel subject to the whims of US destabilised the entire country, which commission’, approached the local about the countryside without being commercial, political and strategic soon found itself in a destructive civil branch of CEPAD - the Council of accused of being spies. Though small interests. war. Evangelical Churches in Nicaragua - achievements within the larger context for help. CEPAD offered their of the war, they were the first step in In 1979 the Sandinistas came to One region in particular, Nueva unequivocal support and helped the restoring a measure of normality to power, overthrowing the corrupt and Guinea, was the scene of very heavy people organise meetings with the lives of the people in the area. As oppressive regime of Anastasio fighting between Contra and government and military leaders at all one commentator notes, ‘Campesinos Somoza. The Sandinistas, a left wing Sandinista forces. Its proximity to levels to win their support. CEPAD were no longer to be mere victims. force inspired by the Costa Rica - home to many of the key also provided office space, a Rather they became instruments of and driven by the manifest inequity in Contra bases - had made the area a secretary and vehicles for their work. peace, agents of change.’2 Nicaragua under the Somoza regime, hotbed of Contra activity. In addition, At the same time tentative contacts were seen as an immediate and according to one commentator, Nueva were established with the Contra As word spread of their success, so unequivocal threat to US interests. Guinea suffered particularly badly with leadership in the hope that they would other groups of citizens, usually led by When, in the early 1980s, the the collapse of the Somoza regime meet with the peace commission and a local pastor or Catholic lay leader, Sandinistas began forging close links since many infrastructure projects present their aims to them face-to- came together to form peace with the USSR, the US government were abandoned when the face. commissions. By 1987 - the date of began rapidly arming and funding the Sandinistas came to power.1 the signing of the Esquilpas Accord remnants of Somoza's National Initially both the Sandinistas and (commonly known as the Arias Peace Guard, which became known as the Involvement were deeply suspicious of the Plan) that began the slow process of group, believing them to be spies for ending the war - there were 28 such Contras. The violence that plagued Nueva the enemy. However, over time and commissions in Nueva Guinea. Guinea prompted a group of people - because many members were church farmers, Protestant pastors, teachers leaders, the nascent peace and others - to act. They wanted commission began to prove itself as a people kidnapped by both sides neutral party committed to peace. released.

46 Local Peace Commissions and the Council of Evangelical Churches in Nicaragua Nicaragua 1984 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Read the CEPAD reports by visiting CEPAD’s website at 43,000 www.cepad.org.ni. Also see Mark Chupp’s account of his 1982-1990 (COW) Refugees: experience with the local peace commissions in the book ‘From 70,000 the Ground Up - Mennonite Contributions to International Cost of Involvement: 1989 - 95 (UNHCR) ’ (Oxford University Press, UK, 2000). $15,000 per year

Soon local peace commissions were In other cases - where Contras For instance, one group of 200 Re- Since the areas in which the peace trekking regularly into the hills to meet refused to disarm whilst Sandinista Contras continued to fight until 1994 commissions operate are still with Contra leaders, engaging them in forces were in the area - the local when, after months of dialogue with a desperately poor, lacking basic a process of genuine dialogue. In peace commissions engaged in local peace commission, they finally education, health, communication and many cases the commissions used shuttle diplomacy between the two handed in their weapons. The Re- transport infrastructure, many their time with the Contras to voice sides, in many cases persuading the Contra commandante recalls that at commissions have evolved into their concerns over the abuse of local Sandinistas to retreat so that the first he suspected that the peace ‘community committees of people by Contra forces. In other Contras could descend from the commission members were spies development’ - helping communities cases they talked to the Contras hills, avoiding the risk of an for the government, but, ‘It rebuild themselves both physically about recent developments in the armed confrontation with became clear over time and psychologically, as well as peace process, breaches of ceasefire, their adversaries. that they’re neutral working tirelessly to bring peace to the government offer of amnesty for ‘the space they people who watch the region. any Contra fighters and any human The end of the war, created provided an out for the rights of rights violations by both sides. At a however, did not all Nicaraguans.’3 At the last count there were 220 time when many Contras had no see an end to the arena for the Contra peace commissions throughout the intention of laying down their arms, violence. Indeed leaders and Sandinistas... For him, the country, 146 of which were this channel of communication was the failure of the turning point concentrated in Nueva Guinea alone. vital in building trust between the local new government to see each other again came during a Captain Pablo Briton, the army’s people and a force that appeared to honour all its as human beings.’ tense stand off commander in Nueva Guinea, credits accountable to no-one. commitments led to between the Re- the peace commissions with ‘making the re-arming of many Contras and the region stable again’.4 Mark By the time the war officially ended Contra groups who government troops Chupp, a Mennonite worker who following a UN brokered peace became known as Re- when, in an act of worked with the peace commissions, accord in 1989 and the election of a Contras. In response the number remarkable bravery, one agrees. ‘They became brokers of new government in February 1990, of peace commissions grew, commission member switched hats trust, where the space they created there were 96 local peace continuing their work to create a safe and coats with him in order to protect provided an arena for the Contra commissions, supported and space where dialogue could take him. leaders and Sandinistas - and the rest coordinated by regional/zonal peace place, building trust between former of the polarized population - to see commissions. Such was the trust built enemies and assisting in the Outcome each other again as human beings.’5 up over the years that in Nueva reintegration of ex-combatants into According to Damaris Albuquerque, Guinea many of the Contras - as part community life. CEPAD Executive Director, CEPAD of the demobilization process - conceives peace not just as an agreed to hand over their arms only to absence of war but also as a state of the local peace commissions. general well being.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 47 1988 - 1996 Mexico Belize Lutheran World Federation Guatemala Honduras Guatemala Guatemala City El Salvador

Background Using a CIA sponsored He made a promise there and then By 1990 the LWF team had secured In 1952 the democratically-elected army, Arbenz was overthrown in 1954, that he would do what he could to the support not only of the Catholic government of President Jacobo reversing all social reforms and help. church, which was seen as a vital ally Arbenz Guzman introduced land setting in place a series of military given its influence in Guatemala, but reforms that sought to redress the backed repressive governments In 1986 Wee became Assistant more importantly, from key leaders acute social and economic disparities which systematically strangled any General Secretary for International from both the URNG, the CNR and between the two major ethnic groups popular dissent. Affairs and Human Rights for the the Ministry of Defence. The stage in the country, the ladinos (people of Geneva-based Lutheran World was set for a meeting. Spanish or mixed descent) and Unable to effect change politically, a Federation (LWF), the umbrella indigenous Mayans. The number of guerrilla movements began organisation representing most of the For Norwegian Gunnar Staalsett, the predominantly urban ladinos to emerge in the 1960s and 1970s. Lutheran Churches around the world. natural choice for the location of the dominated nearly all positions of These soon united under one banner There, a small team was quickly meeting was . As a low profile authority and control. The country's - the Guatemalan National assembled, including Gunnar European country with no colonial elite, made up almost exclusively of Revolutionary Unity (URNG). The Staalsett (LWF General Secretary), past, a uniquely close relationship ladinos and representing only 2% of army’s response, with the continued Leopoldo Niilus (Special Consultant between government and non- the population, owned almost 70% of support of the US, was as one for International Affairs to the LWF) governmental organisations and a the land, whilst 90% of Guatemalan commentator noted, ‘unprecedented and Petter Skauen (from Norwegian foreign policy that gave priority to farms owned by the predominantly in its brutality’2. Entire areas of the Church Aid) which promptly set to development and the peaceful Mayan population were too small to country - thought to be harbouring work in an attempt to bring the two resolution of conflicts, it was the ideal support the average family.1 guerrillas or their sympathisers - were sides in Guatemala's long running discrete and neutral partner in the depopulated. conflict together. In many respects, talks. According to Staalsett, just one Arbenz’s attempts to expropriate land their timing was fortuitous. In 1985 in phone call to the Ministry of Foreign for redistribution prompted the Involvement the face of increasing international Affairs was all it took to secure the isolation the country had returned to much needed financial and logistical country's largest single landowner, the In 1981, in the midst of the regime’s civilian rule. In 1987, as part of the support.4 US-based United Fruit Company, to scorched earth campaign, the Rev Arias Peace Plan which sought to seek help from the CIA. Seeing this as Paul Wee, a Lutheran Pastor, was bring an end to the wars in Central For five days in an isolated and an excuse to purge the Guatemalan visiting Guatemala as part of a America, a series of Commissions of picturesque government owned chalet government of any communist National Council of Churches National Reconciliation (CNR) were somewhere outside Oslo the two influence, they were willing to oblige. delegation. ‘Whole areas of set up in a number of Central sides talked. While the LWF team had Guatemala were being devastated, American countries. The CNR in taken on a mediating role, their thousands of people being killed and Guatemala was the vehicle through primary task as they saw it was to those who had escaped came to us which the government would make facilitate dialogue between the two and told us their stories’, recalls Wee. the first tentative contacts with the groups. ‘I had never heard anything so guerrillas. horrible in my life.’3 48 Lutheran World Federation Guatemala 1988 - 1996 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 1,000,000 See ‘Negotiating Rights, the Guatemalan Peace Process’ part of the 100,000 - 150,000 1981 - 1983 (UNHCR) ‘Accord’ series published by Conciliation Resources (www.c-r.org) for war related deaths 1967 - 1996 a good analysis of the Guatemalan Peace Process. Another good book (various sources) Refugees: is Susanne Jonas’s ‘Of Centaurs and Doves’ (Westview Press, 100,000 (UNHCR) Boulder Colorado USA, 2000). For more information on the LWF see Cost of Involvement: www.lutheranworld.org and www.thelutheran.org. $80,000

Leopoldo Niilus recalls how he told That night the LWF team and the For instance in they arranged Outcome the participants on several occasions, group stayed up all night drafting what for the URNG to meet representatives Through fits and starts and over a ‘Listen friends and gentlemen; this is would become known as the ‘Basic from Guatemala’s 32 political parties. period of six years the peace process your civil war. If you yourselves have Agreement on the Search for Peace These early talks were critical in finally came to its conclusion on Dec a strong desire to find a peaceful way by Political Means’ - not a peace helping build momentum for the 29th 1996 in Guatemala City. There, out and think that we can be of some accord as such but rather an fledgling peace process. the agreement on a firm and lasting assistance, please tell us. If not, say agreement on how to reach an peace was signed by the Government so.’5 agreement. It was a momentous When the UN was brought in to carry and the URNG, ending 36 years of occasion. At 9am the next morning forward the process the LWF, World war. On the final evening came a the document was signed which Council of Churches, Latin American breakthrough. During an after dinner signalled the beginning of the end Council of Churches and National Over the years a variety of external discussion, the group began to tell of the war. Wee remembers Council of Churches of and internal factors conspired to help each other stories about their shaking with excitement. Christ of the USA - who bring an end to the war. The end of childhood. Some of the adversaries ‘I remember thinking in 1988 had formed a 'Suddenly communism, the Arias peace plan and discovered that they grew up in the that if nothing else special Central the return to civilian rule in the late same neighbourhoods; others even happened in my there were tears, American task force 1980s were some of the more notable went to the same school together. As ministry, I would be to help bring peace abrazos (hugs) and factors. However, the role of the LWF the night wore on, they began to talk content’ he recalls.8 to the region - a determination to was pivotal. ‘Without you, we wouldn’t about their shared vision for the arranged a series of be here’10 said Jorge Rosal, one of country: peace, security and However the LWF hammer out an ‘Ecumenical the four guerrilla leaders, to the LWF. economic growth. ‘Suddenly there role was far from Encounters.’ These agreement' The chief UN negotiator, Francesc were tears’, says Wee '...abrazos over. Despite offering brought together people Vendrell, agreed. ‘Nothing would have (hugs) and a determination to to withdraw from the from all walks of life in happened in the peace process hammer out an agreement.’6 Looking process, they were asked to Guatemala as well as without you.’11 back, Wee would call this the remain involved ‘as people international actors such as the dynamics of grace: acceptance, accompanying the process, helping to Vatican, UN, OAS and US to help prayer, confession, forgiveness, keep everyone honest.’9 bolster the process. These reconciliation and thanksgiving.7 consultations, which were held at In the following months, based on various cities throughout the world what came to be known as the Oslo came at particularly difficult times in Accord, the CNR, supported by the the peace process and according to LWF, arranged a series of meetings many people, helped revitalise it. around the world between participants of the peace talks and sections of Guatemalan society.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 49 1989 - 1990

Zimbabwe Natal Chamber of Industries Mexico Botswana Mozambique South Africa Pretoria Lesotho Swaziland Mpumalanga Background Very soon Mpumalanga descended For Simpson, the choice was clear. Durban Mpumalanga township was built in into violence, becoming known as The boardroom of SA Nylon Spinners South Africa the 1960s to house the thousands of ‘Little Beirut.’ In one instance, had for years been the venue for all black workers who supplied the following a denunciation of the UDF, major meetings throughout the entire factories of nearby Hammarsdale, a ANC and COSATU by the Zulu King region and so seemed the ideal major industrial town. With the and Chief Buthelezi of the IFP, setting for a meeting between apartheid government starving the massive violence erupted in adversaries. In addition, the violence Soon afterwards a small committee local area of almost all basic Mpumalanga, with hundreds of was affecting businesses so seriously made up of two white industrialists community facilities and services and houses being destroyed and many that many were contemplating closing and three black businessmen was with the unemployment rate people killed. Local businesses down their operations. However, appointed. Having quickly gained the estimated to be over 50%, the area suffered tremendously. The local bus while Simpson was keen to help, the support of the leadership of the local experienced frequent bouts of social company withdrew its service as a risks were also clear. The nearby ANC/UDF and IFP for the meeting to unrest. result of the escalating violence, Pietermaritzburg chamber of take place, the committee arranged a workers began to leave their jobs and commerce had tried to intervene in series of pre-meeting workshops to In 1986 violence broke out principally their homes in search of a safer place the violence that plagued their region, ‘prime’ each side separately with tools between supporters of the United to live and absenteeism rocketed. but the initiative failed abysmally, with and techniques which they felt would Democratic Front (UDF) - a front for its leader being forced to resign. help the ANC/UDF and IFP gain a the then-banned African National Involvement better understanding of the conflict and clarify their role in it. Such tools Congress (ANC) - and the Inkatha In 1989, as the situation continued to With this in mind, Simpson proceeded included environmental mapping Freedom Party (IFP), whom the ANC deteriorate, local shop steward slowly, firstly contacting black (charting all the stakeholders in the accused of being a ‘puppet’ of the James Ngubane approached Steve business leaders to seek not only conflict), force field analysis (a method state. A shadowy ‘third force’ is known Simpson, HR Manager for one of their approval but also their full used to get a whole view of all the to have precipitated much of the Hammarsdale's major companies, SA cooperation. The simple argument forces for or against a plan so that a violence: this was the South African Nylon Spinners, to ask for help. put forward by Simpson - that decision can be made which takes security force and the ‘kits konstabels’ Having failed in his attempt to violence was bad for business - was into account all interests) and other black constables, who with almost no organise a meeting between the UDF powerful enough to win him the brainstorming techniques. training were deployed in conflict- and IFP leadership, Ngubane hoped support he needed from the black ridden townships, ostensibly to that Simpson, who was also the business community. contain the violence but in reality Chairman of the local branch of the known for their lawless behaviour. Natal Chamber of Industries, would throw his weight behind a renewed attempt at halting the violence.

50 Natal chamber of Industries South Africa 1989 - 1990 Internally displaced: For More information: Deaths: Unknown See the testimony of Professor John Aitcheson (University of 14,000 for the entire country 1990 - Pietermaritzburg) at the South African Truth and Reconciliation 1994 (SA Human Rights Committee) Refugees: Commission (www.truth.org.za/hrvtrans/HRVPMB/pmb1.htm) Unknown for a good overview of the background to the violence that Cost of Involvement: plagued Mpumalanga and the surrounding area. Not available

This pre-meeting training was The meeting was scheduled for the That night a ceasefire was signed. The meeting, held in November, was absolutely vital. For instance, through 30th November 1989. Despite a huge The following day the leader of the a resounding success, a tribute to the the environmental mapping exercise it outbreak of violence the night before UDF, Archie Gumede, and a leadership and determination of became clear that there were several and a demonstration by the IFP, the representative of the IFP came to Meshack Radebe (ANC) and Sipho smaller political parties in the area, trust that had built up between the Mpumalanga to endorse the Mlaba (IFP) who became such close with only minimal support, who were committee and both parties enabled agreement. For the next ten weeks, working partners that they were seen as ‘muscling in’ on what was the meeting to continue. the two parties met on known as ‘the twins’. Following the essentially a conflict between the average three times a week. meeting, joint rallies for peace were ANC/UDF and IFP. As a result, both When the two sides finally During this time breaches of called by both parties. Soon after the sides were keen that the other parties entered the boardroom, When the the ceasefire were ANC and IFP signed the National be kept out of the meeting. Simpson the tension was immense. two sides finally discussed and meetings Peace Accord and peace was finally communicated this to each of the ‘It was a “high noon” entered the were also convened with cemented in the area. parties separately and to his surprise atmosphere’ at the boardroom, the the army and police, who they agreed to not interfere in the meeting, recalls were felt to be While Simpson acknowledges that ANC/UDF and IFP discussions. Simpson.2 On the one tension was immense. aggravating the situation. the success of the Mpumalanga side of the room were 'It was a “high noon” By now, the NCI had Peace Initiative must be attributed to These pre-meeting workshops, which 25 representatives of atmosphere' taken on the role of the leadership of Meshack Radebe took place once a week for six weeks, the UDF. On the other mediator at the express and Sipho Mlaba, who were ultimately served another vital function. Aside were only 6 invitation of both sides. responsible for taking the bold steps from helping each party focus on the representatives of the towards peace, the role of the real problems at the heart of the IFP. Both sides were determined not Outcome Hammarsdale Industrialists must not violence and helping them understand to look at each other. Simpson, who The fragile peace was disrupted be ignored. For without their what they wanted out of the meeting, had been asked by both sides to act several times. In February 1990, guidance, support and active the workshops helped build the as mediator, began the meeting by following the unbanning of the ANC, partnership of the process from the confidence of both sides. 'It was like writing the agendas of both sides in violence erupted and by April the two very beginning, the history of the 1 marriage guidance counselling', different colours. As he wrote, a sides had stopped talking altogether. township may have taken a very notes Simpson, with his team pattern began to emerge. Both sides Again the NCI coordinating committee different course. encouraging, cajoling, and wanted freedom of movement. Both stepped in to bring the ANC and IFP emotionally supporting the parties for sides wanted better social amenities. to the table, organising another what would be the first face-to-face Both wanted the police to stop meeting at SA Nylon Spinners. meeting between each other for intimidating the people. All wanted However this time the two sides years. peace. ‘You could almost see the sigh agreed to meet without mediation, of relief that there wasn't a major which was seen by all as a positive 3 conflict of interests’ recalls Simpson. step forward.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 51 1999 - 2001+ Libya New Sudan Council of Churches

Sudan Khartoum • Eritrea

Sudan Background Involvement Secondly it was felt that both groups should be encouraged to not only tap Ethiopia The civil war in Sudan ranks as one of In June 1998, in response to this into their own traditional peacemaking Central the most devastating and protracted grave situation, the New Sudan practices but also, where appropriate, African conflicts in the world. While Council of Churches (NSCC) Republic gain an understanding of modern international attention has focused on launched an ambitious initiative to conflict management and the war between the Muslim bring Dinka and Nuer leaders Congo Kenya reconciliation techniques. Lastly, it Government of Sudan and the together, just across the border, in Uganda was hoped that joint Dinka-Nuer Christian dominated south of the Loki, Kenya. The initiative was born teams would develop strategies for Participants were allowed to speak for country, since the 1990s a parallel following tentative discussions that building peace at the grass-roots and as long as they wished and everyone conflict has wrought extensive had been held between the NSCC middle levels of society. had to listen without interrupting. For destruction to southern Sudan and to and the SPLM/A the previous year in the NSCC this method - deeply the lives of the people who have been which the NSCC were asked to do The NSCC - which since 1992 has embedded in Nuer and Dinka culture - living in the shadow of war for years. what they could to help end the been based in Nairobi, Kenya - was was aligned with their own belief that bloodshed. one of the few organisations that had listening is the beginning of rebuilding In 1991 the main rebel force in the contacts with both the Dinka and Nuer broken relationships.2 south, known as the SPLA, which was Over a period of several months key and thus was well placed to convene made up of predominantly Dinka individuals in the conflict were such a meeting. The NSCC had been This storytelling lasted for three full people, split. The largest breakaway contacted and 35 were chosen to working in Sudan since 1989 and was days. As they listened to one another group, calling themselves the SSIA participate in the meeting. They set up to represent the Christian they began to analyse the conflict was made up of predominantly Nuer included key Dinka and Nuer border churches in the areas not controlled more deeply. Lowrey recalls, ‘It was people. Since 1991 these two groups chiefs, local pastors, senior church by the Government of Sudan. as though they were peeling back have been engaged in a devastating leaders and representatives of the two layer upon layer of pain and conflict which has cost the lives of major military factional groups. The meeting began in the traditional discovering afresh, that at their core, thousands and has led to the almost manner, with the each member of the they are from one family.’3 From this complete disintegration of parts of the According to Dr William Lowrey, who group telling their personal stories of there began to evolve a common south. ‘The Dinka and Nuer were facilitated the meeting, there were how the conflict has affected them sharing in the suffering and a deep one’, said a Nuer fighter. ‘It all went three main objectives: the first was to and their communities, speaking passion for finding a way to build bad overnight.’1 help Dinka and Nuer chiefs and openly of the pain and suffering they peace and reconciliation. church leaders reconcile with one had caused each other over the another and rebuild or establish new years. relationships.

52 New Sudan Council of Churches Sudan 1999 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For further information: Deaths: 4,000,000 Check out: http://sudaninfonet.tripod.com/NSI/ an 2,000,000 in 2000 (USCR) excellent resource for information on the conflict in Sudan. since 1983 (Uppsala) Cost of Involvement: Refugees: $35,000 Initial conference in Loki. 465,000 $300 000 Larger conferences. in 2000 (USCR) $3,000,000 Annual income of NSCC.

On the fourth day, the NSCC team Soon the chiefs began to frame the On the last day of the meeting, the These gatherings, facilitated by the began to work slowly towards their conflict as neighbour-to-neighbour Nuer-Dinka Loki Accord was initialled, NSCC, have grown in size to fully second goal: that of revisiting and Dinka-to-Nuer, rather than using thumb prints rather than embrace whole communities, thus traditional and culturally grounded between SPLA and SSIA. As a result signatures since most of the ensuring that all levels of society are methods of resolving conflicts so that they started to place the burden of participants could not write. After the brought into the process. Lasting lessons could be learnt. This elicitive responsibility for making peace on thumb printing, each person was several days and often involving approach to conflict resolution - themselves. As Lowrey recalls, ‘one given an opportunity to express in hundreds of people, no issue is left providing a traditional anchor to the morning Chief William Ruaei, the words or acts the depth of their unmentioned. process of peace and reconciliation - oldest of the Nuer chiefs, said: “I did commitment to peace. Lowrey was particularly powerful for the Dinka not sleep at all last night. My body remembers one chief who began to As a result women and children who and Nuer participants, who have a was so happy because my mind dance in the middle of the group. had been abducted in raids have deep respect for the wisdom of their could only think about peace”.’4 ‘This old man at times can hardly been released, cattle raids have elders and the maintenance of time- walk,’ said Lowrey, ‘...his feet ceased, and trade has resumed, as honoured cultural practices. Finally two working groups ...classic look like clubs. But it looked have old agreements over grazing were created, one like the joy and hope of and water rights and relationships are Modern conflict resolution techniques representing each side of peacebuilding peace had captured his being restored. and concepts were then introduced, the Nile. Each group pyramid model was heart.'5 carefully tweaked so that they were discussed possible adapted to look like the An example of the spirit of relevant and understood by the strategies that inclusiveness in the peace building participants. For example J.P. would help roof of the traditional Dinka process can be seen at the signing of Lederach’s classic peacebuilding each side and Nuer home... Outcome the Waat Lou Nuer Covenant in pyramid model was adapted to look work towards This landmark event November 1999, again a direct spin- like the roof of the traditional Dinka resolving the conflict, has launched a off from the Loki Accord. During the and Nuer home, the toukel. The including roles and responsibilities, remarkable 'people to people' process signing of the Covenant and the narrow tip of the roof represented the possible spoilers or barriers to the which has seen peace and placing of thumb-prints on the elite leaders and the broad base of peace process and the date of and reconciliation conferences taking document, a young boy was found the roof represented the ordinary place for a major peace conference place on both sides of the Nile, crying outside the meeting hall. When people that needed to be brought into on the West Bank of the Nile. The throughout 1999, 2000 and into 2001, asked why, he said it was because he the peacebuilding process. working groups also recommended ending years of bloodshed between wanted to put his print on the the NSCC start to facilitate a series of the warring groups. document. He was escorted inside smaller meetings between dissident and proudly put his mark on the groups and factions on the East Bank paper. The peace, the elders told him, to culminate in an overall East Bank was being made for him. meeting.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 53 1995 - 1999 Peace Brigades International Colombia

The city of Barrancabermeja, which is Peace Brigades Venezuela Background • considered a stronghold of the FARC International was The long running conflict between the Barrancabermeja and ELN guerrilla groups, is one such conceived in 1981 at Colombian state and the left wing example. There the citizens have an international guerrillas, which has its routes in the Bogota been subjected to wave after wave of conference on period known as La Violencia1, violence from the army and non-violence in continues to exact a terrible toll on the Colombia paramilitaries. Canada. The idea, country. Between 1988 and 1992 deeply rooted in there were almost 38,000 political Ecuador Brazil One member of the state intelligence the experiences of assassinations, most of which were network recently admitted that his job active non violent First, they must know who committed by the state security forces was to ‘Collect information on targets, movements such as Peru the aggressor is. Without or by state supported paramilitary members of subversive groups and Gandhi’s Shanti Sena, began to being able to identify who is groups.2 delinquents and then kill them.’3 coalesce amongst the various groups: responsible for threatening Targets included community leaders, to mobilise and provide trained units CREDHOS, for example, PBI’s work As the state has faced mounting human rights defenders, trade of volunteers, in areas of high stood little chance of succeeding. international condemnation for the unionists and social and political tension, to avoid violent outbreaks.4 Second, PBI must make it absolutely way it has conducted its campaign activists. For instance, by 1993 six The theory behind the placement of clear to the aggressor in advance that against the guerrillas, it has key members of the Regional such volunteers was not that they they intend to begin accompaniment increasingly turned to illegal Committee for the Defence of Human would offer physical protection but in a given area and that there will be paramilitary groups to do its work. Rights (CREDHOS), one of the most more that ‘there will be an repercussions if they or the During 1999 alone over 250,000 vocal human rights groups in the area, international response to whatever organisation being accompanied are people were forced to flee their had been assassinated and most of violence the volunteer witnesses.’5 As attacked. This statement must be homes due to the violence, which the remaining leadership had fled the PBI veterans Liam Mahony and Luis made as powerfully and clearly as according to Amnesty International country. Enrique Eguren note, ‘Behind such a possible, so that the message is has been a deliberate strategy response lies the implied threat of communicated down the aggressor’s employed by paramilitary forces to diplomatic and economic pressure - chain of command. Third, PBI must cleanse the civilian population from Involvement pressure that the sponsors of such be able to communicate to the areas of guerrilla influence. Shortly after setting up their first office violence may wish to avoid.’6 aggressor what types of action are in Bogota in 1994, Peace Brigades unacceptable. In the case of International (PBI) was invited by According to Eguren, PBI - and CREDHOS, this involved physical CREDHOS to establish a presence in indeed other organisations involved in intimidation, telephone threats and Barrancabermeja. Given the grave protective accompaniment - need to being constantly followed. Fourth, PBI danger that such organisations faced meet a series of conditions in order must be able to persuade the in the region, PBI accepted the that their work successfully deters aggressor that they have international invitation, setting up an office in 1995. aggression. credibility.

54 Peace Brigades International Colombia 1995 - 1999 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 2,000,000 since 1985, 288,000 in Read ‘Unarmed Bodyguards - International Accompaniment for the Protection 30,000 battle related deaths 1999 alone (Consultancy for Human of Human Rights’ (Kumarian Press, USA, 1997) for a thorough analysis of PBI’s 1964 - 1999 (Uppsala) Rights and Displacement CODHES, 8 work around the world. Also see Lisa Schirch's ‘Exploring Civilian Peace Teams’ August 2000 in Global IDP database) (Life and Peace Institute, Uppsala, 1995) for a good overview of accompaniment organisations including PBI. See www.peacebrigades.org for more info on PBI Cost of Involvement: Colombia. Also see the library at www.amnesty.org.uk for a very good selection of $761,000 per year for PBI Refugees: Not available reports about the situation in Colombia. Colombia only

As Eguren comments, Hiding in a restaurant, he overheard Outcome In Colombia the same story is told ‘To ‘Accompaniment without international the gunmen ask the restaurant owner speak of the importance of Peace By expanding the political space support is a façade with no real ‘Where is that son of a bitch? I’ve Brigades International’s presence in available to human rights protective value.’7 come to kill him’. Fortunately Arenales the region over the last five years is to organisations - in other words by managed to call the local PBI office. speak of the possibility of life’ said a increasing the opportunity for such From the outset PBI faced enormous Soon PBI volunteers arrived on the member of CREDHOS ‘The death organisations to conduct their work difficulties. Shortly after arriving in scene, by which time the gunmen had sentences against each and every without fear of violent attacks - PBI Barrancabermeja, they narrowly left. The PBI volunteers accompanied one of us have not been carried out has no doubt made a significant escaped a paramilitary ambush whilst him home and at his request began only because we have had Peace contribution to the lives of many investigating a false report of a providing him with round the clock Brigades International people living in Colombia. massacre. Activating their Emergency unarmed protection. Accompaniment.’9 Likewise, PBI’s work has Response Network soon brought also shrunk what Eguren diplomatic representatives from three PBI then activated its By protecting the protectors, PBI has calls the ‘impunity European countries to the area to Support Network in not only directly saved lives, it has 'The death space’ - the space pledge their support for PBI's work. order to reinforce enabled local and regional human sentences against available to the protection rights organisations to continue their each and every one of repressive This high level pressure fulfilled one provided by vital work which has helped spare the regimes for violent of the key requisites as outlined accompaniment. us have not been carried lives of countless others. At the last action. above - proving to the aggressor that Hundreds of out only because we have count approximately 19 Human PBI has international ‘clout’. Within a faxes, letters and Rights organisations in Colombia had Peace Brigades There is no doubt very short space of time PBI was calls from NGOs, were benefiting from PBI International that the work of PBI accompanying a number of prominent government officials accompaniment. Indeed PBI's Accompaniment' has saved the lives human rights organisations that had from around the presence in Colombia represents the of specific individuals been threatened or attacked over the world, citizens and largest ‘unofficial’ international in Colombia and in other years. churches arrived at the observer force in the world. In countries in which it offices of the army and the recognition of this work PBI Colombia operates. Nineth Montenegro de One example illustrates PBI’s work in Colombian government officials. In was awarded the Aachen Peace Prize Garcia, founder of the Guatemalan action. On the night of March 5th response, the commander in chief of in 1999 and the Martin Ennals Award human rights pressure group GAM, 1999 Pablo Arenales, a key member the Armed forces telephoned the PBI for Human Rights Defenders in 2001. said: ‘Thanks to their [PBI’s] of CREDHOS, was the target of a offices offering to take measures to presence, I am alive. That is an failed assassination attempt whilst ensure the security and safety of indispensable truth. If it had not been making his way home from work. Arenales. for them, I would not be telling you this today.’8

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 55 1997 Peace Community of San Jose de Apartado Colombia

While the creation of a power-sharing Likewise, the guerrillas Background San Jose Venezuela agreement between the two parties have kidnapped, The conflict in Colombia today can be de Apartado and a near permanent ‘state of executed and terrorized traced back to the intense and often emergency’ de-escalated the conflict, the civilian population violent rivalry between the Bogota the peasants and other already they claim are Conservative and Liberal parties, excluded groups found themselves government which dates back to the very even further marginalized. With a collaborators. Colombia foundation of the state. It reached its stagnating economy, members of the nadir in the period 1946 - 1964, which resistance committees became willing In 1996 and 1997 Ecuador Brazil was known as La Violencia, with the recruits for the guerrilla movements the town and conflict claiming over 200,000 lives. During one of the that emerged in the mid 1960s, most surrounding region Peru workshops it was noted notably the Soviet influenced FARC, was attacked by While the conflict was ostensibly that the term 'neutrality' had which remains the largest group paramilitaries whose attempt to between competing political parties, it been appropriated by the today. deprive the guerrillas of civilian was used by the ruling elite (who Governor of the area to mean areas support manifested itself in extreme owned over 90% of the country’s which were under government control. Since then the government, often in violence against the local population. wealth) to silence the peasant stand This was clearly not acceptable for the league with paramilitary groups known 16,000 people were displaced, whole against harsh working conditions and people, who sought to distance as autodefensas, has waged a bitter villages emptied and many prominent inequitable land distribution which had themselves from both sides in the war against these guerrillas and, by townsfolk assassinated. been gathering momentum since the conflict. ‘For us, the meaning of extension, members of the civilian 1920s. neutrality was different,’ recalls one population suspected of being Involvement member. ‘We decided, then, to 'sympathisers' or living in guerrilla State violence against peasants, who In response to this crisis, the change the name while keeping the controlled areas. were denounced as communists, was displaced villagers of San Jose de same objective in mind: to remain absolute, with many losing their farms Apartado, along with villagers from 28 neutral towards all the armed actors Since 1985, 2 million people have 1 and over 1 million fleeing the country, smaller hamlets, met with their local on the conflict.’ Thus, after much been forced to abandon their homes seeking refuge in Venezuela. During bishop to discuss the possibility of discussion, on March 23rd 1997 the largely due to the attacks perpetrated ‘La Violencia’ many peasants formed creating a ‘neutral zone’ in which the ‘Peace Community of San Jose de by the paramilitaries. The village of ‘resistance committees’ in an attempt civilian population would be Apartado’ was established. Pax San Jose de Apartado, in the Uraba to protect themselves. respected. Workshops were held with Christi, a non-governmental Catholic district, is one such example. The the Intercongregational Commission that had worked in citizens, living in an area for Justice and Peace, involving the area for over 10 years, was predominantly controlled by guerrillas, members of the local community and present, as were several other have been accused by the community leaders. The idea quickly organisations - including the media - army/paramilitaries of siding with the began to develop. to witness the event. enemy.

56 Peace Community of San Jose de Apartado Colombia 1997 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 2,000,000 since 1985, 288,000 in See www.colombiasupport.net/ and www.ciponline.org/colombia/ 30,000 battle related deaths 1964 - 1999 alone (Consultancy for Human - both excellent resources on the conflict in Colombia and the peace 1999 (Uppsala) Rights and Displacement - CODHES, efforts throughout the country. Also see the reports published by Amnesty in Global IDP database International which are available online at www.amnesty.org.uk/ for a Cost of Involvement: www.idpproject.org/) good examination of the human rights abuses in Colombia. Unknown Refugees: Not available

Members of the community realised An Internal Council was set up to co- Outcome International NGOs have started to that they needed to embody the ordinate the peace activities of the return to the area, thus adding to the There are now more than 20 peace that they were seeking to community - with a specific prospects of further development and peace communities in the achieve in their area. For this to function to promote the stability. Indeed Carlos Castano, Uraba and Choco happen they laid down a set of resolution of conflicts ...the leader of the largest coalition of region, involving ‘ground rules’ which prospective through dialogue. In concept of peace paramilitary forces known as the thousands of members of the peace community addition, observers, United Self-Defense Forces of communities - to allow villagers. With were expected to subscribe to. These such as those from Colombia (AUC), promised to respect displaced citizens of the increased were (a) to participate in community Pax Christi, have the peace communities, as did the region to autonomously international work efforts, (b) to say ‘No’ to injustice been important in army and some guerrilla leaders. attention, citizens and impunity, (c) not to participate providing a level reconstruct their lives in However these promises have not in other areas directly or indirectly in the war, (d) not of international communities that are self- been honoured and there have been throughout to carry weapons, and (e) not to attention on 60 murders since the setting up of the proclaimed zones of peace Colombia are manipulate nor give information to any the area. peace community in San Jose de - really works. calling for the parties in the conflict. Apartado, the majority committed by creation of Within a the paramilitaries. peace Workshops were arranged for the very short communities members of the village explaining the space of time Despite the huge challenges that face there. commitment that they were about to eight other the people, the concept of the peace make. The work of the community peace zones/community has taken firm root According to was divided into separate groups and communities in Uraba and offers a tantalising and one Pax Christi observer, the committees. For instance, health, were set up by displaced people from pragmatic alternative to the years of concept of peace communities - to education, work, sports, culture and smaller hamlets in Uraba district bloodshed and conflict that have allow displaced citizens of the region women's committees were whose inhabitants had fled during the plagued this area for over twenty to autonomously reconstruct their established, all of which were fighting in 1996 and 1997. Despite the years. lives in communities that are self- intended to develop a sense of concerns of many people that it was proclaimed zones of peace - really community solidarity. not safe to return to this conflict ridden works2. Others agree. On a visit to area, the setting up of the peace San Jose, Oxfam Director David Bryer communities prompted the return of said that the peace initiative 'offers a thousands of peasants to their homes, grain of hope for all Colombians, and mostly without incident. for the international community, in search of peace and respect for human rights.'3

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 57 1967 - 1970 The Quakers Niger Chad Nigeria Nigeria Benin Abuja

Background Gowon however, was not able to Upon their return home, Lagos control the rioting in the North and it is Curle and Volkmar, at Like the majority of African states, Cameroon estimated that around 10,000 Ibos the insistence of the Nigeria consists of many different died and around 1.5 million people President of Niger (who ethnic groups forced to coexist within For example, on one fled to the southeast. There the had been a member of a the artificial borders drawn up by the occasion in 1968, Curle regional military governor Lt Col failed OAU effort to reach a British. When Nigeria gained and Volkmar were asked to Chukwuemeka Ojukwu became settlement at the beginning of the independence from Britain in 1960, carry a message by the Biafrans leader of the Ibo secessionist war) set about planning a series of the three largest ethnic groups in the which set out what terms Ojukwu movement, with his administration secret meetings between three major regions of Nigeria would accept for an end to the war but even refusing to recognize Gowon's representatives from both sides that wrestled for control of the federal which they were unwilling to present legitimacy. they hoped would lead to formal government: the Muslim Hausa-Fulani at the 'formal' talks being held in discussions. Both Gowon and Ojukwu in the North; the Ethiopia for fear of looking weak. This Relations between Gowon and agreed to the proposal, which was no Christian/Muslim/animist Yorubas in clearly illustrated the vital role such Ojukwu rapidly deteriorated and small achievement given that Gowon, the West; and the Christian Ibos in the message carrying can perform. despite several attempts to reach deeply sceptical of what he saw as East. Soon tensions began to some form of settlement, in May 1967 ‘outside meddling’, had refused the escalate, culminating in violent and Several qualities became essential to Ojukwu declared the independent offer of help from other well known fraudulent elections in 1964 and 1965. the success of the Quakers in winning Republic of . One week later organisations. the confidence of both sides. The first war broke out. In a January 1966 coup an Ibo took was their dogged neutrality. Ojukwu From the very beginning both Curle power, promptly suspended the fragile was particularly adept at portraying and Volkmar made it clear that they national and regional constitutions, Involvement the Nigeria-Biafra conflict as a war of wanted a limited role. Their job as thus precipitating fears from the other A fortnight before war broke out, against the Ibo people, and they saw it was to establish the major groups that they would be Adam Curle and John Volkmar visited with the help of a Swiss PR firm preconditions for effective marginalized. This led to widespread Nigeria to express their concern about gained massive popular sympathy negotiations, their principle function demonstration and riots, especially in the deteriorating situation. As throughout the world. As a result being that of message carriers, thus the North. By July 1966 a coup led by members of the Quakers - one of the many groups such as the Vatican and bridging the communication chasm Hausa army officers ousted the Ibo historic with a strong World Council of Churches were seen that often exists between conflicting leadership and placed Lt Col Jakubu tradition of quiet peace work around as pro-Biafran. Curle and Volkmar parties. Gowon at the head of a new military the world - Curle and Volkmar were however, made it clear that they regime. able to meet with the majority of the would take no sides, which meant that individuals involved from both sides of they would listen to and acknowledge the conflict, including Ojukwu. the concerns of all parties involved in the conflict, something that others had failed to do.

58 The Quakers Nigeria 1967 - 1970 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Read C.H. Mike Yarrow's excellent book 'Quaker Experiences in International 1,000,000 Conciliation' (Yale University Press, 1978) which provides a thorough analysis (COW) Refugees: on the work in Nigeria and elsewhere. Also see Douglas Johnston & Cynthia Sampson's book ', the missing dimension of statecraft' (Oxford Unknown University Press, 1994) for their chapter on Quaker work in Nigeria. For more Cost of Involvement: in 1967-70. information about the Quakers see www.quaker.org.uk/ or www.afsc.org/ . $28,510 Equivalent to $141,000 today.

The second quality worth noting was This art was practiced with great Outcome As Curle recalls, ‘a wonderful spirit of their secrecy. Both Curle and Volkmar effect in Nigeria where Curle and reconciliation and brotherhood Despite the efforts of the Quakers and realised that in order for their Volkmar were able to correct many prevailed at all levels.’2 Biafrans who very many others, the war was message carrying to be effective it misperceptions that each side held before the war had held high Federal pursued to its very end with Biafra must be conducted away from the about the other. In particular they positions were reinstated on full pay, surrendering in . In one glare of the world's media, which was explained to Gowon that far from Gowon called for three days of prayer, respect, then, all efforts can be seen being vigorously courted by Ojukwu. breaking the will and spirit of the Ibos, an amnesty for all soldiers was put as ultimately unsuccessful. However Indeed early communication between the bombing campaign and into effect and the government the fact that Gowon both sides had been appropriated (in economic blockade were instigated it's three ‘Rs’ programme: appears to have greatly particular by Ojukwu) in the actually strengthening reconstruction, reintegration and respected and propaganda war, and as a result their resolve. reconciliation. Curle and admired both Gowon was deeply cautious that any Curle and further efforts not fall into the same Over a period Volkmar were able It is very difficult to establish precisely Volkmar may trap. of two and a what prompted Gowon to embark on to correct many have had a half years the this astonishing road to reconciliation. significant Curle and Volkmar not only impressed Quakers misperceptions However, several well informed impact on his upon Ojukwu the need to keep the continued people told Curle and Volkmar after that each actions at the communication channel secret (which their the war that their influence on Gowon end of the he did) but they also told no-one of message side held was a major factor in what one war. their work themselves, which carrying about scholar calls ‘the most extraordinary persuaded Gowon that the Quakers function, post-civil war reconciliation to have the Instead of the were honest brokers. meeting with occurred in modern history.’3 widely top-level other. anticipated Another skill that the Quakers have representatives violence and become famed for is their practice of from both sides retribution against the ‘disciplined’ listening. One expert, regularly. In between they defeated army, Gowon's describing the role of the Quakers in supported the efforts of other forces were doing everything to help another facilitation effort in Africa mediating interventions such as that their former enemies, giving them explained that ‘increasingly the parties by the Commonwealth and the OAU. their own food, tending to the became eager to know what the Here too they can claim significant wounded, giving them money. Quakers were hearing from other credit, since many key Biafran officials parties. Theirs was the politics of recall that it was the determination of “transformative listening”.’1 the Quakers that persuaded the Biafrans to join in the negotiations.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 59 1990 - 1991 South African Council of Churches Zimbabwe

and the Consultative Business Movement Botswana Mozambique Namibia Pretoria South Africa Swaziland Lesotho

South Africa Background By the end of the year it was clear The key problem was that in the eyes In February 1990, during the opening that the violence threatened to of Chief , head of South Africa's Parliament, undermine the talks between de Klerk of the and one President F.W. de Klerk changed the and Mandela, thus putting the entire of the key protagonists in the conflict, course of South Africa's history. The peace process into jeopardy. The the SACC was pro-ANC and thus was ANC and other hitherto outlawed business sector feared that economic not an ‘honest broker’. Without groups such as the Pan Africanist sanctions would continue if the Buthelezi's support any peace Despite CBM’s willingness to help, Congress were unbanned and Nelson violence went unchecked. As one initiative was dead. however, they also ran into problems Mandela was released from prison. commentator noted, ‘The impression since the ANC were deeply Talks continued between Mandela gained ground among church and Meanwhile the CBM - an association suspicious of big business who were and de Klerk, effectively beginning a business leaders that violence was of progressive South African business seen as pro-government. peace process which promised a new out of control and that neither the leaders - had only been marginally dawn in South African politics. political leadership nor the security more successful in their efforts to Meeting just a week before de Klerk’s forces were able to address it move the peace negotiations along. conference, the CBM and SACC For black South Africans who had effectively.’2 Headed by a young former minister agreed that business, church leaders lived for generations with racist for religion, Theuns Eloff, who had and civil society should join forces to policies under minority white rule, Involvement been shunned by his church for help move the peace negotiations forward. Further meetings were there was an overwhelming sense of In May 1991 the Consultative having met with the then banned ANC immediately arranged which brought optimism and hope that the country Business Movement (CBM) and the in the mid 1980s, the CBM had for other important players such as the was indeed turning a new corner. Yet South African Council of Churches some time believed that it should lend South African Chamber of Business this sense of optimism was short (SACC) met in an attempt to find a its support to efforts aimed at ending (SACOB) and the Congress of South lived. 1990 turned out to be the most solution to the escalating violence. the violence. African Trade Unions (COSATU) into violent year on record with over 3,700 The SACC, an alliance of anti- the discussions. As Peter Gastrow 3 deaths resulting from political apartheid churches, had tried and Beginning with a series of low key 1 notes, ‘For the first time ever, church, violence . Most of the victims were failed on several occasions to launch meetings with all the major business and trade union leaders supporters of either the ANC or the a major peace initiative, beginning protagonists in the conflict, CBM were putting their heads together, Inkatha Freedom Party, bitter rivals with a conference that would bring stepped up its involvement following albeit informally, to seek an answer to whose hostility towards each other together all the sides in the conflict. the announcement that the ANC was 4 had broken out into open warfare. planning to boycott a peace the problem of political violence.’ conference scheduled for the 24-25th Mat and organised by de Klerk. De Klerk and the ANC seemed to be on a collision course, running the risk of derailing the faltering peace talks.

60 South African Council of Churches and the Consultative Business Movement South Africa 1990 - 1991 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Read Peter Gastrow’s ‘Bargaining for Peace’ (United States Institute of Peace 14,000 1990 - 1994 Press, Washington, 1995) for a full account of the development and implementation (SA Human Rights Committee) of the National Peace Accord. For an excellent personal account of the life of a Refugees: regional and local peace committee read Susan Collin Marks’ ‘Watching the Wind’ Unknown (United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington, 2000). To learn more about Cost of Involvement: the South African Council of Churches see www.sacc.org.za Not available

This new spirit of cooperation In all there were representatives from Outcome While violence did continue and continued with increased vigour about 20 of the main organisations in indeed increased as the country The National Peace Convention was following de Klerk’s announcement South Africa. moved towards its first truly free a remarkable occasion. Apart from that Louw Alberts, a prominent elections, there is no doubt that the three far right political organisations, Afrikaner, lay preacher and someone For hours the group brainstormed all violence would have been far greater the leadership and representatives of who enjoyed the trust of de Klerk and the causes of the violence and the without the Accord. According to all of South Africa’s political parties many of the black churches, had been possible remedies. At the end of the International Alert, the NPA’s greatest were present. Each group signed the appointed to organise a more meeting a series of key achievement lay in ‘developing a collection of documents, thus representative peace conference. recommendations were made that “peace cultur”, in securing an committing themselves to working That de Klerk had agreed to such a included the development of a code of ideological commitment from the cooperatively towards healing the move - which prevented the ANC conduct for political organisations principal political actors to “political country and preventing further boycott of the peace conference from and the security forces as tolerance” and in being able to bloodshed. derailing the peace talks - was largely well as the creation of establish procedures and down to the efforts of the CBM/SACC peace secretariats at a mechanisms for crisis management.’5 The peace The signing of the coalition. Alberts promptly set to work national, regional and Accord changed South National Peace Accord forming a facilitating committee made local level. Susan Collin Marks, author of Africa and South - what Gastrow calls up of church and business leaders Preparatory ‘Watching the Wind’, which explores Africans... it provided a a ‘negotiated drawn largely from the group brought committees were the workings of the regional and local buffer against violence that revolution’ - was a together by the CBM and SACC just established which peace committees set up by the NPA, allowed the 1994 elections milestone in South weeks earlier. were charged with agrees. ‘The peace Accord changed to proceed and catapult Africa’s history. As well the task of hammering South Africa and South Africans. It us to democracy... as setting up a network The facilitating committee out a document on the provided a place where former of peace committees immediately proposed that a issue assigned to it, which enemies got to know one another...It throughout the country to preparatory meeting or ‘think tank for could be ratified by each provided a buffer against violence that help prevent and resolve violent peace’ should be scheduled for June party. allowed the 1994 elections to proceed conflicts, the Accord provided for a 1991 that would bring all the parties and catapult us to democracy...it code of conduct for the security forces together to devise a strategy for The committees immediately set to formed a bridge between the old and political parties, the establishment ending the violence. When the work, ably supported by CBM as the world we were breaking down and the of a commission of enquiry regarding meeting date arrived the facilitating secretariat. It was agreed that all the new world that had not yet been the prevention of further violence, and committee realised that for the first documents would be signed at a born.’6 wide ranging socio-economic time ever the South African ‘National Peace Convention’ on reconstruction and development government, the leadership of the September 14th. As the documents especially in areas of high tension. ANC and IFP sat around the same were collated they became known table, together. collectively as the ‘National Peace Accord.’

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 61 1992 - 1995 Wajir Peace and Development Committee Kenya

Background Adding to these problems were the Involvement She recalls ‘Some elders resented massively destabilising wars fought “these children” (as they called Wajir district lies in the arid and In June 1993, in the absence of any just across the Kenyan border in members of the WPG) questioning inhospitable north-eastern area of government help to mitigate the crisis, Ethiopia and Somalia. Refugees, their actions and usurping their roles’.2 Kenya. Its inhabitants are almost a group of Somali women launched weapons and bandits filtering across However they finally agreed to the exclusively of Somali origin, having ‘Wajir Women for Peace’ in an attempt from these countries into Kenya only setting up of a standing been separated from the rest of the to solve the problem of violence increased lawlessness and insecurity committee made up of Ethiopia Somali nomadic community at the end themselves. Almost immediately, the in the region. ten elders from each of the 19th century during the partition group set very strict guidelines for of the three major Wajir Somalia of Africa by the colonial powers. membership of the group. Said one of In 1992 there was another severe clans and ten elders the leaders to the group, ‘You must Kenya drought and 70% of cattle and 30% of from minority groups. Following Kenya's independence from commit yourself to continuing the • Nairobi camels belonging to the clans died. That there now existed Britain in 1963, two major conflicts peace work no matter what happens: Fighting soon flared up between the a forum where the clan were fought over this area, the first If my clan were to kill your relatives, predominantly cattle-keeping Ajuran elders could meet and discuss between Somalia and Kenya over would you still work with me for clan and the predominantly camel- the problems facing the district was a control of the territory, the second peace? If you can’t say “yes”, don't keeping Degodia clan over alleged milestone in itself, but the Wajir Peace between the Kenyan government and join the group now.’1 land encroachment and cattle raids. Group did not rest there. the Somali population living in the This quickly sucked in the third major area who launched an unsuccessful The first major task was to talk to the clan in the area, the cattle keeping A series of meetings between the clan war of secession. While the war major clan elders, who were Ogaden. Soon the clans were at war elders finally led to a major ended in 1967 an official state of responsible for fomenting much of the with one another, each openly conference in September 1993, aided emergency, which had been violence and thus were vital if peace recruiting from Somalia and supported by the local Member of announced by the government at the was to be restored to the area. The and Ethiopia and forming temporary Parliament, where the clans agreed beginning of the fighting, continued members of the group (by now alliances with smaller clans in an on a ceasefire and a cessation of until 1992, during which time the renamed the Wajir Peace Group or attempt to defeat their enemy. By stock theft as well as a range of other people were further marginalized, WPG) also enlisted the support of 1993 the situation was desperate. measures designed to consolidate isolated and starved of any elders from smaller clans who were Widespread looting, murder and peace in the area. This code of development assistance. Severe asked to act as mediators. According destruction of property had led to a conduct, known as the ‘Al Fatah droughts in the region made to Dekha Ibrahim Abdi, the meetings complete disintegration of the entire Declaration’ was heralded as a major competition for scarce natural with the warring elders were 'stormy area. Following the death of a UN breakthrough and thrust the WPG into resources acute, leading to intense and difficult.' worker, all international NGOs pulled the role of prime peacemaker in the and violent confrontations between out of the area and the death toll region. the three major clans in the area. threatened to spiral out of control.

62 Wajir Peace and Development Committee Kenya 1992 - 1995 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown See Dekha Ibrahim Abdi and Janice Jenner's account 1,500 (Various sources) of the work of the Wajir Peace Group in Transforming Refugees: Violence (Pandora Press, USA, 1998). Cost of Involvement: Unknown Unavailable

In order to consolidate the peace, the Other interesting initiatives The victim’s clan immediately Furthermore, recognizing that peace WPG began an extensive outreach undertaken by the WPG included a avenged his death by killing a and development are intimately programme targeting first the youth gun return programme, securing member of the other clan. By the time connected, the WPG and all its peace and then the business community, publicity for local peace accords the Rapid Response Team arrived, projects have been organised under carrying out public meetings and through the BBC World Service, seventeen people had been killed. the regional District Development problem solving workshops which peace festivals and a training of After a series of carefully mediated Committee and has been renamed tried to tap into the root causes of the trainers programme to meetings it was agreed that “Wajir Peace and Development conflict. Religious leaders were ‘proliferate peace’ the first murder should be Committee”. recruited to appeal to the clan amongst the many dealt with by Kenyan members to reject violence. This areas of the district. ‘...If my clan law and the rest As Abdi says, ‘Most of what was training was then extended to through traditional accomplished was done by people members of the Kenyan police and One of the most were to kill your justice which with “a heart for peace” rather than army who had been responsible for interesting WPG relatives, would you still involved the training in conflict resolution.The many grave injustices, as well as civil innovations was work with me for peace? payment of fines various peace groups in Wajir servants and other civil society the creation of a in the form of operated on the assumption that groups. ‘Rapid Response If you can’t say ‘yes’, camels. The clans everyone has a stake in peace; thus Team’ made up of don’t join the group agreed and the all groups must be included in In addition, the government started to members of the violence was ended. working towards peace.’3 It comes as take a more proactive role, committing District Security now.’ no surprise that the motto of the Wajir resources and support for the entire Committee, elders, Outcome Peace and Development Committee process. When, for example, a vehicle youth and women. When is “Peace is a collective Through these and other hijacking took place, the government violence flared up, the team was responsibility.” initiatives undertaken by the WPG the security forces tracked down and sent immediately to convene a area has been transformed, despite arrested the perpetrator, thus meeting between the affected parties. the continuous flow of illegal firearms preventing the clans resorting to In the majority of cases, the elders from neighbouring Somalia and revenge which would have only were directly contacted and through Ethiopia. Normal life has resumed in escalated the violence. careful mediation a settlement was Wajir, local citizens have raised reached. In Batulu, for example, a almost $25,000 themselves in order to quarrel between two young men from build new schools and Mosques, different clans escalated and one of NGOs have returned to the area and the men was killed. organisations such as the World Bank have approved large infrastructure projects such as new roads and an airport to help develop the area.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 63 1983 - 1990 Witness for Peace Nicaragua Mexico

Background In an era when the US administration The realisation was clear for Honduras was obsessed by the threat of all the members of the delegation. Tegucigalpa When, in 1979, the Sandinistas communism, the Sandinista’s plans to ‘If all it takes to stop this killing is to overthrew the Somoza dynasty, which Nicaragua nationalise industry, expropriate land get a bunch of Americans down here, had ruled over Nicaragua for over 40 Managua belonging to the Somozas and the then let’s do it’ said one.1 Thus began years, they inherited a country riddled elite and redistribute it to the poor was the experiment that launched Witness with inequality. While Nicaragua Costa Rica too much to bear. Contra attacks for Peace. experienced rapid industrialisation SanJose started sporadically but soon under the Somozas, little of the wealth escalated into a devastating civil war. Three months later, a second much that was generated trickled down to larger group arrived in Jalapa to the poor. Most remained in the hands The newly-formed coalition agreed ‘stand with the Nicaraguan people’ - of the Somoza family, their cronies Involvement that a long-term team would be again in the hope that their presence and a very small elite who also On April 9th 1983 a delegation of US supported by short-term visits by would deter Contra attacks. Upon controlled most of the land in the citizens from the Carolina Interfaith delegations, lasting between one and their return to the US the members of country. This gross inequality Task Force on Central America arrived two weeks. Within a very short space the delegation set to work spreading precipitated the formation of the in the Nicaraguan settlement and of time 17 delegations had been the word of what they had seen in Marxist Sandinista National Liberation tobacco farm of El Porvenir, which sat scheduled taking them into mid 1984. local, regional and national Front (Frente Sandinista de only a few miles from the Honduran Each long term team member and newspapers, on television, radio and Liberacion Nacional; FSLN) in 1961. border. El Porvenir had already been short term delegate was intensively at congregations throughout the Their success in capturing city after attacked by the Contras, laying waste trained prior to their visit to Nicaragua. country. The group soon formed a city in 1979 was largely due to the to one of the most productive farms in Training included role plays involving coalition made up of concerned popular support that they enjoyed the region. Civilians had been ambushes and kidnappings as well as groups in the US, including throughout the country. wounded, some were missing, and it documentation skills so that they mainstream churches, smaller was known that the Contras were became, in their own words, ‘living churches such as the Quakers and Soon after the Sandinistas took preparing to finish the job off before media’ - a voice for the voiceless as well as other power, the US began funding and moving onto the town of Jalapa. As which would challenge the US organisations such as the Fellowship training rebels stationed in Honduras the US citizens surveyed the administration's attempt to portray the of Reconciliation and Peace Brigades and Costa Rica, known as the devastation, one of the local people war as one in which the Contras were International. Contras, in an attempt to topple the pointed out the Contra base, visible in freedom fighters and the Sandinistas government. Like many of the Central the distance. ‘Why aren't they a dangerous communist threat. American countries, the history of shooting now?’ said a member of the Nicaragua is punctuated with delegation. ‘Because you’re here’ instances of US military intervention, came the reply. either direct or by proxy.

64 Witness for Peace Nicaragua 1983 - 1990 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Read Ed Griffin Nolan’s book ‘Witness for Peace’ 43,000 1982-1990 (COW) (Westminster/John Knox Press, Kentucky, USA, 1991) which Refugees: covers the entire history of Witness for Peace and its work in Cost of Involvement: Nicaragua. Also see www.witnessforpeace.org for more 70,000 $650,000 1999 total expenditure information on the organisation. 1989 - 95 (UNHCR) of WFP, Nicaragua.

The first official members of the By the end of 1984, 46 states had Outcome For instance during the period that Witness long term team arrived in been home to a Witness delegation. Witness delegations were stationed in In 1988 after the leaders of Central Jalapa in November of 1983. During With each delegation came further Jalapa the anticipated Contra attacks American countries signed a follow-up their time there they helped the local reports of Contra atrocities, which never occurred. While analysts of the agreement to the celebrated ‘Arias people harvest coffee and corn. They through the Witness network in the war in Nicaragua point to other factors Peace Plan’ which aimed to end the organised vigils in the town square. US became one of the most trusted such as the state of the Contra and wars in the region, Congress voted They taught English to the school sources of information for the Sandinista forces at the time, others not to provide any more aid to the children, participated in drills to International Press on the war. such as Sixto Ulloa, a Baptist lay Contras. A ceasefire between the shelter children in case of attack and leader who helped launch the Contras and Sandinistas soon even donated blood to the local organisation, are convinced that followed and in 1990 elections were hospital when stocks were low. All the ‘Witness for Peace...made the held which produced a shock win for while they were documenting counterrevolution move away from the opposition. By the time of the everything they saw or heard, noting it Witness delegations - Jalapa’.2 This story is heard many elections almost 4,000 US citizens down so that it could be disseminated enjoying the relative times where Witness established a had joined one of over 180 Witness throughout the US as fortnightly taped presence. protection that their delegations. Over 160 long term messages, regular newsletters, US nationality offered witnesses had served on the team, reports and press releases. Another, more controversial outcome them - soon began some for as long as 3 years. This is suggested by Ed Griffin Nolan in his represented the largest and most As more delegations arrived, first following the Contras account of the work of Witness during sustained international non violent centred mainly on Jalapa and then with notepads and this period. Nolan argues that the presence in a war zone in modern slowly spreading throughout the entire cameras to record presence of significant numbers of US history. country, publicity for the group grew everything that they citizens throughout the country, and within the US and more people especially at a port close to where US saw. What impact, if any, did Witness have started to ask questions about the US ships were patrolling, may have over the years? On one level Witness involvement in the war. In addition to helped prevent a US invasion of the certainly provided a specific and living in villages at risk of violence, country, which seemed highly likely general deterrent to Contra attacks by Witness delegations - enjoying the following the US invasion of accompanying villagers and living in relative protection that their US Grenada.3 While this is subject to In addition every time Congress was villages at risk of violence. nationality offered them - soon began much debate, there is no doubt about to vote on another round of following the Contras with notepads whatsoever that one of the biggest funding for the Contras, the Witness and cameras to record everything that achievements for Witness was to network sprung into action, organising they saw. In some places their work make the US policy in Central mass mailouts, meetings and vigils took the form of taking testimonies America very public, long before it outside every congressional office in from those who had been brutalised might have become so in their the US. by the Contras. absence.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 65 1991 - 2000 Women’s Organisations Ethiopia

• Mogadishu Somalia Somalia Kenya

Background While a temporary alliance between Where before women were excluded As women began to take up more the clans was able to topple the Barre from all community level decision prominent roles, they began to form For much of its life as an independent regime in 1991, the coalition quickly making processes, they now took on groups to help promote women’s country Somalia has been at war; first fragmented as clans fought for control positions which gave them rights, peace, reconciliation and with its neighbours, Kenya and of Mogadishu, and by extension the considerable power and influence. development. In trying to bring about Ethiopia, and then with itself. While entire country. As fighting intensified, an end to the war, women were not the most recent conflict has been the country was plunged into anarchy. ‘The war touched an inner strength in only responding to the critical framed as a competition between As one commentator noted, what Somali women’3 said Shammis situation facing the country but were various clans over resources and began as a liberation struggle against Hussein, founder of the Somali also tapping into their traditional role power, its roots can be traced back to the dictatorial rule and corruption of Women’s Trust, a local non as ‘peace promoters’. Traditionally the the clash between traditional nomadic the military regime degenerated first governmental organisation. For competition over scarce resources led Somali society - which is into a murderous pattern of example, at the start of the war, one to the practice of inter-clan ‘bride characterised by an almost total internecine aggression and reprisals, woman, Dahabo Isse, approached the exchange’. However when a woman absence of formally institutionalised and later into a seemingly aimless Red Cross in order to secure a small marries outside her clan she retains authority - and the straightjacket of stalemate between clan-based militia amount of food to give to hungry her father’s kinship ties, thus acting the modern state introduced by the groups, punctuated only by irregular street children in Mogadishu. With a as a bridge between the two groups. colonial powers.1 and unconvincing claims to handful of women Isse turned an supremacy by one leader or another.2 abandoned building into a kitchen that During the war, the role of women as The situation only worsened under the served two meals a day to the ‘bridges’ between clans served a very autocratic rule of General Mohammad children. Within two years she was in important function in places such as Siad Barre who took power in a coup Involvement charge of 140 kitchens funded by the Somaliland where they were the only in 1969. His brand of ‘Scientific Worsened by a devastating in Red Cross, dispensing 200,000 meals means of communication between Socialism’, which saw clans as 1992 in which around 300,000 people a day and employing 3,000 women. A belligerent clans. In Mogadishu and backward and primitive, coupled with died, the war decimated Somali representative of another aid agency other cities in the south, women his over-centralised one party system, society. Millions of people were which started employing women to acting as ‘clan ambassadors’ were damaged Somali society in equal displaced and hundreds of thousands help with their programme remarked able to cross faction lines and defuse measure and sowed the seeds of the fled the country. Yet amidst the chaos in 1992 that, ‘Intellectually, they tension between warring groups and present conflict. Not only did of war, women began to find new [Somali women] are tremendously in several instances, negotiate the traditional mechanisms for managing roles previously denied to them. With powerful...They’ve been crucial in our release of hostages. relationships between clan groups their men fighting, missing, dead or relief efforts.’4 continue to disappear, but the unemployed women began to take monolithic state that Barre had control of trade, from fuel and food, created - concentrating power and gold and qaad (khat) - a popular drug political control into so narrow a base - as well as relief distributions. - offered a tantalising prize for the rival clans if ever he should fall. 66 Women’s Organisations Somalia 1991 - 2000 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 2,000,000 (1991 - 1992) Read the UNIFEM paper ‘Somalia between peace and war’ for a good 100,000 battle related deaths from 300,000 - 350,000 (2000) overview of the role of women during the conflict. To learn more about 1981-1991 (Uppsala) 250,000 (Global IDP database) COGWO see the Centre for the Strategic Initiatives of Women 1991-2000 (various sources) Refugees: (www.csiw.org). Of the dozens of excellent websites dedicated to Somali 900,000 (1991 - 1992), issues see www.somalianews.com/ (Somalia News) and www.banadir.com/ (Banadir) Cost of Involvement: 400,000 (2000) (UNHCR) Unavailable

Very quickly the number of women led In 1997, as part of its capacity Outcome While it is clear that the actions of NGOs began to blossom. For building and networking efforts, women’s organizations such as Following a major peace conference instance, in 1996, following a number COGWO organised a major workshop COGWO helped reduce the level of in Djibouti in April/May 2000 and after of conflict resolution workshops for which sought to analyse the possible violence in certain specific instances a decade without a functioning state, Somali women organised by the US role of women in bringing peace to during the war, it is also likely that the a Transitional National Assembly was based Centre for the Strategic Somalia. From that workshop evolved cumulative effort of all the women’s formed, leading to the election of Initiatives of Women (CSIW) a new another coalition - groups did make an important the country's first president organisation was formed - the called the Peace and contribution to the peace process. since the fall of Barre. In Coalition for Grassroots Women’s Human Rights Addressing the UN Security Council in view of the important Organisations. Initially representing Network - which in ...the October 2000, one member of role played by 18 different women’s organisations 1998 organised a COGWO was unequivocal in her peace conference women, the COGWO has rapidly grown into one major peace opinion that the peace conference in decision makers of the most promising and high profile demonstration in in Djibouti would not Djibouti would not have materialized participating in the peace and development networks in Mogadishu which have materialized without without the groundwork that had been conference agreed Somalia, its members initiating a wide drew over 100,000 put in by the women over the years. the groundwork that had to the women’s variety of initiatives. people. demands to be been put in by the A recent study by UNIFEM agrees, represented in the For instance, the CSIW reports that in All the while women over noting that ‘in many cases women Transitional Assembly. the town Merca, members of COGWO COGWO have taken an active role in peace the years. Indeed the role of placed themselves between two members were processes both locally and nationally’5 women in helping promote warring factions, effectively stopping establishing strong and that ‘the gains that Somali women peace had been noted by the the fighting. Another women’s group - links with have made across the country and President of the United Nations IIDA Women Development organisations around within the diaspora have already left a Security Council back in 1999, by Organisation - in collaboration with an the world, thus focusing the profound imprint on the fabric of which time violence on the ground Italian NGO called COSV and with EU world’s attention on the Somali society.’6 had decreased. funding, ran a successful situation in Somalia, as well demobilisation project for 150 ex as launching other initiatives such as Although these recent developments militia members, offering them the establishment of ‘peace centres’ are profoundly encouraging, much education, housing and alternative in the country which offer training in work needs to be done to cement the income opportunities. conflict management and gains made, especially since many peacebuilding. warlords have refused to accept the new president or government.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 67 Uganda Democratic Republic of 1993 - 2001+ the Congo Rwanda ActionAid Burundi Bujumbura • Burundi Tanganyika Tanzania Burundi Lake

Background Involvement Not only would they continue with Through PRA techniques it was their relief and development work, the discovered that the sous-colline (sub On the 21st October 1993 a rebellion In the immediate aftermath of the relief work would be carried out in hill), rather than the colline (hill), was within the Burundian army led to the bloodshed, members of ActionAid such as way as to lead to longer term the administrative unit where the killing of the country’s first Burundi met to discuss how to carry development work with the aim of greatest amount of social interaction democratically elected Hutu president, out relief work in response to the encouraging peace and reconciliation. took place. Here a sense of Melchior Ndadaye. As word spread of emergency situation created by the ‘community’ still existed. AAB his assassination, Hutus across the conflict. ActionAid Burundi (AAB), a The first task was to conduct a rapid promptly engaged groups of people at country - spurred on by rumours that branch of the UK-based international participatory assessment of the needs the sous colline level to form multi Tutsis were planning to kill Hutus - development NGO ActionAid, had of the community. Whereas the ethnic committees that would began attacking their Tutsi been working in Burundi since 1976, conventional approach to emergency undertake surveys of the needs of the neighbours. The Tutsi dominated focusing initially on building schools distributions is for the distributing households in their vicinity. Once the army quickly retaliated, killing and providing educational equipment, agency to conduct the assessment surveys were complete the thousands of Hutus. later moving onto rural development and then organise the disbursement, committees were given the requisite and a more participatory approach to AAB turned to the people in the materials to distribute themselves. Within the space of a month 25,000 - poverty alleviation. communities instead and encouraged 50,000 people had been killed and a them to identify their needs. For the first time since the violence further 500,000 - 700,000 people had AAB was one of the few international Hutu and Tutsi were working together. fled their homes. Since then, Burundi NGOs to have remained in the This approach - known as As Arman Nzeyimana, previously with has struggled to free itself from the country when the massacres began. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) - AAB and now working for ActionAid in grip of a paralysing civil war, which to In Ruyigi, while all other major NGOs is based on the premise that local says, ‘By encouraging the date has claimed over 200,000 lives. left the country or retreated to the people are capable of carrying out establishment of committees we are relative safety of the capital, their own investigations, analysis, and encouraging the restoration of In Ruyigi province, east of the capital Bujumbura, AAB opted to stay, planning. Rather than a top down traditional values of cooperation. city, over 3,000 people were killed in despite the fact that ten members of methodology for information gathering These values stood Burundi in good the violence that engulfed the country their multi-ethnic team were killed. and project planning, PRA requires stead for centuries, and it is essential in October 1993. As in other areas Now with the worst of the killings over, researchers/NGO field workers to act that we restore them if Burundi is to communities, which for generations they were faced with the monumental as facilitators to help local people have peace again.’1 had seen Hutus and Tutsis living task of helping the people rebuild their conduct their own analysis, plan and together despite the waves of lives. However, given that violence take action accordingly. violence that had visited the country had devastated the country, they over the years, were now shattered. proceeded with a dual focus.

68 ActionAid Burundi Burundi 1993 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 580,000 (2001) 800,000 (1999) See www.actionaid.org for details of ActionAid’s work around the world. 200,000 500-700,000 (1993) (IDP database) Also see ActionAid's booklet ‘Peace building in Africa - case studies from from 1993 - 1999 (various sources) ActionAid’ (ActionAid, London, 2001) for more about their peace building Refugees: work. To learn more about Burundi's peace process see the reports of the Cost of involvement: 1,200,000 1993-2001 International Crisis Group www.crisisweb.org and Filip Reyntjens’ report Unknown (US Committee for Refugees) ‘Burundi: Prospects for Peace’ (Minority Rights Group, London, 2000)

While the emergency phase was soon As Robert Dodd, who conducted an AAB also launched a series of smaller Outcome over, AAB realised that in order to evaluation of the AAB work in Ruyigi projects with the same aim: to In Ruyigi province alone, AAB establish peace throughout the region, notes, ‘Whereas the rehabilitation of contribute to social cohesion and supported the construction of 4,500 they needed to persuade displaced 1,000 houses fulfils a basic human development as well as consolidating houses. Within a relatively short people that their colline of origin was need...the process was also designed peace. For example a community space of time, normal life returned to safe. They did this in three ways: (1) to contribute to peace through newsletter called ‘EJO’ which AAB the area. Markets reopened, many by encouraging people who had encouraging people to work together had been publishing for years, as part refugees and IDPs returned and, remained in their homes to resume again, and on a large scale, and also of their adult literacy programme, according to Robert Dodd, people normal daily life; (2) by creating the to create the necessary conditions quickly became a vibrant platform for began talking openly and honestly necessary physical and psychological which would enable other people to peace and reconciliation. Almost about their yearning for peace. In conditions which would enable the return.’3 entirely written by members of the addition, people were more willing to refugees and internally displaced community EJO has a regular monthly talk about what it meant to be a Hutu persons (IDPs) to return; and (3) to The example of Bazilissa Nizigama, a circulation of 40,000 copies and is in or Tutsi, a subject that was taboo only encourage communication between Tutsi living in Butaganzwa commune constant demand. a few years earlier. While violent all sectors of the community and of Ruyigi illustrates AABs impact. After conflict plagued other parts of the especially between Hutu and Tutsi.2 spending two years as a refugee in country, and continues to do so, these Tanzania and a further year in Burundi ‘I am amazed that the encouraging signs in Ruyigi should AAB began by initiating a major in a camp for internally displaced people who destroyed my not be underestimated. resettlement, reintegration and people she finally returned home. house, because I am a Tutsi, are rehabilitation project, again using the Through the AAB programme her the same people who rebuilt it. According to Dodd, one of the clearest sous-colline committees to identify the house was rebuilt by friends, family reasons for AABs success in Ruyigi families most in need of housing. and members of the community, both Now by helping build houses for was that it was well respected within They then provided roofing, doors and Tutsi and Hutu. ‘I can only thank other people, I am repaying the community, having worked windows on condition that the God and ActionAid for my good them for their help.’ there for many years, and that it community built the walls of each fortune. I am amazed that the was steadfastly committed to the house. 1,000 houses were built in this people who destroyed my house, area. ‘The fact that AAB did not cut way. because I am a Tutsi, are the same Other initiatives have included ‘Peace and run when the crisis broke, thereby people who rebuilt it. Now by helping through Education’ seminars for deserting the communities at a time of build houses for other people, I am teachers from primary schools, the their greatest need, has been repaying them for their help.’4 production of reconciliation posters commented on by members of the and the organising of multi-ethnic communities.’5 football matches that have been very successful in breaking down the barriers between Hutu and Tutsi youth. War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 69 1997 - 1999

Academic Associates PeaceWorks Niger Chad Nigeria Nigeria

With the advent of party politics in the Abuja Background Involvement Taraba 1950s, tensions began to escalate as Benin The economic and political In 1997, five years after the war had the Tiv and Jukun initially allied Lagos marginalisation of the ‘Middle Belt’ ended, the region was still in ruins. A Wukari themselves with different parties. The region of Nigeria provides the ‘graveyard peace’ prevailed. The Tiv rivalry between the parties manifested Cameroon backdrop to the conflict between the were still conspicuously absent from itself into violent clashes between the Tiv and Jukun people. There, up until the area, the economy had collapsed two groups in Wukari. Even when they the 1950s, the two groups had and the Jukun were reluctant to The principal aim sided with the same party violence coexisted peacefully for many years. negotiate any real settlement with the of the erupted and this happened There was only one paramount chief Tiv for fear of losing the advantage initiative was to enter the sporadically between the 1950s and in the area, the Aku Uka - a Jukun gained during the war. The Jukun also community and gain the people's 1980s. king - and the Tiv were expected to now completely dominated local cooperation in the most non pay tribute and allegiance to him, politics and were more than happy to threatening way possible. The Jukun In 1991, with the approach of which they did faithfully. However, keep it that way. had particularly entrenched positions elections in the newly created Taraba rapid demographic change saw the with regard to any negotiation with the State, which the Jukun feared would once ‘minority’ Tiv population In June of 1997 Academic Associates Tiv and most people were very wary lead to a Tiv ‘take-over’ of the region, outnumber the hitherto predominant PeaceWorks (AAPW) conducted a of any ‘outside’ interference, even matters came to a head. Fighting Jukun group three-to-one in certain peace education programme for though many felt that the community soon erupted, which rapidly areas such as Wukari. This caused teachers and students from 15 itself was not in a position to break the developed into the most devastating significant tensions as the Jukun, who secondary schools in the Wukari area. deadlock between the two groups. In conflict since the Biafran war. A considered the Tiv as ‘immigrants’, Founded in 1992 with the aim of such a situation a discreet entry was number of accounts also suggest that began to feel that their political building capacities for the needed and ‘peace education in the mobile police forces (MOPOL) influence was being eroded. management of conflict through study, schools’ provided just that. were allegedly complicit in the intervention and greater awareness, violence, helping Jukun groups kill Tiv AAPW had already worked in other For AAPW, the fact that the schools people and destroy Tiv villages.1 As a ‘hotspots’ in Nigeria and was known and local authority cooperated in the result the area was comprehensively for its role in establishing a National education programme smoothed the ‘cleansed’ of and the Corps of Mediators, made up of senior way for them to begin a tentative region left in ruins. Only when the and respected Nigerians who were exploration of the conflict and army was brought in did the fighting extensively trained in mediation and opportunities for its resolution. finally end. conflict management skills.

70 Academic Associates PeaceWorks Nigeria 1997 - 1999 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 250,000 Read the AAPW’s book ‘Community Conflicts in Nigeria. Their Management Unknown Resolution and Transformation’ (Spectrum Books, Nigeria, 2000) for a good overview of their work in a number of conflicts. Also see Queen Elizabeth House Refugees: Working Paper, No.9 (1997) entitled ‘Transformation of minorities in post colonial Cost of involvement: Unknown Nigeria’ by Dr Abdul Raufu Mustapha - available online at www2.qeh.ox.ac.uk Also $40,000 see www.aapeaceworks.org for more information on AAPW.

In July and August 1997 AAPW However, according to Judith Asuni, After the AAPW workshops in 1997-8 Furthermore, Tiv people have started conducted a low key fact finding Director of AAPW, once members of the youth groups and elders joined to return to the area and the economy mission in order to produce a full the two sides started to remember forces to establish the ‘Wukari Peace is slowly picking up. account of the causes and dynamics their childhood ties, the barriers Committee’ which worked amongst of the conflict. When the analysis was between them began to break down the community to effect change at One interesting by-product of the work complete, having been reviewed by and by the end of the workshop the every level of society. Since then in Wukari has been that the youth and AAPW staff and selected members of two sides had formed a ‘Wukari AAPW has made repeated visits to elders who participated in the AAPW the Corps of Mediators, it was decided Reconciliation Forum’ in order to bring the area to make sure that the workshops have been active in that two members of the Corps of real peace to the area.2 process of peace and reconciliation is helping solve a nearby conflict which Mediators should be sent to Wukari to kept on track. has led to over $100m destruction. prepare the groundwork for a series of The second workshop, which was Such a transfer of knowledge is an workshops on conflict management aimed at Wukari elders, elicited a Outcome extremely encouraging sign aimed at the key protagonists in the similarly positive response. It was Since AAPW’s work in Wukari the that an indigenous capacity conflict. discovered that the needs of the Tiv area has seen a gradual return to for conflict prevention and and Jukun were not mutually peace and stability. As Asuni resolution is beginning The first workshop, for the youth exclusive as had been expected. The notes, ‘It is unrealistic to ...once to develop, thus raising leaders in the area, was held in a Tiv needed, above all else, land, expect tension to the prospects that neutral town and covered a whole schools and heath facilities, while the members completely disputes in the future range of issues from learning practical Jukun feared the erosion of their disappear of the two sides may be nipped in the mediation and conflict management culture and authority. As a result of within a few bud before they skills, to analysing the roots to the this understanding the Tiv agreed to started to remember years,’3 but the escalate beyond conflict that had divided their acknowledge traditional Jukun signs so far are their childhood ties, the control. community. authority whilst the Jukun agreed to encouraging. re-open schools and health facilities barriers between them While there Since the majority of the combatants (and open new ones) as well as return have been began to break in the conflict were drawn from the Tiv land. potential various youth groups, the tension at down... ‘flashpoints’ this first meeting was acute, with between the many face-to-face confrontations. Tiv and Jukun regarding land disputes and the re-opening of Tiv schools, there have been relatively few instances of violence.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 71 1990 - 2000 Bulgaria Amnesty International Black Sea • Istanbul

Turkey Ankara Georgia

Armenia Background Freedom of speech is not only The elected Turkey Caspian severely repressed under a series of government is Sea Since 1984, the Turkish government draconian laws designed to protect reluctant to prosecute has been locked in a bitter war with the Turkish state against, amongst this shadowy and Cyprus the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), other things, the threat of Kurdish unaccountable force. which has been demanding an Syria separatism, but is also met with ‘Even if I saw with my own eyes that independent Kurdish state for the 15m Iraq unwarranted violence by the security the state had burned a village, I would Kurds (almost 25% of the country’s forces. Those most at risk are Turkish not believe it’1, said the then Prime Amnesty International (AI) was born population) living in Turkey. The human rights groups and members of Minister Tansu Çiller when she was in 1961 after British Lawyer Peter violence of the PKK has been met by pro Kurdish political parties. However, told by a delegation of village leaders Benenson read a newspaper article an equally brutal counter insurgency few people are safe from the reaches that soldiers supported by helicopters which reported the sentencing of two campaign which has left over 30,000 of the security forces. had destroyed their villages. Portuguese students to seven years people dead, around 3,000 or one in prison for raising a toast to third of all Kurdish villages destroyed In March 1995, 23 people were shot freedom. He promptly wrote an article and two million people internally Involvement dead in Istanbul by plainclothes police entitled ‘The Forgotten Prisoners’ displaced. Between 1990 and 1996 Amnesty officers who opened fire on a protest International (AI) conducted ten which called for an international against police inaction over an armed campaign to protect human rights. The effects of this protracted conflict investigative research missions to attack on a café. In 1994 Mehdi Zana, Offers of support came flooding in have been far reaching. Even though Turkey in addition to numerous trial the former mayor of Diyarbakir, began and within one year the organisation military rule ended in 1984 and the observations. Aside from focusing serving a two-year prison sentence for had taken up 210 cases and had leader of the PKK was captured in international attention on the human attending a press conference in branches in seven countries. Today AI 1999, the systematic use of torture rights situation in Turkey, AI’s aim was Brussels in which he read out the is the largest international voluntary and, to a lesser degree, the extra to build as complete a picture of the testimony he had just given before the organisation dealing with human judicial killing of Turkish citizens by extent of human rights abuses with a Human Rights Sub-Committee of the rights in the world. It can also rightly the state, are still features of the view to making recommendations that European Parliament. claim to be one of the highest visibility political landscape of the country, as could be implemented by the non governmental organisations the are 'disappearances'. This is true not Government without compromising Perhaps the most insidious aspect to world today. only in the south east, where most of their perceived security. These the conflict has been the culture of the Kurds live, but throughout the research missions culminated in the impunity that has developed within the While its prolific output and advocacy entire country. launch, in 1996, of a major campaign country’s security apparatus, which on human rights abuses in Turkey and work has no doubt pushed the issue many observers call a ‘state within a an accompanying report entitled of human rights to the forefront, AI's state’. ‘Turkey - no security without human work in Turkey reveals its multi-level rights.’ approach to confronting human rights violators.

72 Amnesty International Turkey 1990 - 2000 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 400,000 - 1,000,000 See www.amnesty.org.uk for a comprehensive look at AI's work 30,000 - 40,000 battle related 2000 (USCR) throughout the world. Also read Jonathan Power's new book ‘Like deaths 1984 - 1999 (Uppsala) Water on Stone’ (Penguin Press, London, 2001) which charts the Refugees: history and development of Amnesty International, as well as some Cost of Involvement: Unknown of its achievements over the past 40 years. $17,000,000 1999 annual budget for all Amnesty International.

In July 1994, for instance, AI AI’s Urgent Action Network consists of Since 1996, 249 Urgent Actions (UA) In March 1997 the Turkish parliament submitted the cases of three prisoners a streamlined procedure for finding have been issued in Turkey - adopted a new law substantially convicted under the infamous Anti and responding to urgent information approximately 130 new and 119 shortening the maximum period of Terror Law to the UN Working Group about threatened individuals and follow-ups since January 1996. Many police detention. The then prime on Arbitrary Detention. In May 1995 quickly getting it to a pool of of these have yielded positive results. minister referred explicitly to AI when the Working Group declared the concerned people who agree to introducing the legislation. imprisonment of the three men to be be ‘on call’ to send In September 2000, 11 Furthermore, reports of ‘a violation of their right to freedom of immediate letters, faxes, members of the pro- ‘disappearances’ and extra judicial opinion and expression’. Such high emails or telexes to ...reports of Kurdish HADEP party executions have fallen since AI's profile and top level petitions have government 'disappearances' were arrested and comprehensive campaign. While it is been extremely important in focusing authorities regarding and extra judicial detained having just impossible to attribute this fall solely international attention on the human specific cases. participated in a local to the action of AI there can be no rights record in Turkey, especially executions have fallen HADEP meeting. doubt that AI played a highly since the Turkish government has Each Urgent Action since Amnesty’s Knowing that they significant role. refused to invite the OSCE or the UN includes specific comprehensive ran the risk of being Special Rapporteurs and Working details about the campaign. tortured and possibly On 8 November 2000, the European Groups to visit the country. In their individual or group as killed whilst in prison, AI Commission presented its regular absence AI provides an essential well as background immediately launched a annual report on Turkey’s progress presence, reminding the state that its information regarding relevant UA. In December the group towards accession (membership to crimes do not go unnoticed. This patterns of human rights violations in were released. All of them had the EU), stating that Turkey still does carries particular significance given the country, recommended actions, escaped torture. Given the systematic not meet the Copenhagen political Turkey’s attempts to join the addresses of responsible and widespread use of torture in criteria (democracy, rule of law, European Union, whose strict criteria governmental authorities and general Turkish prisons, lawyers for the group human rights and protection of for membership includes adherence guidelines to use when composing believe that it was solely due to the minorities). While EU membership is to human rights norms. appeals. In more than 30% of all UA that their clients were released likely to be the biggest driver for the Urgent Action cases there is some unscathed. Turkish government in improving its Meanwhile at the grassroots level, improvement in the situation of those human rights record, without groups many of AI’s members engage in what concerned. Outcome such as AI maintaining continuous AI calls ‘Urgent Actions’. Urgent In AI’s 1998 ‘Turkey Campaign pressure, the culture of impunity that Actions are designed to provide a Of the 1m AI members around the Retrospective’ it was noted that one of plagues Turkey’s security forces quick, effective response to situations world around 80,000 are members of the aims of the campaign was to would in all probability be a lot easier of urgency involving prisoners, the Urgent Action Network. This achieve reform of the draconian to maintain. detainees and other threatened represents a significant international detention procedures. individuals. constituency, able to spring to action at a moments notice.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 73 Syria 1995 - 1999

Christian Peacemaker Teams West Bank Tel Aviv • Israel and the Occupied Territories Hebron

Gaza Background Since Israel took the West Bank Involvement Within four years a slightly Strip during the Six Day War in 1967 more modest version of Sider’s When Jews began to flock to In 1995 Christian Peacemaker Teams Israel tensions have escalated between the dream had been set up with the Palestine during the first half of the (CPT) was invited by a prominent Palestinians and the Israelis in the two other historic peace churches, twentieth century, inspired by Theodor Palestinian Christian human rights city, as well as between the the Brethren and the Quakers.The Herzl’s call to create a permanent advocate to the West Bank to help Egypt Palestinians and Israeli police/military CPT steering committee drafted strict homeland, they imagined returning to document settlement expansion. (principally the Israeli Defense Force - guidelines that would be applied places such as Hebron and When CPT explained to staff at IDF). This has been exacerbated by before a team entered a conflict Jerusalem - the biblical heartland of Hebron’s municipality the nature of the growth in right wing settler situation. For instance, they would ask the Jewish people, rather than cities their work in other areas of the world movements, raising the stakes and themselves, ‘Is the proposed action such as Tel Aviv and Haifa. such as Haiti, which involved increasing the probability of further one our constituency can support?’ maintaining a civilian peace team as a violence. and ‘Is there a trusted welcoming Hebron, said to be the oldest violence deterring presence, they Saudi body in the crisis setting with whom inhabited city in the world, is were invited to do the same in Arabia In 1994 an Israeli settler from the we connect?’ ‘Is the timeframe for the inextricably linked to the Jewish Hebron. oldest settlement in Hebron opened mission clear?’2 identity. The Jewish patriarchs, fire on Muslim worshippers inside the Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were In 1984 at the Eleventh Mennonite Il-Ibrahimi Mosque, site of Abraham's Like all CPT recruits, members of the buried there. Abraham purchased his World Conference in Strasbourg, tomb, killing 39 people and wounding Hebron team were given intensive first piece of land there. Yet Hebron is Ronald Sider gave a talk that sent 125 others. The IDF killed a similar training on a wide range of subjects, a city in the heart of the occupied shockwaves throughout the number of Palestinians in the ensuing from cross cultural understanding to territories, an Arab Muslim city for Mennonite community. ‘Unless we are demonstrations and while the entire the biblical teachings of non-violence. over 1,700 years. Muslims, too, ready to die developing new non- city was put under a severe curfew, Once on the ground the team, which revere the burial place of Abraham violent attempts to reduce conflict,’ he the settlers were exempt and were varied in size between two and six full and as such they regard Hebron as said, ‘we should confess that we allowed to wander the city free. Such time people, started out by identifying both a religious and national treasure. never really meant that the cross was measures have only served to local peace groups with which to work Home to 130,000 Palestinians and an alternative to the sword.’1 His increase resentment and bitterness as well as establishing a 'street 500 Israeli settlers, Hebron thus proposal - that a new non violent within the Palestinian community presence' along some of the most exemplifies the challenges facing the peacekeeping force of 100,000 against the Israelis. volatile intersections between Israeli Middle East peace process. should be assembled, settler and Palestinian communities. trained and sent into the middle of This involved making local people violent conflicts to stand peacefully aware of their activities, noting down between warring sides - gathered any violence and in some cases massive support. physically ‘getting in the way’ between the two sides.

74 Christian Peacemaker Teams The Occupied Territories 1995 - 1999 Internally displaced: For further reading: Deaths: Unknown Read Lisa Schirch's booklet 'Keeping the peace' (Life and Peace 13,000 1948 - 1999 (Dept of Institute, Uppsala, 1995) which explores civilian peacemaking teams Peace and Conflict Research, Refugees: around the world. Also see Robert and Judy Zimmerman Herr's book Uppsala University) 3,800,000 'Transforming Violence' (Pandora Press, USA, 1998) for a look at 2000 (UNRWA) Christian local and global peacemaking. See also Cost of Involvement: www.prairienet.org/cpt/ for the Christian Peacemaker Teams web site. $70,000 p/a for CPT Hebron

Much of their time was spent The third Sunday, as promised, CPT As the crowd approached the Outcome performing community activities such members rode on the bus without Mosque, Israeli soldiers took up By placing themselves in what one as playing with local children, fixing incident. No further bombings positions behind several concrete writer called, the dangerous but holy broken benches in the parks and occurred during this time. This tactic barriers and prepared to shoot. At this space between the weak and the visiting ‘families at risk’ - usually has been used to great effect on point two CPT members stood in front violent, CPT has without a doubt situated on disputed land which is in many occasions involving the planned of the Israeli soldiers shouting ‘Don't helped de-escalate tensions between danger of demolition by the Israeli destruction of Palestinian houses by shoot. This is a non-violent Israelis and Palestinians on numerous authorities or destruction by settlers. right wing Israelis intent on building demonstration!’4 The soldiers lowered occasions. As the eyes and ears of However CPT soon became involved new settlements. As one CPT their guns and not a single shot was the international community CPT in more direct and potentially violent member said ‘We learned again that fired. The confrontation lasted 90 publicised the threats to peace and situations, which illustrate the impact focusing the light of public attention minutes and all the while Palestinian raised the profile of non violent direct they have had on the area. on an evil situation can make a big leaders urging the youth not to throw action in Hebron. As one recent difference.’3 rocks at the soldiers analyst notes, CPT members became One of CPT’s core objectives is to which would have ‘conflict lightning rods’6 - absorbing promote the cause of non violent only escalated the aggression that would have been and they do this skilfully By placing themselves in... the situation. The directed at others. Another through their regular email briefings, dangerous but holy space between the weak stand-off ended commentator noted that CPT actions faxes, press releases and articles when the and the violent, CPT has without a doubt helped were ‘a kind of teach-in for the larger which keep a spotlight on their peace- Palestinian de-escalate tensions between Israelis and community, to combat wrongs by work. elders knelt in making them visible.’7 Palestinians... prayer in the On two consecutive Sundays in road. One While a recent evaluation of CPT March, Palestinian suicide bombers The Palestinian lawyer raises a number of important issues targeted the No.18 bus to Jerusalem second example is perhaps the remarked of the CPT related to such outsider third party killing several Israeli civilians. In most extreme form of intervention intervention ‘You have a lot of moral interventions, CPT nevertheless offers response CPT mobilised its media that CPT has been involved in. On power that both sides recognize. a practical and inspiring model which network, sending press releases to all January 10th 1999 around 200 Running around without guns throws brings hope to areas experiencing Arab and Israeli local, national and Palestinians marched in protest at the [both sides] off and gives you conflict. international journalists as well as closure of the Il-Ibrahim Mosque as leverage.’5 supporters and the relevant well as a curfew placed on the authorities explaining that it intended Palestinians living in the part of to ride the bus on the following Hebron still under Israeli control. Sunday as a public witness against violence.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 75 • Quito Colombia 1995 - 1998 Ecuador Conflict Management Group Brazil Peru / Ecuador Peru

Following major violent clashes in As CMG notes, ‘some Background Involvement Lima 1941, Peru and Ecuador signed the of the most important The border dispute between Ecuador In April 1995, in an attempt Rio Protocol which effectively elements of a FJB workshop and Peru, which was one of the most to find common ground demarcated 95% of the border, are implemented before the protracted in the western hemisphere, between the two countries, including most of a contested region participants ever enter a seminar dates back to 1884. Since then the the Conflict Management Group known as the Cordillera del Condor. room.’1 Carefully selecting the two countries have been engaged in (CMG) - a non governmental Four countries - Brazil, Argentina, appropriate influential participants armed conflict 34 times, most recently organisation founded in 1984 by Chile and the United States - agreed from each side, building allies in each in 1995. Professor Roger Fisher from Harvard to guarantee the observance of the country to support the FJB process Law School - proposed a ‘facilitated Protocol. and preparing official channels at the The dispute arose shortly after both joint brainstorming’ session to the highest levels to receive and follow up countries won their independence then Ecuadorian president and former In 1947 the U.S. Air Force discovered the results of the exercise are critical from Spain. Both Peru and Ecuador, Peruvian deputy minister of foreign a river in the Cordillera del Condor, to the success of the initiative. like most of the newly independent affairs. changing the geography of the region, Latin American countries, accepted which prompted the Ecuadorian Over a period of weeks CMG staff the principle of uti possedetis which According to CMG, a key feature of government in 1960 to declare the Rio visited the capital cities of both stipulated that they should inherit the facilitated joint brainstorming (FJB) is protocol's boundary provision null and countries in an attempt to seek the colonial administrative borders that its use of training-as-intervention. void. From that point onwards, support of both governments for the were in place at the time of Rather than bringing the two sides tensions remained high, resulting in meeting. During this time CMG independence. However, like many of together to negotiate, FJB uses periodic bouts of violence as Peru and identified one ‘anchor’ from each side their neighbours, parts of the Peru- problem solving exercises and Ecuador fought for control of the - someone who could act as a Ecuador border were fuzzy, due negotiation training itself as a vehicle region. In January 1995 these trustworthy sounding board who largely to tracts of unexplored to build bridges among parties in tensions escalated into a short but would also be able to help identify mountainous areas which rendered conflict. The two sides agreed, and in violent war - the most violent since the other participants. Great effort was precise boundary demarcation April 1995 eleven participants were dispute began - followed by ceasefire, made by CMG to ensure that a ‘safe difficult, if not impossible. brought together for a week-long drawn up by the Guarantor nations. environment’ was created, so that Furthermore, since they had all been workshop in Cambridge, However further skirmishes in March participants would have the chance to part of the Spanish crown there was Massachusetts, to explore ideas and 1995 showed that the situation get to know each other as human hardly a need to map out borders to techniques that might facilitate better remained critical. beings rather than members of the the last inch. communication and help them enemy camp. For instance, manage their differences more participants were invited by CMG staff effectively. to join them on the first night, prior to the start of the workshop the following day, to have an informal dinner which was an important ice breaker.

76 Conflict Management Group Peru / Ecuador 1995 - 1998 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Read Beth A Simmons paper Territorial Disputes and Their 575 - 700 battle related deaths Resolution: The Case of Ecuador and Peru, United States 1941-1998 (Uppsala) Refugees: Institute of Peace publication ‘Peaceworks'. Also see Unknown www.cmgroup.org for more about the work of CMG. Cost of involvement: $150,000

In spite of efforts made by CMG staff Throughout the week the participants Following further exercises, the group While it is unclear precisely how this to persuade participants that they had were sensitised to a variety of skills then began to brainstorm options that workshop influenced the formal been invited in their personal and not and techniques designed to build addressed the interests that lay negotiations, Mahuad’s statement official capacities, that they were not strong working relationships, enhance behind their positions and evaluated suggests that the contribution made to seek any form of agreement and communication and develop their those options from their own by CMG certainly had an impact on that this was not even an ‘unofficial active listening, problem solving and perspective and from the perspective the nature and direction of the negotiation’, participants still turned empathy skills. For example, one of the ‘other side’, thus becoming relationship between the two sides. In up on the first day armed with files, exercise had participants think six more aware of the importance of ‘joint fact it wasn’t until 1998 that an maps and presentations in order to months into the future and write a ownership’ of any proposal. agreement was finally reached defend their positions. CMG ‘victory speech’ for their president, between the two countries, brokered facilitators persisted, believing that the which would include the Outcome by the Guarantor nations and led by entire day should be dedicated to major themes that the from the Brazil. However CMG was again informal interaction. Their efforts were leader would like to workshop was involved behind the scenes directly quickly rewarded when the first use to explain a overwhelmingly assisting President Mahuad in helping exercise, which involved participants future Such positive, him improve both his negotiating style introducing each other, offered a clear hypothetical exceeding the and the channel of communication sign of how things were to develop. agreement. bridge building expectations of between him and President Fujimori One senior military official from Peru was an important component both the of Peru. This help, too, is reflected in remarked, ‘Well...I have already failed Participants a letter President Mahuad wrote to of the entire week long participants the first assignment. I know very little were then and CMG Roger Fisher two weeks before the about what my colleague from paired up with a process. facilitators. signing of the final agreement in Ecuador does for a living. What I do team member which he said ‘I know of none who know is that we both have from the other side According to CMG have done more to make this peace handicapped daughters and we spent and common themes participants were possible than you and the Conflict 4 our time talking about that passion in from both speeches were relating to each other in Management Group.’ 2 our lives.’ Such bridge building was discussed, with a view to ways that were clearly more positive an important component of the entire redrafting both speeches to make than any formal encounters to date. week long process. them consistent, while highlighting Perhaps most tellingly Jamil Mahuad, those ideas that would be most who became President of Ecuador in compelling to their own constituency. 1998 said: ‘That one-week session in Through this exercise participants Cambridge has had a lasting impact began to identify shared interests on the way Ecuador and Peru deal such as economic development, trade with the boundary problem and deal and protecting the environment. with each other.’3

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 77 1993 - 2001+ The Dartmouth Conference Regional Task Force Uzbekistan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan

Dushanbe • Tajikistan Background A series of repressive measures The idea, according to Harold China pursued by the authorities against the Saunders, former US Assistant The conflict in Tajikistan was both a supporters of the opposition, as well Secretary of State and Co-Chair of the civil war pitting the North of the as their efforts to foment hysteria over Regional Conflicts Task Force with While each country against the South and one in the threat of Islamic fundamentalism Gennady Chufrin, was not to mediate participant came in Pakistan which democratic-Islamic forces from the South led to a rapidly a peace agreement ‘but to create a an unofficial capacity, the senior fought the communists. The roots of escalating political crisis, which soon group within the conflict with the leadership from both sides gave their the conflict lie in the development of turned violent. capacity to develop its own peace tacit approval for the meeting to take mahalgara'I - localism/regionalism - a process’.1 The approach that the Task place - a significant achievement in practice that in sharp contrast to the Although the opposition forces formed Force adopted was based upon a itself. other Soviet republics in Central Asia a brief alliance in September 1992 to concept developed by Saunders was integrated into state policies from force themselves into a coalition called ‘Sustained Dialogue.’2 It argues As the group met for the first time, the late 1930s and persisted until the government, it was not recognized by that many conflicts are not ready for Saunders, Chufrin and their Russian- collapse of the Soviet Union. This was the communists and after two months formal mediation and negotiation. U.S. team encouraged participants to especially true of economic of continued fighting, they Given that formal negotiations seldom first map the relationship together - to development, with 70% of the relinquished control to supporters of explore the issues of identity, fear, learn to talk analytically and honestly republic's entire budget going to the the old regime. However, the fighting historic grievance and injustice, which about the relationship, rather than to northern region - the traditional continued, with government forces are vital to the resolution of a conflict, dwell on ‘positions’. In this way the breeding ground for the communist bombing suspected 'Islamic Sustained Dialogue provides a space group began to explore the core leadership of the Soviet republic. This fundamentalist' areas, escalating the where citizens outside government problems, grievances and feelings further marginalized the southern war and causing massive population can begin to change the relationships that underpinned the conflict. The regions, which is where the displacement. between themselves. participants also agreed to listen nationalist, democratic and Islamic carefully, to speak from the heart and forces began to gather momentum. Involvement In March 1993, after meeting with with respect for the sensitivities of over 100 key figures in the Tajikistan others.3 After this and subsequent In 1991, following the collapse of the In 1981 the Soviet-U.S. Dartmouth conflict, ten were selected to meetings it was agreed that the Soviet Union, elections were held, Conference established the Regional participate in the first meeting which, participants would brief their which were won by the old communist Conflicts Task Force, which focused since the opposition was banned, was respective leaders, as well as clique based in the north. on US-Soviet interactions in regional conflicts. When the Soviet Union held in Moscow. This was the first selected governments such as the collapsed, the Regional Conflicts Task stage in Saunders’ ‘Sustained US, in addition to the UN. This gave Force decided to use its decade-long Dialogue’ methodology: deciding to all parties the opportunity to assess experience to establish a dialogue engage - identifying participants, the situation as it developed, between the parties involved in the defining the problem, agenda setting especially with a view to launching Tajikistan conflict. and creating a safe environment for formal negotiations. the talks to take place.

78 Dartmouth Conference Regional Task Force Tajikistan 1993 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For further information: Deaths: 600,000 Read ‘A Public Peace Process’ by Harold Saunders 50,000 (Project Ploughshares (UNHCR) (Palgrave, UK 1999), which provides a comprehensive Armed Conflict Report 2000 analysis of the Sustained Dialogue process as well as www.ploughshares.ca/content/ACR/ Refugees: a full account of the work of the Inter Tajik Dialogue. 250,000 Cost of Involvement: (UNHCR) $90,000 2000 - just US contribution.

As the meetings progressed the ‘Inter- The following month the government Once the UN negotiations began, the Outcome Tajik Dialogue within the Framework agreed to official UN-mediated Dialogue re-defined its goals. While In 1997 a peace agreement was of the Dartmouth Conference’ as it negotiations with the United Tajik the official talks would seek a finally signed. Several key provisions became known (hereafter referred to Opposition. Three Dialogue negotiated agreement to end the within the accord - such as the as the ‘Dialogue’) moved through two participants were included as conflict, the Dialogue would focus on creation of the National Reconciliation further stages - Probing the dynamics members of the two negotiating longer term problems, especially how Commission - were first aired during of the relationship together - creating teams. to engage all levels of Tajik society in the Dialogue meetings. Even after the a genuine process of interaction and the considerable task of supporting agreement was signed the Dialogue imagining a constructive relationship Saunders is at pains to stress that the the outcome of the official continued to meet and to put forward and Experiencing the relationship by Dialogue cannot claim exclusive negotiations. This division of suggestions which would further the thinking together - scenario planning credit for either the creation roles was important for all aim of national reconciliation. In and action planning to move the of the United Tajik involved to avoid February 2000, the Dialogue formally problem towards resolution. For Opposition or the the group confusion, competition registered their Public Committee for example at one meeting pro- launch of formal began to explore and duplication. Democratic Processes to broaden government participants began to negotiations. The UN the core problems, citizen engagement in the political voice their frustration at the obstacles had, for instance, Over the following grievances and process. blocking the creation of formal been trying to months this ‘unofficial negotiations. For them the key persuade both sides feelings that dialogue’ produced a While there have been significant problem was the lack of a co- to launch a formal underpinned the series of proposals challenges for the country since the ordinated and organised opposition. negotiation process for which it believed would conflict. signing of the accord, including Two months later, two pro-opposition several months. help the process of sporadic bouts of violence, the members of the Dialogue helped write However, UN, US, and reconciliation. This was the signing of the accord has led to a a common platform for the opposition Tajikistani officials attest to the final stage in the process - measure of stability which the forces, which became known as the significant role of the Dialogue in Acting together - finding ways to Dialogue is working to help United Tajik Opposition. When the helping to pave the way for formal implement ‘ideal scenarios’.5 One consolidate. It must be remembered pro-opposition members of the negotiations to take place. such idea - to create a National that by the time formal negotiations Dialogue reported back to the group Forum enabling Tajikistanis from began in April 1994, members of both on this development the pro- around the country to meet and sides had been meeting unofficially government participants remarked discuss the future of their country - under the ‘Inter-Tajik Dialogue’ banner that finally ‘the basis for negotiations was drafted and eventually signed by for over thirteen months. This may exist’.4 the president of Tajikistan and the constituted the only substantial leader of the United Tajik Opposition, contact between the pro-government though it is yet to be established. and pro-opposition forces during this time and allowed much needed bridge building to begin. War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 79 Syria 1989 - 1993 FAFO Institute for Applied Social Sciences West Bank Israel & the Occupied Territories Tel Aviv •

Gaza Strip Despite some progress over the As he talked to more and more people It was felt that only with Background Israel From the very moment the state of years, by the 1990s the issue was still from both sides Larsen began to absolute secrecy, to allow Israel was born in 1948, a complex unresolved. The Gaza strip was realise that what was needed was a the participants to fully set of seemingly irreconcilable issues proving to be a ‘security nightmare’ for forum to bring the two sides together, explore all the possibilities, took root pitching the Jews and the the Israelis who were keen to pull out to foster trust and common interests, could progress be made. but were unwilling and unable to to break down the hostile image that Thus it was agreed that Arabs at polar extremes. Of these the Egypt most fundamental was that neither the negotiate with the PLO, who they each side had of one another. He the number of people who Jewish nor Arab leadership would regarded as a terrorist organisation envisioned this forum as a ‘back would know about the real acknowledge each others' claimed and was still outlawed. The PLO on channel’ to the official nature of the meetings was kept right to the land. the other hand was unwilling to agree Madrid/Washington Middle East talks to an absolute minimum and the to a deal which only gave it the Gaza that had been launched in 1991 with FAFO living standards research be Saudi Following the Six Day War in 1967, strip, fearing that such a move would great fanfare under joint US-Russian used as a front so as not to attract too Israel took the Gaza Strip and the spell the end of any claim to the West sponsorship. much attention. As Egeland notes, Arabia West Bank. With the occupation came Bank. In their eyes, any agreement on FAFO ‘provided an academic the responsibility for over 1.5 million self determination in the Gaza strip After considerable shuttling between camouflage that gave the parties their 1 Palestinians which proved to be a would have to be part of a more his Israeli and Palestinian contacts, much needed “deniability”’. fundamental ideological and security comprehensive package handing Larsen received word that both sides problem for the Jewish leadership. back the West Bank, or at least parts were willing to meet in secret. At the first meeting in January 1993, The West Bank was the real biblical of it. Norway, uniquely, enjoyed good held in a beautiful and remote wood- heartland for the Jews, more so than relations with both the Israelis and built mansion in the Norwegian any of the lands originally assigned to Involvement Palestinians and thus was trusted by countryside, Larsen made clear his them in the UN partition plan of 1947 In 1989 Terje Rod Larsen, Director of both to be an ‘honest broker.’ With the position. ‘If you two [groups] are going and as such they were loath to the FAFO Institute for Applied Social unequivocal backing and enthusiastic to manage to live together, you’ve got relinquish any of it. Yet it was clear Sciences in Norway, began an input of the Norwegian foreign to solve this problem between you. that peace would be impossible extensive social survey of the living ministry the process was launched. You own the problem. If you need without returning at least some land to conditions of the Palestinians living in some help from us, please ask for it. the Palestinians. the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. From the very start the Norwegian After lunch you should go into the team - spearheaded by Larsen, his meeting room and I will wait for you wife, Mona Juul, who worked in the outside - unless you get into Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, fisticuffs!’2 and Jan Egeland, Norway’s Deputy Foreign Minister - realised that secrecy was the key for the type of negotiation they were setting up.

80 FAFO Institute for Applied Social Sciences Israel & the Occupied Territories 1989 - 1993 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Read Jane Corbin’s book - ‘Gaza First - the secret Norway Channel to 13,000 peace between Israel and the PLO’ (Bloomsbury Publishing, London battle related deaths 1948 - 1999 Refugees: 1994), which gives an excellent and thorough examination of the entire (Uppsala) 3,800,000 Oslo process. Also see Uri Savir’s book ‘The Process: 1,100 days that 2000 (UNRWA) Changed the Middle East’ (Vintage Books, London 1999) for an insiders Cost of Involvement: view of the secret negotiations. See www.fafo.no for more info on FAFO. $400,000

This role for the Norwegians, as The three days of discussions were This approach is known to have had a Aside from the ‘nuts and bolts’ facilitators rather than mediators, was so successful that the participants significant impact on several members achievements which saw Gaza and vital. Clinton’s ‘full partnership’ pledge decided to begin working on a of the group, with new strong Jericho handed back to Palestinian at the Washington talks was seen in ‘declaration of principles’ - essentially relationships being forged between control, the key breakthrough was the some circles as further limiting the a framework for how the two sides people who just months earlier had signing of a mutual recognition pact. possibilities of a settlement since the could reach an agreement. considered each other arch enemies. Through this landmark agreement, US role changed from one of co- As one analyst notes, ‘Increasingly both the Palestinians and the Israelis sponsor/facilitator to active partner While both sides the personal recognised each other - the first time and, in the Palestinian’s eyes, on the also gave the relationships were ever. This could pave the way for side of the Israelis. The Norwegians, Norwegians the what gave the future negotiations. by marked contrast, would bring the green light to secret parties together and use their good arrange further Through negotiations their While the success of the talks must offices to promote trust and explain meetings, Larsen this landmark momentum. There be attributed to a number of global the difficulties each side faced to the was convinced that agreement, both was a shared will and local forces at play - including the other party. the participants the Palestinians to succeed even collapse of communism, the needed to make when the outlook deterioration of Arafat’s power, the At the first meeting the group agreed progress on an and the Israelis was at its most installation of new Labour to discuss only the issues where interpersonal level, recognised each bleak.’3 administration in Israel and the progress could be made immediately, to build trust and other - the first eruption of the Palestinian intifada - or where at the very least flexibility even intimacy with time ever. the Norwegian role must claim was possible. All other more one another in Outcome significant credit for the landmark intractable questions would be left order for the talks After 9 months of outcome. As the chief Israeli until later. The key issue under to succeed. intense behind negotiator, Uri Savir said to the discussion was that of Israeli troop Accordingly, at the scenes Norwegian team, ‘The Oslo sprit... withdrawal from Gaza as a prelude to every meeting meetings a deal this special harmony you conveyed to Palestinian self-rule. Central to this during the frequent intervals between was struck. When it was revealed to us, between man, nature and conduct was the idea of ‘graduality’ - that discussions, Larsen encouraged the the world US Secretary of State - was contagious in creating a new Palestinian self-rule in Gaza would be Palestinians and Israelis to talk to Warren Christopher said that it was Middle East Spirit. You are coupled with the gradual transfer of each other about their aspirations, 'not just a conceptual but a peacemakers in the true sense of the power in the Occupied Territories. their dreams and hopes - to connect psychological breakthrough.'4 word, facilitating peace for the sake of with each other on a personal level. peace itself. You have the quiet yet intense passion that helped channel our passions in a constructive direction.’5

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 81 Uganda

1994 - 2000 Democratic Rwanda Republic of the Congo JAMAA Bujumbura • Burundi Tanganyika Tanzania Lake Burundi

Background Involvement The first activity that JAMAA As JAMAA grew so the scope organised was a football match of its activities widened. It first In August 2000 after two and a half Amidst the violence that has plagued between members of a predominantly targeted its attention on the northern years of intense negotiations, a peace Burundi over the years JAMAA, which Tutsi quartier (region) of the city and a quartiers of the city which had been agreement was finally signed in means ‘Friends’ in Swahili, was Hutu quartier. ‘We targeted the worst hit by the violence. The first Arusha, Tanzania, which, it was launched. For Adrien Tuyaga, founder leaders, because they could start or stage of their work - ‘trauma hoped, would end the conflict in of JAMAA, the idea surfaced during stop the violence. It didn’t matter how counselling’ - involved talking to Hutus Burundi.1 Yet without agreeing a the killings that spread throughout the well they could play soccer,’ said and Tutsi youth about their ceasefire and with some rebel leaders country in 1993. With a Tutsi mother Adrien.4 The idea was to create some experiences of violence and how it conspicuously absent from the talks, and a Hutu father who was killed form of communication between the had affected them. This was followed the prospects for a real and lasting when Tuyaga was only six years old Hutus and Tutsis in the quartiers and by strenuous efforts to reintegrate peace were remote. As the during the massacres of 1972, the this would be the first step in such a these youths back into the community. International Crisis Group reported in inter ethnic bloodletting in 1993 process. In order to do this JAMAA teamed up December 2000, ‘Far from quelling presented him with a stark choice. ‘I with a number of international NGOs the level of violence, the peace was in the middle,’ he says. ‘I thought The football match was a resounding to provide employment opportunities. agreement marked the start of a I would be killing my mother if I joined success and so JAMAA began ‘There is no work here’ says Tuyaga, resurgence of violence.’2 the Hutus and betraying the memory organising further matches - but this ‘and if there is no employment for of my father if I joined the Tutsis. This time the teams were mixed, with these young men, all this will fall In towns and cities throughout the is how I started to think of ways to Hutus and Tutsis playing on the same apart.’6 With funding from a variety of country, including the capital, pull people together.’3 side. ‘At first people were confused, NGOs many of the youths were able Bujumbura, youths - organised into but they soon got used to it and they to set up small businesses and learn paramilitary groups who had been told Tuyaga began by contacting other liked it,’ said Adrien. ‘A Hutu defends new skills such as carpentry and by their leaders to ‘kill before you are youths who came from ‘mixed’ a Tutsi or a Hutu falls over and a Tutsi welding. For example, one micro- killed’ - were still patrolling the streets. families as well as those who had not team-mate rushes to help. People credit facility was only available to For them, the peace agreement yet been sucked into the violence. came to support their area rather than applicants whose proposed business meant little. It was business as usual. Together they discussed how best to support Hutu or Tutsi’.5 The football involved a multi-ethnic group. reach the youth militias who were tournament has been phenomenally responsible for most of the violence in successful in doing what many the city. How, they asked themselves, considered the unthinkable - bringing could they change the attitudes of Hutu and Tutsi youth together. these youths? How could they help re-establish relationships between neighbours?

82 JAMAA Burundi 1994 - 2000 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 580,000 (2001), 800,000 (1999) Read ‘Burundi on the Brink 1993-95: A UN Special Envoy 200,000 war related deaths 1993 - 500 - 700,000 (1993) (IDP Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy’ (United States Institue of 1999 (various sources) database) Peace Press, Washington, 2000) for an illuminating account of the Refugees: efforts made to prevent bloodshed in Burundi. Also read the reports Cost of Involvement: 1.2m 1993 - 2001 (US Committee for published by the International Crisis Group (www.crisisweb.org/) Not available Refugees) for excellent analyses of the Burundi Peace Process.

One of the most outstanding projects Emile, once an active member of a JAMAA immediately sprung into According to Tuyaga and others, the implemented by JAMAA was Tutsi militia, echoes these sentiments. action, launching a ‘yes to life, no to message was understood: ‘The developed in response to the ‘Look. I didn’t profit from any of the violence’ campaign with other NGOs uprising did not occur. Some leaders increased violence in Bujumbura killings. I was poor before, and I am in the city. Through the Gardons changed sides from violence to during 1999. With the Washington poor now...[the politicians] told us to Contact network of ex-militia peace’.9 Louis Putzel, Country based NGO Search for Common kill, and now we have to pick up the members, posters, leaflets and Director for Search for Common Ground, JAMAA launched ‘Gardons pieces, not them.’8 banners were distributed throughout Ground, which has supported JAMAA Contact’ (Let us keep contact). The the city which reaffirmed this since its inception, agrees that the idea was to build a mutually An example of Gardons Contact message, asking the local strategy worked, adding ‘It was very supportive and robust network of ex in action can be found people to join them in meaningful because some of the militia leaders and youth-at-risk who, during the time of the rejecting violence and to youth involved in the Gardons Contact during times of escalating tension, signing of the Arusha The wear a piece of white initiative had been known in the past would encourage each other, and the Accords in August football match was a cloth around their as perpetrators of violence’10 wider community, not to resort to 2000 when resounding success and so wrist as a symbolic violence. Days and nights are spent tensions began to gesture of their Outcome together, drinking beers, telling jokes, escalate JAMAA began organising choice for peace. One journalist recently commented discussing politics and socialising - throughout the Search For further matches - but this that real progress in the Burundi building what Tuyaga hopes will be country. In Common time the teams were mixed, peace process is not be measured by long lasting friendships. Bujumbura Ground’s incidences of with Hutus and Tutsis renowned Studio how many politicians attended the Arusha talks or indeed the outcome of Members also talk about what is violence increased playing on the same Ijambo also those talks. It is measured by ‘the needed to persuade others to as extremist elements produced radio side. growing number of contacts between abandon the militias. Victor, once a attempted to undermine programmes on the people across the ethnic divide.’11 In member of one of the most feared the talks underway in Arusha. initiative, thus spreading the this respect JAMAA is a great step in Hutu militias and now part of Gardons Within the space of a week there were message to the entire city and the right direction. The significance of Contact, believes that with support riots at the university, a marked beyond. former militia fighters participating in and resources, he could entice increase in the number of ambushes inter-ethnic football matches and ‘hundreds’ of Hutu fighters back to and several grenade attacks at joining forces to present a unified civilian life. ‘They need to see there is various locations throughout the city. alternative to violence cannot be an alternative,’7 he says. Worryingly, leaflets were being circulated by extremists warning of an overestimated. imminent uprising and telling people to remain at home otherwise they would be killed.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 83 1974 - 1980 Zimbabwe

Mozambique Moral Re-Armament Botswana

Rhodesia/Zimbabwe South Africa

Background The violence rapidly escalated and Conversely, had the whites won the MRA’s focus on personal the country descended into a full election the ZANU/ZAPU Patriotic transformation as the key to social Starting with Ghana in 1957, African scale and protracted war that caused Front forces were said to be waiting transformation is evident in the countries began to win back their thousands of deaths and vast with ‘pangas (machetes) in hand to kill numerous events that were organised independence from their colonial population displacement. Between every white in sight’1 if the word was by the group. At a major MRA masters. In the 1960s France 1966 and 1979 countless peace given. conference held in 1975 which was relinquished control of its African initiatives were launched and failed, attended by many people directly colonies, in some cases (such as the Rhodesian economy began to involved in the war, Alec Smith, in ) reluctantly. The British did the Involvement collapse, 20% of the white population classic MRA style, apologised to the same, with the majority of countries Joram Kucherera, a member of Moral fled abroad and the violence showed audience for his own early naivety, achieving independence by the mid Re-Armament (see pages 14 and no signs of abating. prejudice and ignorance and 1960s. 106) knew that if bloodshed was to be prevented, ‘Two people have to meet appealed for forgiveness as well as In late 1979 at a landmark conference for a renewed effort to help end the In Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) the - Smith and Mugabe. There’s no other at Lancaster House in London, the war. story was different. In 1962 the right way.’2 warring parties finally agreed on a wing Rhodesia Front (RF) came to ceasefire, a transitional government This MRA belief in the power of power, their goal being Rhodesian Moral Re-Armament (MRA) had been and a settlement on a new personal apology as a way of independence under guaranteed active in Southern Africa since the constitution. While greeted with much breaking down barriers between minority rule (less than 10% of the 1920s and many African nationalist jubilation many people feared that people and opening dialogue had a population was white). In 1965 after leaders, including Joshua Nkomo of whichever side lost the upcoming significant impact on several members several attempts to persuade Britain ZAPU and Mugabe, had heard of their elections would re-ignite the war. of the audience, one of whom was a to grant independence, , work. Through key members such as These concerns were not without man called Arthur Kanodereka who leader of the RF government Alec Smith, Ian Smith’s son, MRA foundation. One month before the recruited young men into Mugabe’s announced the Unilateral Declaration flourished in Rhodesia and between elections it was discovered that a guerrilla force. He formed a close of Independence on November 11th, 1975 & 1979 they launched a variety Rhodesian army general was friendship with Smith and the pair 1965. Soon after, Zimbabwe became of initiatives aimed at ‘building bridges preparing a coup in case the whites travelled the country sharing their the focus of international sanctions as of reconciliation’ and finding a solution lost the elections. message of reconciliation and peace.3 well as attacks spearheaded by to the war that was devastating the ZANU and ZAPU, the two prominent country. African nationalist organisations fighting for Zimbabwean independence.

84 Moral Re-Armament Zimbabwe 1974 - 1980 Internally displaced: For More information: Deaths: Unknown Read ‘Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft’ (Oxford 12,000 University Press, 1994) which gives a very good account of MRA's role battle related deaths (COW) Refugees: in Zimbabwe as well as other religious contributions to peacemaking Unknown and peacebuilding worldwide. See also www.mra.org.uk for Cost of Involvement: information on Moral Re-Armament. Not available

Other people personally transformed Alec Smith then set to work on his Kucherera was the only person to Outcome by the MRA approach included father, persuading him that a meeting accompany Smith that fateful night. The next morning, on Tuesday March Gordon Chavunduka, secretary with his nemesis, whom Ian Smith had When Smith met Mugabe, recalls 4th 1980, almost 14 years since the general of the ANC who with MRA called ‘the apostle of Satan’5, was Kucherera, he ‘was surprised with the start of the war, came the election member Desmond Reader (a well- essential as the country teetered on warmth of the welcome. It was the results. Mugabe had won. Smith known professor at the University of the brink of renewed war. After contrast of what he expected to see. made a public announcement to the Rhodesia), went on to help organise several days of deliberations both The man he regarded as a terrorist people of the country accepting the many intimate meetings between ANC sides gave their consent. Given the was very disarming.’6 results of the election and urging his leaders and members of Ian Smith’s precarious security situation which fellow white constituency to remain in cabinet. These meetings, coupled had seen several assassination Both men knew that the election the country, as he would be doing. He with others arranged by Alec Smith, attempts on Mugabe’s life within the would see Mugabe elected a leader of went on to say that he had met brought his father in contact with space of a few weeks, it was agreed the country. For the next two hours, Mugabe and found him to be a many of his political rivals, and were that the meeting would be held at the men talked. Mugabe explained ‘reasonable man’. Later on that day, vital in paving the way for the crucial Mugabe's house at night. that he wanted to retain the Mugabe made a similar conciliatory encounter between Mugabe and confidence of the white population speech asking all Zimbabweans to Smith on the eve of the elections. As and he sought the advice of Smith in ‘beat swords into plowshares.’ Alec Smith recalls in his memoirs: this matter. He also offered Smith an ‘There’s no doubt that during these olive branch: two cabinet posts would The much-expected white exodus years my father's attitude 'There's no be given to white ministers was averted, a renewed war was softened...over a period of four nominated by Smith. doubt that during almost certainly prevented and the years or so I exposed him to men these years my transition of power was relatively who had a different way of When the meeting was peaceful. Lord Soames, responsible looking at things.’4 father's attitude concluded Smith was driven for governing the country during the back to his house by softened... over a period transition period reflected, ‘Every time Kucherera, who had close Kucherera. During the journey, of four years or so I we thought the thing would explode in contacts with ZANU-PF, made Smith said, ‘This is a our faces, some miracle came about. a few exploratory phone calls exposed him to men remarkable day for Rhodesia.’ When we went out there I was not to see whether his idea for a who had a different one who believed in miracles. I think I meeting between the two men way of looking at am reversing my position now.’7 had any mileage. To his surprise he discovered that Mugabe was things.' provisionally interested. Alec Smith.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 85 1992 - 2001+ Moldovan Initiative Committee of Management Ukraine Dniester River Moldova Moldova Transdniester Romania Chisinau Background With the collapse of the Soviet Union, During his time with Moldova declared its independence in Involvement the CRC he was Moldova's conflict can be traced to the 1990, announced changes to the In October 1992 Joe Camplisson, heavily influenced by carving up of the country and its language laws in favour of its Director of the Northern Ireland-based the theories of renowned predominantly Romanian speaking Romanian speaking majority and Inter Community Development academic John Burton. Black people by the Russian and Ottoman Sea signalled its intentions to reunite with Services (ICDS), visited The key for Burton to empires. The eastern part of Moldova Romania. Moldova's minorities, Transdniestria as part of his efforts to unlocking some of the world's most (Bessarabia) was ceded to Russia, especially the Russian/Slavs east of develop a community development intractable conflicts was while western Moldova remained in the Dniester river (Transdniestria) strategy for the region. He had understanding the basic unmet human Ottoman hands until 1877 when it feared that they would be the victims already begun a similar process needs that underpin the motivations of became part of the newly-established of discrimination and were resolutely following requests from Moldovan parties at war with one another. He state of Romania. opposed to the growing pro- community leaders and was invited to also believed that people can only Romanian sentiment in Moldova. do the same for Transdniestrians in ultimately satisfy their own needs by By the end of the First World War an attempt to help them adjust to the recognising that the needs of their Romania had doubled in size, Only days after the declaration of new post-communist economic enemy have also to be met. absorbing the eastern half of Moldova independence by Moldova, climate. However, an encounter with too. The Soviet Union, in an attempt Transdniestria broke away and an elderly woman in a local health Camplisson quickly won the support to exert influence over the disputed formed its own republic. By the end of centre radically altered Camplisson's of all the major stakeholders in the territory, promptly established the 1991 there were violent clashes focus. ‘We don’t really want to know conflict, including the presidents of ‘Autonomous Moldovan Soviet between Moldova and Transdniestria, about jobs and economic recovery Moldova and Transdniestria, who Socialist Republic’ on a strip of which soon sucked in minorities such and all of those things’ she said. ‘All requested assistance in attempting to Ukrainian land east of the Dniester as the Gagauz as well as parts of the we want is peace. We want peace, resolve the conflict. He began river and encouraged Russians and Russian army into the widening but we don't want their flag, or their assembling a group of conflict experts Ukrainians to settle there. In 1944 1 conflict. In July 1992 a ceasefire was language or to be Romanians.’ from the UK and USA who would help Soviet forces retook Russia’s lost negotiated, yet sporadic bouts of Reminding him of the situation in him organise a series of workshops Moldovan territory and merged it with violence continued and the two sides Northern Ireland, he promised the which would complement and feed the Autonomous Moldovan Soviet in the conflict were no nearer to a elderly lady that he would to do what into to the official Socialist Republic. resolution. he could to help. OSCE/Russian/Ukrainian supervised negotiations that were underway. Camplisson’s previous work in Northern Ireland for the Community Relations Commission (CRC) had given him a valuable insight into the dynamics of conflict.

86 Moldovan Initiative Committee of Management Moldova 1992 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 60,000 Read Michael Hall’s pamphlets ‘Conflict Resolution - the missing element in 1,000 (UNHCR) the Northern Ireland Peace Process’ and the updated version of ‘Hidden (source: various) Frontiers’ (Island Publications, Co Antrim Northern Ireland , 2001) for a good Refugees: overview of MICOM's work and its implications for the Northern Ireland peace Cost of involvement: 60,000 process. See also http://home.moldpac.md/~savelkin/frontpage.htm for an $210,000 per year (UNHCR) excellent account of the Moldovan conflict and the current peace process.

Meanwhile the community One expert likened MICOM’s function Instead he suggested a study visit to A recent analysis of MICOM is development process assisted by to ‘the introduction of additional Belfast which he hoped would provide unequivocal in its praise for their Camplisson continued apace. By squares to a chessboard when the them with new insights. They agreed work.6 Officials interviewed note that February 1993 this had led to the players reach stalemate.’4 and in March 1996 the group visited not only has MICOM managed to setting up of the Joint Moldovan- Northern Ireland, participating in a ‘unblock’ the official peace process on Transdniestrian Committee (later This meeting was also viewed as variety of activities which helped them several occasions but has, in some renamed the Joint Committee for highly constructive. Many of the draw parallels between the two instances, helped shape it. They also Democratisation and Conciliation - participants said that together the conflicts as well as extract useful point to a marked increase in trust JCDC) - the first non governmental Canterbury workshops had helped lessons learned. The visit was a between Moldovan and organisation of its kind. Not only did it them look at the conflict more deeply. resounding success with one key Transdniestrian negotiators which has set out to organise and facilitate Others also reported that the participant commenting, ‘After what led to the implementation of community development initiatives supportive environment we have learned about confidence-building measures such involving grassroots representatives engendered by MICOM Northern Ireland I think our as the reduction in peacekeeping from both sides of the conflict but it enabled them to One expert reconstruction will take forces from 2,000 to 500. Other highly also assisted the conflict resolution develop cooperative less time.’5 significant outcomes from the MICOM process begun by Camplisson. approaches to their likened MICOM's work include the emergence of the function to 'the problems. Indeed Outcome JCDC which is accepted on all sides In July 1994 Camplisson and his many of the ideas introduction of additional as an ‘indigenous neutral third party’. In May 1997 an associates, now established as the that evolved from the Uniquely, through recent joint MICOM/ squares to a chessboard historic protocol was Moldovan Initiative Committee of workshops were JCDC initiatives which have brought when the players signed between the Management (MICOM),held the first incorporated into a top level decision makers into contact two parties, which was workshop for both Moldovans and series of agreements reach stalemate' with grassroots leaders, a cross seen as a crucial step Transdniestrians at the University of between the two sides. fertilisation of ideas has taken place, towards peace. In view of Kent at Canterbury (UK). Such was with chief negotiators attesting to the the substantial contribution the impact of this first tentative and In 1995 the official talks broke down added insights that have helped made by MICOM a signed copy of the unofficial encounter between the two again. This time MICOM was asked inform their decisions and approach to Protocol was presented to sides that another was promptly by both sides if they could help kick- conflict resolution. While many Camplisson by the Presidents of arranged for September. By the time start the process, but to their surprise challenges lie ahead for Moldova and Moldova and Transdniestria. Since of the second meeting, however, the Camplisson refused. He firmly Transdniestria all parties have then MICOM has continued to support official talks had collapsed and yet the believed that such meetings were acknowledged the highly significant both sides in their quest for a peaceful negotiators were happy to participate doomed to fail until the parties began role that MICOM has played and resolution to this conflict. in the MICOM2 workshop because, addressing the roots of the conflict continues to play in helping move the according to Camplisson, it was non- rather than constitutional / legislative peace process along towards what all threatening and ‘allowed the parties to matters which would at best hope will be its eventual resolution. come out of the heat.’3 temporarily ‘contain’ the conflict.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 87 Burkina Faso 1994 - 1996 Tamale

Ghana Benin Togo Ivory Nairobi Peace Initiative Coast Kumasi • • Ghana Accra

Background In February 1994 an argument broke Involvement They also used their time on the out in a small town in the region ground to identify specific individuals The principal cause of tension In an attempt to help bring peace to between two men over the purchase who would be able to act as ‘bridge between the various ethnic groups in the area, a network of development of a guinea fowl. One of the men from builders’ - later called ‘voices of the north of Ghana revolves around NGOs known as the Inter NGO the Nanumba ethnic group was killed, reason’ - between the highly divided the rivalry between those groups with consortium (INGOC) - originally and in a very short space of time communities. a paramount chief (predominantly created to co-ordinate the rumours began to spread that the Muslim) and those without, known as humanitarian response to the conflict - ethnic group to which the killer Given the deep suspicion and tension acephalous or ‘headless’ groups invited the Nairobi Peace Initiative belonged, the acephalous between the groups, it was felt that (whose leadership is predominantly (NPI) to bring its expertise to bear on Konkombas, were attacking the the only way to bring the parties Christian). the situation in Ghana. Since 1991 Nanumbas. together would be under the pretext of NPI had gained a considerable ‘providing advice to development Traditionally land ownership, and by reputation in mediation and training in Soon whole villages became involved NGOs operating in the war-ravaged extension, political authority, is vested several countries, and was keen to in a bitter and violent conflict that areas on how the latter could continue in paramount chiefs and is held on help in whatever way possible. sucked in neighbouring ethnic groups with their development work.’ The behalf of the ethnic group to which the allied to either the Konkombas or issue of development, which affected chief belongs. However, only four of NPI Director Hizkias Assefa and Nanumbas. In June after intense all the parties equally, was a the 18 ethnic groups in the north of Program Officer Emmanuel negotiations carried out by the convenient launch pad for what would the country have paramount chiefs. Bombande began a series of government appointed Permanent ultimately become an exploration of extensive field trips in order to Peace Negotiation Team (PPNT) a the conflict and its possible resolution. The other acephalous groups have understand more fully the nature of ceasefire was signed, by which time thus resented the concentration of the problem. They met with as many an estimated 10,000 people had been The first meeting, held in Kumasi land and political power in the hands of the actors as possible including the killed and at least 423 villages had (deemed to be a neutral location) of the four ethnic groups, to whom local people whose lives had been so been burnt or destroyed. This brought together elders and influential they are expected to owe allegiance severely dislocated by the violence. In however was not the end of the people from the four main and pay tribute. In addition, the doing so, in actively listening to the violence. In early 1995 fighting broke communities. From the outset, the population of some of the acephalous stories told by the people, the NPI out again, with at least 110 people atmosphere at the meeting was very groups had been increasing rapidly team not only gained a valuable first being killed. tense with the Konkombas being and this has led to a corresponding hand insight to the problems faced by blamed for the entire war. However, increase in the demand for the groups in the region but, as the discussion developed NPI staff representation in national and regional importantly, gained their trust and managed to create a space where politics, in particular through the respect. each side could talk candidly about creation of paramount chieftaincies for the real causes and consequences of them. the war.

88 Nairobi Peace Initiative Ghana 1994 - 1996 Internally displaced: For more information. Deaths: 135,000 Read Building Sustainable Peace - Conflict, Conciliation and Civil Society in 10,000 (Hizkias Assefa) Northern Ghana by Ada van der Linde and Rachel Naylor (an Oxfam Working (Hizkias Assefa) Paper, UK, 1999) for more info on the Guinea Fowl war and the Kumasi workshops. Also read Hizkias Assefa’s monograph Peace and Reconciliation as a Paradigm: Refugees: A Philosophy of Peace and its Implications on Conflict, Governance and Cost of involvement: 15,000 Economic Growth in Africa (Nairobi Peace Initiative, Nairobi, 1993) $130,000 (USCR) November 1994 to October 1999.

Their approach was inspired by They were also charged with the task Further Kumasi meetings were held, Outcome Hizkias Assefa’s ‘Peace and of organising meetings which would involving more powerful and more By the fourth Kumasi workshop it was Reconciliation as a Paradigm’ promote the need for peace, to invite extreme elements from all sides as clear that all parties were actively methodology, which is designed to committee members from the other well as smaller ethnic groups which seeking a real and lasting peace. After help participants walk through the ethnic groups to these meetings to had been sucked into the violence. several days of intense negotiations various steps in the reconciliation break down the animosity between For Hizkias Assefa, this approach the ‘Kumasi draft agreement on process such as honest self the groups, and to identify other which he called the ‘Process peace and reconciliation in examination, acknowledgement of people who could participate in a of Expanding and the northern region of responsibility, public admission, second Kumasi workshop. Deepening Ghana’ was initialled seeking apology and providing Engagement’ Suspicion, by delegates from restitution. They also discussed the The second Kumasi workshop was developed from his anger and fear gave way the various ethnic role of elders in the conflict resolution held in September 1995, and followed involvement in a groups. process, the Muslim and Christian the same pattern as the first. number of to optimism, hope and a interpretation of reconciliation and the Suspicion, anger and fear gave way conflicts for many renewed sense of It was agreed that role that each group had played in to optimism, hope and a renewed years. As the determination to resolve the the accord would contributing to an escalation of the sense of determination to resolve the name suggests be taken to all the conflict. By the end of the meeting the chronic problems between the groups. the process starts chronic problems between towns and villages atmosphere had changed markedly One comment summed up the mood with a small number the groups. so that it could be with both sides urging NPI & INGOC of the group: ‘We the people who of key individuals and discussed and ratified to continue organising dialogue participated in these meetings will issues and gradually by the communities workshops and committing leave here back home as expands outwards to rather than just by the elites. themselves to building bridges peacemakers. Our example will help include all members of society. Using this ‘bottom up’ approach it between the divided communities. others understand the need for them was felt that the people themselves to also come together to talk about In the meantime there were several would ‘own’ the peace, rather than As a result of that first meeting the their differences without using arms. spin-off peace initiatives by members have it thrust upon them. On March participants decided to set up a Thank you facilitators...Allah bless you of the peace committee as well as 30th 1996 after a final Kumasi ‘Peace & Reconciliation Follow-up all.’1 agencies involved in INGOC. All these workshop had integrated and Committee’. It was the responsibility added momentum to the movement amended the document in light of the of each member of the committee to towards a normalisation of suggestions made by the people return to his or her community and relationships between the ethnic themselves at the public meetings, share the insights gained from the groups. the final document was signed, Kumasi workshop. signalling an end to the hostilities amongst the groups in Northern Ghana.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 89 Algeria 1995 - 1996 Mali Norwegian Church Aid Mauritania Gourma Niger Mali Bamako Burkina Guinea Faso Ivory This coupled with frequent droughts, Soon, they It was at about this time that Background Coast which hit the North hardest, resulted began pulling Norwegian Church Aid (NCA) was In May 1994 Mali found itself teetering in huge - mainly Tuareg - refugee troops accused of committing approached by various parties on the brink of a full-scale civil war. flows out of the country. Many of atrocities back from the front line. involved in the conflict - government, For almost four years government these refugees were refused entry to These efforts began to pay off, as rebels and local people - to help forces had been locked in an other countries and thus became local village chiefs began organising support the fledgling peace process. increasingly violent conflict with increasingly bitter towards their own intercommunity meetings involving For some time the NCA had secretly various armed Tuareg and Arab government. As one commentator warring groups to try to bring an end been developing networks with and groups from the North of the country. notes, ‘For many nomads, such to the fighting. between some of the major actors in As the conflict escalated some of the feelings were so strong that they were the conflict in an attempt to encourage groups in the North began fighting ready to take up arms against the dialogue on the possibilities for peace each other, lawlessness increased Involvement government.’1 and so the invitation to participate throughout the region and civilians While sporadic, localised and ad hoc, more fully was readily accepted. were increasingly caught up in the these intercommunity meetings In 1991 Traore was overthrown and fighting. revealed that local people were finally by 1994 Mali's first democratically beginning to assume responsibility for Since 1984 NCA had been working in elected President was enjoying his a very inhospitable and isolated area The causes of the conflict in Mali can peace in the area. Through these second year in office. Yet peace of north-eastern Mali called Gourma. be traced to the huge disparity meetings, various peace treaties were remained elusive. In recent years Their emergency relief work, in between the North and the South of signed between warring factions, several peace initiatives had been response to a massive and prolonged the country. The North, predominantly leading to an almost complete launched, the most important of which drought, quickly became the largest populated by nomadic Tuaregs and cessation of violence. But this was was known as the ‘National Pact’ and development project in the region. Arabs, had since colonial times been only the beginning. Communities were was signed in 1992, but it and its Even when the area descended into marginalized both politically and still heavily armed and in many cases predecessors all failed to bring peace violence, the NCA didn’t leave, economically. Under the authoritarian bitterly divided, the economic and to the country. despite losing eight Malian NCA regime of Moussa Traore, Tuaregs social life of the region was almost workers in the space of two years. were denied positions at every level of completely devastated and the As fighting continued, the government This persistent and long term government as well as the army. A situation was unlikely to improve until tried another approach, instituting a involvement is seen by NCA as the crippling national debt also led to communities began breaking down series of measures designed to single most important reason why massive under-investment, the barriers of suspicion and fear that encourage civil society to take the they were trusted by all sides in the particularly in the North, where there still separated them. Peace treaties lead in the peace effort. First they conflict. One Malian put it another were virtually no roads, schools or alone were not enough. organised regional meetings, known way. ‘The presence of NCA in hospitals. as ‘Regional Concertations’ that Gourma even in the most difficult brought together people from all walks periods kept reminding us that peace of life to discuss the problems of the was possible. Otherwise they would region. have left.’2

90 Norwegian Church Aid Mali 1995 - 1996 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 30,000 See www.nca.no for the web site of Norwegian Church Aid. For the best source on 6,000 - 8,000 (Kare Lode) NCA’s work in Mali see Kare Lode’s report ‘Civil Society Takes Responsibility’ (PRIO, (Kare Lode) Norway, 1997) and ‘Norwegian Church Aid’s Humanitarian and Peacemaking work in Mali’ (The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1997). Also read ‘A Peace of Refugees: Timbuktu, A: Democratic Governance, Development and African Peacemaking’by Cost of involvement: 150,000 - 200,000 E. Poulton and Ibrahim ag Youssouf (United Nations Publication, New York, 1998) $1,500 - $3,750 per meeting (Kare Lode)

In August 1995 NCA hired Kare Lode, The first few meetings were so Outcome Since then the demobilisation and ex-Director of NCA Mali in the late successful that Lode and his team reintegration of ex-combatants has In all 37 intercommunity meetings 1980s, to head the peace initiative3. were asked to move onto other areas continued apace, the government has were conducted between August 1995 Quickly assembling a credible and beyond Gourma. With further funding decentralised authority and the army and March 1996. Through these ‘heavyweight’ steering committee, from NCA and then from a consortium is being retrained - all vital if peace is meetings peace was finally restored. including the leader of one of the key of international donors, Lode and his to be permanent. rebel groups who had once worked team set about designing a At the end of March, the leaders of under Lode as an NCA employee and comprehensive plan covering the The International Peace Research the various rebel movements, was now keen to end the fighting, a entire North of the country. As the Institute of Norway (PRIO), in carrying representatives of the government strategy was devised. The committee meetings grew in size and importance out an evaluation of NCA's work in including President Konare and many would help organise intercommunity the NCA team was assisted by ‘Mobile Mali for the Norwegian government international observers attended a reconciliation meetings in Gourma to Units for Support to the Peace asks, ‘Could peace have been ceremony in Timbuktu, in which they cement the peace that had recently Process and Development’ which had achieved in Northern Mali without the declared the indivisibility of Mali, their been brought to the area, giving been set up by the government efforts of the NCA and of Kare Lode?’ support for the Malian constitution priority to those communities who following the National Pact to help Their answer is clear. ‘There can be and the renunciation of violence. were dependent on the same natural re-establish political administration no doubt that the NCA contribution They then set alight a huge pyre resources for their survival. throughout the country and was a very important one, but - and made up of thousands of guns promote peace and this is necessarily speculative - the surrendered as part of a It was also agreed that the rebel development. conditions for peace were already 'The parallel UNDP demobilisation leaders and politicians were to be This extra support was there: what the Kare Lode initiative process. This powerful and observers only, with all the decisions needed since some of the presence helped to do was to translate these highly symbolic act at the meeting being made by the larger meetings involved conditions into an actuality.’4 of NCA in became known as the traditional village and nomadic elders. thousands of people. Gourma even ‘flame of peace’ and Religious leaders were present at all signalled an end to six intercommunity meetings to endorse in the most years of war. the decisions made. Since Mali was a difficult periods kept Muslim country the support and endorsement of the Islamic religious reminding us that peace leaders was crucial, and proved was possible. Otherwise decisive at many of the meetings. they would have left'

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 91 Uganda

Democratic Republic of Kigali Rwanda 1995 - 2001+ the Congo Search For Common Ground Bujumbura • Burundi Tanganyika Tanzania

Lake Burundi

Background With the introduction of identity cards, During the Rwandan genocide, the From the very outset their task was the hitherto porous classification of role of ‘Radio Mille Collines’ which monumental. The culture of secrecy As in Rwanda, Burundi’s conflict has ‘Hutu’ and ‘Tutsi’ was firmly set, as broadcast a relentless barrage of hate and lies that plagued the country not popularly been portrayed as one in was the privilege and patronage speech in the weeks leading up to only meant that uncovering the truth which the ‘age old’ ethnic rivalry afforded to the Tutsis. While Rwanda and during the genocide was well was a considerable challenge but also between Hutu and Tutsi routinely saw the Tutsi elite overthrown, known. With 90% of the population dangerous. Within weeks of the manifests itself into extreme violence Burundi's Tutsis, in particular the Tutsi listening to the radio for their news launch of Studio Ijambo, one Hutu and in which the current bout of killing dominated army, held onto power and and views, the call by Radio Mille member of the team was killed by the is just part of a long line of atrocities were determined not to relinquish it. Collines to ‘clean up the cockroaches’ army, dismembered and dumped into committed by each side down the When Ndadaye was assassinated, was heeded. Meanwhile, a station a latrine. Undeterred, the team years. A more considered analysis the reprisals and counter-reprisals called ‘Radio Voice of the People’ continued their work amidst shows that while there have been that followed left over 100,000 people began to broadcast from the increasing violence in the streets of very serious mass killings in the past, dead within the space of a year. Democratic Republic of the Congo the capital and throughout the the tendency for these crimes to be (formerly Zaire) calling on Hutus to country. They signed agreements with repeated is largely down to the rise against their Tutsi oppressors. In the state radio station, which agreed deliberate and calculated use of Involvement Burundi the main radio station was not to alter any of the content, and an violence by members of a small self Towards the end of 1994, as violence controlled by the state, whose army independent station operating from appointed and self advancing elite, in Burundi again began to spiral and had been complicit in some of the the Democratic Republic of the Congo acting in the name of the two main the spectre of the Rwandan genocide country’s worst excesses of violence. (Radio Agatashya) - thus giving it a ethnic communities in their ongoing hung over the entire region and the Thus it was clear that impartial radio potential audience of over 6 million struggle for political power and international community, the output was desperately needed. listeners. material privilege.1 Washington based non governmental organisation ‘Search for Common With a small multi-ethnic team, Studio The first set of programmes focused The current phase of the civil war Ground’ (SFCG) visited Burundi with Ijambo was launched in March 1995. on the plight of Burundian refugees began in 1993 with the assassination the aim of seeing what contribution it While the overarching aim was to and the internally displaced. of Melchior Ndadaye, a Hutu and the could make to the peacemaking effort. provide balanced news coverage, Interviewing both Hutus and Tutsis country’s first democratically-elected Studio Ijambo set out to produce who had been forced to leave their president, by elements within the Tutsi Launched in 1982 SFCG works in programmes that defined the conflict homes as a result of the war, the dominated army. Like Rwanda, many of the world’s ‘hot spots’ in an in terms of its impact on the everyday Studio Ijambo staff then invited Burundi’s Tutsis had been favoured by attempt to help prevent and resolve life of people - essentially to illustrate political leaders to comment on the the Belgians throughout the colonial international and inter-ethnic conflict. that there were no winners in this war. situation. period. Their experience with media projects in conflict situations prompted it to It sought to propose solutions to the look at the possibility of launching a crisis facing the country and wanted radio studio in Burundi. to encourage and reinforce the credibility of local journalism.

92 Search For Common Ground Burundi 1995 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 580,000 (2001), 800,000 (1999) Read Alexis Sinduhije’s discussion paper ‘Ijambo: “Speaking Truth” 200,000 war related deaths 1993 - 500 - 700,000 (1993) (IDP Amidst Genocide’ (published by The Joan Shorenstein Center, Harvard 1999 (various sources) database) University, 1998 - see www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/index.htm). Refugees: Also see www.sfcg.org for more information about the work of Search Cost of Involvement: 1.2m 1993 - 2001 (US Committee for for Common Ground and Studio Ijambo. Not available Refugees)

According to Alexis Sinduhije, one of According to three surveys carried out Outcome Other senior figures attest to the the staff members at the time, when in 1999-2000 around 85% of the important role the studio has played in Over the years, Studio Ijambo has the programmes were broadcast, they entire population regularly listen to the calming otherwise explosive tensions been recognised both nationally and had a powerful impact on the , making it the most popular and rumours. Rumours in particular internationally for its role in helping listeners, since they exposed the radio programme in Burundi. In could be catastrophic. For example in defuse tensions, correct potentially apathy and inaction of the politicians. addition, 82% of those surveyed 1988 in Northern Burundi, based on a explosive rumours, promote peace believe that Studio Ijambo's false rumour, Hutus massacred an and reconciliation and report the truth. As their reputation grew so too did programmes greatly help estimated 5,000 Tutsis believing that ‘It's true that you report everything, their range of programming. After just reconciliation. The Studio now the Tutsis were preparing to kill them. but from time to time try not to expose two years Studio Ijambo had produces 20 hours of programming a what we are doing,’2 said one army produced over 2,500 feature week and broadcasts on four radio In 1998 in recognition of this work, the spokesman. programmes, news reports and wire stations in the country. European Community Humanitarian services. Sangwe, a radio programme Office presented Studio Ijambo aimed at young people, used music As their work became more with its award for ‘Humanity in as a means to promote peace and widely known, so more the Midst of Conflict’. More reconciliation and was listened to by international news importantly, says Francis 30% of the population. Other organisations requested Rolt, in 2000 the Studio was programmes such as ‘The Past and that Studio Ijambo presented with an award the Way Forward’ addressed human produce news naming it as a ‘Great rights, peace and tolerance. ‘packages’ for them. The message, Citizen of Peace’ by a The staff also began to group of Burundian However one of the most important notice that journalists that one can co-exist youth associations. ‘It's contributions made by the Studio has from the state radio peacefully despite the essential that the work been the radio drama ‘Umubanyi station began to copy we do is recognised here Niwe Muryango’ - Our Neighbours their approach to horrors of the past and in Burundi...this is the Ourselves. The story tells of a Hutu programming, focusing the challenges of the best prize we could 3 and Tutsi family living next door to more on the human present, is clear and receive’ says Francis each other and depicts the conflict dimensions of the Rolt. through the relationship between the consequences of the unequivocal. two families. The message, that one war rather than what can co-exist peacefully despite the leaders of each faction horrors of the past and the challenges were saying, which tended of the present, is clear and to exacerbate tensions. unequivocal.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 93 1997 - 2001+ Sulima Fishing Community Development Project Sierra Leone Guinea

Freetown • Sierra Leone

Background In 1996 elections were held, which The situation in the refugee camps While Liberia In March 1991 a small guerrilla force brought Ahmad Tejan Kabbah to was critical. Members of each warring the impact calling themselves the Revolutionary power. By the end of the year he had faction were openly recruiting of these United Front of Sierra Leone (RUF) signed a with the RUF. refugees to bolster their numbers. workshops varied crossed into Sierra Leone from Liberia However the peace was short lived. In Heavy fighting in and around the from camp to camp, overall they were with the aim of liberating the country May 1997 a coup ousted Kabbah, Mano bridge area, which linked Sierra highly successful. In Samukai camp, from the corrupt and despotic military returning the military to power, this Leone and Liberia, was stretching for example, refugees reported a regime of Joseph Momoh. Led by a time with the backing of the RUF. In tensions between the pro- and anti- change in attitude on the part of the former corporal in the Sierra Leone Pujehun, as in many other areas RUF refugees to the limit. Meanwhile, RUF supporters and as a result army, Foday Sankoh, the RUF looted throughout the country, people who the distribution of humanitarian aid tensions there decreased. Other from villages, assassinated figures of had only just returned to their homes had been hijacked by a number of achievements included the release of authority and mutilated innocent after years away, again fled, many to corrupt, self styled ‘welfare groups’ refugees held by certain factions, civilians. With the support of Charles refugee camps in Liberia. which meant that large numbers of increased communication between Taylor’s National Patriotic Front of refugees were not receiving anything. government and RUF supporters, a Liberia (NPFL), the RUF - which Involvement These events and others conspired to marked decrease in the incidences of provocation and violence and a rapidly grew in strength - launched Despite being refugees themselves, produce a highly charged sharing of some resources by attacks across Sierra Leone, members of a small community-based environment in which fighting between opposing factions. displacing half the country’s entire organisation called the Sulima Fishing groups of refugees was common. population, destroying most of the Community Development Project When the situation in Sierra Leone crumbling infrastructure and causing (SFCDP) - set up in 1996 to help In response to the desperate situation began to stabilise the refugees slowly enormous loss of life. improve the standard of living for SFCDP decided to hold a series of began to return to their villages. people in the Soro Gbeima Chiefdom one day workshops which brought Although the return home was Pujehun District of Sierra Leone, close of Pujehun - were determined to do together community chiefs, ex-RUF greeted with much jubilation, many to the border of Liberia, was one of what they could to help. With seed soldiers, women and youths to challenges lay ahead. Aside from the the first areas to suffer from RUF funding from Christian Aid and explore the issues surrounding the damage to homes and crops and the attacks in 1991 and continued to DANIDA, SFCDP's initial aim was to war. At these workshops refugees psychological trauma of having to deal suffer throughout the war. For more carry out an assessment of the discussed the need to acknowledge with the loss of loved ones, the than five years parts of the district conditions faced by Sierra Leonean individual as well as group collapse of civil authority in the region were controlled by the RUF, driving refugees in the camps located just responsibility for the conflict as well as posed immediate and long term thousands of people from their inside Liberia. the challenges of reconciliation and homes. hopes for the future. This was the first problems. time that such work had been attempted in the camps.

94 Sulima Fishing Community Development Project Sierra Leone 1997 - 2001+ Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 1,600,000 in 1996 (UN) 500,000 - Read the paper Building mechanisms for conflict resolution in south east Sierra 75,000 (Uppsala) 1,000,000 in 2000 (USCR) Leone, by John Massaquoi (see www.c-r.org/occ_papers/Sulima.html). Also see the issue of ACCORD on Sierra Leone (published by Conciliation Resources) available online at www.c-r.org for more information about the war in Sierra Leone. For a good Cost of Involvement: Refugees: overview of the conflict read Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for $2,700 for initial assessment of 400,000 in 2000 (USCR) Democracy, by John L. Hirsch. (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder and London, 2000). living conditions in the camps

Re-establishing civilian authority Each peace monitor would be put The effectiveness of the peace As Guus Meijer, Co-Director of the UK would be difficult since the Kamajors - through a two day training course monitors was illustrated in February based ‘Conciliation Resources’ which local hunters who had banded which covered conflict resolution, 1999 in the Wai region of the Soro has supported SFCDP from the very together into militias or ‘Civilian mediation and negotiation techniques Gbeima Chiefdom, where a beginning notes, ‘In the absence of a Defence Forces’ in order to protect as well as how to identify potential leadership crisis erupted, caused by functioning court system, the peace the local communities from RUF conflicts, to promote reconciliation the death of a local deputy chief, monitors are providing a real attack - were reluctant to relinquish and conduct peace advocacy work. which threatened to escalate if left community service, becoming the power. Furthermore, without any Each peace monitor was given a unresolved. The peace monitors were local guardians of law and order in a organised mechanisms for conflict small wage so that he could work for immediately brought in and after an period of transition and uncertainty.’2 prevention, management or resolution at least ten days per extensive As well as encouraging the creation of - as had previously existed through month and a bicycle consultation peace monitors and grievance the court system - disputes ran the so that he could move Each peace monitor process the issue committees, SFCDP has also risk of escalating into violence. around and between would be put through a was resolved embarked upon a variety of initiatives villages. two day training course without incident. designed to revitalise the local To help the community deal with which covered conflict Indeed since the economy such as launching income these problems SFCDP ran a number The second resolution, mediation and peace monitors generating schemes for women. of conflict resolution workshops for innovation that negotiation techniques were established the returnees. During the workshops arose from the in the region they Outcome two innovative mechanisms for workshops was have been in As Sierra Leone tentatively makes the conflict prevention and resolution the establishment great demand transition from war to peace, SFCDP were established. The first was the of local ‘grievance and as a result has made important strides in creation of ‘peace monitors’ who were committees’. The their work has promoting a community level mandated to ‘serve as early warning function of the expanded to approach to conflict prevention and tools of conflict... to intervene in the grievance include a resolution which has yielded clear conflicts before they boiled over’.1 The committees - made up of respected variety of issues, results. Indeed when they began community would nominate a peace members of communities in the region ranging from the reintegration of ex- SFCDP was the only organisation monitor, which in most cases was the - was to mediate, and where combatants, family tracing and practising community based conflict local mwalimu - a respected teacher necessary, arbitrate, conflicts that reunification, to the resolution of resolution on the ground in southern of the Koran. were brought to their attention by the conflicts over the registration for relief Sierra Leone. While their work covers peace monitors. While the peace food. only a small area of a country that has monitors would usually deal with local been decimated by war, the SFCDP is conflicts within a given village, the an inspiring example of what local grievance committees were intended communities can do often against to deal with conflicts between villages. seemingly insurmountable odds.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 95 1998 China

Pakistan Witness Nepal Delhi India Bangladesh Manipur

Background By 1999 there were 35 different Involvement Burma insurgent groups in the state, 18 of Violence and instability have plagued In 1998 the US based India which were active. The Armed Forces the north east of India since non-governmental organisation Special Powers Act had been in place independence in 1947. There, in ‘Witness’ in association with As Witness for over 40 years, during which time states such as Manipur, the call for their local partner in Manipur, points out ‘The the civilian population had been self determination and in some cases Human Rights Alert, produced a videotape shocked subjected to violence, harassment, secession by certain groups led very video documentary on the millions and showed intimidation and torture. In a recent quickly to armed insurrection. In disappearance of Sanamacha. that human rights abuses report, Amnesty International noted Manipur the struggle began in 1949 are worse when violators that, ‘Abuses of human rights by when the Maharaja of Manipur signed Founded in 1992 by musician Peter aren’t afraid of detection. government forces and by armed the Manipur Merger Agreement ‘under Gabriel and the Lawyers Committee The lasting impression of opposition groups are a feature of a duress’ thus bringing the once for Human Rights, Witness uses video the Rodney King beating daily life’1. However they single out independent kingdom into newly and internet technology to highlight and the riots that ensued the state security forces for particular independent India. For a large section human rights issues throughout the showed the emotional power of attention noting that civilians, of the population, the forced union world. In particular Witness aims to the visual: the videotaped images including women and juveniles, have with India and direct rule from Delhi (a) strengthen grassroots advocacy gave the incident impact and been killed as a result of the 3 was to be resisted at all costs. by making video and technology tools immediacy that words could not.’ ‘systematic use of lethal force as an available to human rights defenders alternative to arrest.’2 Spurred on by the rise of armed so they can fight for human rights, Witness first began by putting as movements in neighbouring Assam by and (b) mobilise public concern and many cameras into the hands of as In 1998 a 15 year old boy named Naga hill people - who were also one activism so that human rights issues many local activists as possible. Yumlembam Sanamacha was of the largest minorities in Manipur - a move to the centre of political debate. However, their early experience with dragged out of his house with his number of groups surfaced in Manipur this experiment revealed that simply brothers by the army. They were whose demands ranged from The idea came about in 1992 having a camera was not sufficient to blindfolded, tortured and while increased parliamentary following the brutal beating of Rodney ensure that activists would be able to Yumlembam Sanamacha’s brothers representation to autonomy and King by police officers in Los Angeles, obtain the best footage. Therefore were eventually released, he was independence. As the situation which was caught on video tape by a training, which aims to ‘marry a never again seen. His was a fate all spiralled beyond control, Delhi passer-by. Broadcast around the grounding in technical expertise with too common in Manipur. enacted the Armed Forces Special world, this amateur footage provoked instruction in the substance of issue- 4 Powers Act in 1958 that not only gave international outrage and the resulting based human rights campaigning’ the army the power to ‘shoot to kill’ riots in Los Angeles left 54 people became a critical component. but also provided immunity from dead and damage estimated at prosecution to those forces acting almost $800m. under it.

96 Witness India 1998 Refugees: For more information: Deaths: Unknown See www.witness.org to learn more about the work of Witness. Unknown For more about the human rights situation in Manipur see Internally displaced: Amnesty International at www.amnesty.org.uk Cost of involvement: Unknown $425,000 (annual budget)

Once they have mastered the basics, In Manipur where the government has The footage, skilfully edited and In Northern Ireland, Witness footage activists are taught how to identify the effectively prevented any outsiders narrated back at Witness HQ, was of police brutality during the marching human rights issue that needs to be from setting foot in the state to then screened at a press conference season forced a change in police addressed; prepare for and conduct a investigate the abuses, including all in Manipur’s capital city and toured policy. Witness has also provided video shoot; use video to achieve a media, the advantage of the entire country, being shown in videotaped evidence to the War deeper impact than that achieved having a trained community video parlours and on Crimes Tribunal in Yugoslavia. through traditional advocacy methods; ‘insider’ on the ground cable television stations and distribute video to the appropriate is clear. The footage as part of a local public In the case of Manipur, the Witness outlets, e.g., the media, governments, documents for the awareness footage has been instrumental in and other influential audiences. first time how campaign. bringing local, national, and ordinary people live international attention to this forgotten Technology has also enabled Witness under the shadow ‘A camera in area of the world. The film was to bypass the mainstream media, of the Armed the right hands at presented to the UN Working Group which Gillian Caldwell, Director of Forces Special the right time at the on Enforced and Involuntary Witness, argues is notoriously Powers Act, using Disappearances, who then challenged right place can be more disinterested in international human Sanamacha’s story the Indian government to answer rights issues. ‘There has been very as a focus. powerful than tanks questions concerning the conduct of little commitment to international and guns. Let truth its military. The UN group also agreed human rights concerns on the part of While groups such do the fighting.’ to closely monitor developments in the the major media outlets, unless there as Amnesty case of Sanamacha and over 42 is some sort of U.S. angle to the story. International had others as well as the general issue of We can't rely on mainstream media to highlighted the military abuse in the region. cover these stories’5. Therefore plight of Witness - through its web site - Yumlembam While it is difficult to know quite how launched ‘Witness Rights Alert’, a Sanamacha and the Witness footage has or will affect fortnightly series of QuickTime6 video others in Manipur Outcome the Indian government and their broadcasts which highlight snippets of the year before, approach to maintaining security in As co-founder of footage from their partners from actual footage - as the Manipur, pop star Michael Stipe of Witness, , around the world. Each broadcast is Rodney King beating attests - R.E.M., a supporter of Witness for says ‘A camera in the right hands at accompanied by an ‘Act Now’ link communicates a sense of immediacy years, notes, ‘Even just the threat that the right time at the right place can be which enables the viewer to help, and realism which makes it a powerful a potential or ongoing perpetrator is more powerful than tanks and guns. either by writing letters, or sending tool in the hands of the human rights being watched might just be enough Let truth do the fighting.’7 This faxes and emails to the relevant defender. to make them back down a bit, save a philosophy has already proved itself authorities. few lives.’8 on many occasions.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 97 Surinam Guyana Venezuela French Guiana 1979 - 1985 Colombia Archdiocese of São Paulo Brazil Brazil Peru Background For the victims there was no It was well known that the opportunity for justice to be done, nor regime had kept the most detailed In 1964 a coup orchestrated by was their any guarantee that the accounts of every person abducted, members of the Brazilian army Bolivia accession to power of a new military tortured, interrogated and killed by the Brasilia ushered in a period of military rule that leader would not bring about a fresh security forces. What was remarkable lasted for over 20 years. During those round of violence against about these accounts was that not years the regime waged an insidious ‘subversives’. only did they describe what method of campaign of terror on its own people Paraguay terror was used on which victim by São Paulo • in an attempt to purge the country of whom, but they also included the any ‘communist infiltrators’. Anyone Involvement testimonies of many of the people who voiced opposition to the regime In 1979 under the new administration Argentina who were tortured explaining their became a target including those of General Joao Baptista Figueiredo, Uruguay ordeal usually at a military court For Wright, fighting for the rights of the poor and a new law was introduced offering an tribunal which is where many of the the matter was landless, journalists and members of amnesty for political prisoners and torture victims were charged. For the deeply personal. left wing political parties. state security agents who were involved in the torture over the years. military, their record keeping was In 1973 his brother, merely doing things ‘by the book’. Paolo Wright, had been abducted by A particular characteristic of the While the amnesty for political the military, tortured and killed within violence administered by the state prisoners was warmly welcomed by Whilst waiting at the airport for an 48 hours. ‘Paolo was teaching [poor] was the widespread and systematic human rights advocates representing exiled friend to arrive back in the people how to stick together,’ said use of torture. Thousands of men and the victims, the prospect of an country after an absence of over 15 Wright, ‘and to a military regime that's women were subjected to acts of amnesty for the agents of terror years, The Rev. Jaime Wright, a subversion.’1 terror in order to extract confessions deeply troubled many people. Presbyterian Minister, and some of wrongdoing or sometimes just to colleagues, including an envoy from Within a matter of days Wright had the silence any dissent. The cloud that hung over the 1979 amnesty law did however reveal a the World Council of Churches personal backing of his close friend (WCC), hatched a plan. They would Cardinal Arns, archbishop of São While the violence subsided towards silver lining. In order to prepare employ a number of lawyers to begin Paulo, who had become an the end of the 1970s as the military amnesty petitions on behalf of the accessing the archive under the increasingly vocal critic of the junta, began to rein in the excesses of its incarcerated political prisoners, their pretence of preparing amnesty and Philip Potter, the head of the own men, the crimes that the state lawyers were given permission to view submissions. The files would then be WCC. Within a month the WCC had had committed remained a taboo the official state records and even photocopied so that there would be at started covertly to fund the project issue, to be broken at one’s peril. take away individual files as long as they were returned within 24 hours. least some measure of the atrocities which enabled the daring experiment that took place over the years. to begin without any delay.

98 Archdiocese of São Paulo Brazil 1979 - 1985 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: Unknown Read Lawrence Weschler’s excellent account of the Nunca Mais project in ‘A Miracle 150 - 300 (Lawrence Weschler’s a Universe - Settling Accounts with Torturers’ (University of Chicago Press, 1998). book ‘A Miracle a Universe’) Also see the original ‘Nunca Mais’ book, published in English as ‘Torture in Brazil’ Refugees: (University of Texas Press, 1998) for a complete picture of the extent of the torture Unknown carried out by the Brazilian junta over the years. For more information about the Cost of Involvement: practice of torture worldwide see www.amnesty.org and www.stoptorture.org . $350,000

It was clear from the outset that With each trip the ‘courier’ brought On July 15th 1985, without any Outcome secrecy would be of paramount back more money from the WCC - advance publicity, copies of the book, The aftershock was immediate. In importance. If the plan were to be sometimes $20,000 at a time - which entitled: ‘Brasil: Nunca September 1985 the recently discovered by the regime it would was stuffed into a money Mais’ (Brazil, inaugurated President Sarney, Brazil’s pose serious consequences for all belt worn around his waist. Never Again) first civilian president since 1964, involved. As such everyone involved It began signed the United Nations Convention in the plan agreed to tell no-one - Once the microfilms had was well surfacing in Against Torture - a move many people neither colleagues, friends or family. arrived in Geneva they were known that shops argue was prompted by the Anything of any importance was archived and then analysed. throughout the regime revelations laid out in the book. conveyed in person, face to face. For three years this process had kept Brazil. While continued unhindered, until the military did the most Some months later, the list of the 444 Starting in 1980, under the guidance one day to Wright’s surprise try to have the detailed torturers was released, many of of Cardinal Arns and Wright, a small he discovered that the book banned, accounts of whom now held high positions team set to work. They rented a small entire archive had been the news that every person throughout the country. Some were office in the centre of Brasilia, copied - over one million there was an promptly fired; others had their career equipped with three photocopiers. pages. During this time the abducted, American paths blocked. The team worked ten hours a day, workers had been busy tortured, publisher as seven days a week, copying the files processing all the interrogated well as copies The effects are still being felt today. In so that they could be returned to the information, which and killed of the archive 1999 Brazilian medical associations archive in time and without arousing eventually was condensed by the abroad began hearings to revoke the medical any suspicions. The need for secrecy into a 7,000 page report security prompted licences of doctors who took part in was so great that the people describing in minute detail them to forces. the torture of political prisoners employed to do the photocopying did the horrors committed by the realise between 1964 and 1985. While the not even know what they were state against its own people. the futility amnesty of 1979 still prevents criminal working on. of their charges being brought by the victims Without delay two journalists were actions. of torture against their perpetrators, Once a batch of files had been employed to write a much more those implicated by the book are now photocopied they were immediately condensed version of the report, Within two weeks the book had publicly known for their crimes. ‘Brasil sent to São Paulo. From here, the again under cover of absolute reached the No. 1 spot on the best- - Nunca Mais’ revealed the true horror photocopies were transferred onto secrecy, which would be aimed at the seller list - a position it kept for 25 of those crimes, for the country and microfilm and spirited out of the general reader. Brazilian and weeks. Indeed it became the biggest the rest of the world to country to Geneva, home of the American publishers were found, selling non fiction title in Brazil ever - see. This truth was for many people WCC. again both sworn to secrecy, to selling in excess of 200,000 copies. as strong as any justice. ensure that it was available nationally and internationally.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 99 1999 - 2000 Centre for Peace, Non-Violence and Human Rights Croatia

Slovenia Hungary

The fighting was heaviest in Eastern Zagreb • Background Involvement Serbia Increasingly polarising nationalist and Croatia (especially in a region known Croatia as Eastern Slavonia), which saw In 1991, in the midst of the war, ethnic tensions were not only a cause Katarinia Kruhonja and her friend These teams some of the worst fighting in Europe faced huge Bosnia - but also a result of the disintegration Kruno Sukic set up the Centre for Herzegovina of Yugoslavia. Under the rule of Tito since WWII. Lasting 10 months, the challenges. fighting ended in November 1991 Peace, Non-Violence and Human these tensions were largely Rights. Situated in Osijek, one of the Eastern Slavonia suppressed but with his death in 1980 when Croatia surrendered the area had the highest (30% of its territory) to the Serbs. main cities in Eastern Croatia and the future of the Serb-dominated thus the scene of very heavy fighting, concentration of mass federation, whose economy was the Centre has had an enormous graves and missing rapidly collapsing, was cast into While a peace agreement between persons in the country. The issue of Croatia and the Federal Republic of impact on the lives of many of the serious doubt as the ruling communist citizens of the area. Their work over missing persons in particular is a key party (LCY) struggled to maintain Yugoslavia in 1992 kept a full-scale cause of tension between Croats and war at bay, the entire area was the years has ranged from human control of the country. When in 1990 rights advocacy, peace education and Serbs and has been the cause of the LCY finally disintegrated, so too massively destabilised by the conflict many violent community conflicts. in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which raged legal advice to community did Yugoslavia. In 1991 Slovenia and development, psychosocial Croatia both declared independence, on until 1995. In 1995 Croatia won On the one hand, expelled back its lost territory, partly through a development and post-conflict followed by Bosnia-Herzegovina and reconciliation. were not returning and on Macedonia in 1992. military offensive and partly through the other, Croatian Serbs who had negotiation. Supervised by the UN In 1998, the Centre, in association stayed in the region feared that Croat In Croatia (which had a Serb this area was to be re-integrated into returnees would seek revenge. In Croatia over a two-year period. with the ‘Life and Peace Institute’ of population of 12%) the Serb Sweden, launched a new project addition, many of the Peace Teams dominated Yugoslav army armed entitled ‘Building a Democratic received different types of threats Croatian Serb militias and the While peace had ostensibly returned from community members regarding to the area there was still much Society Based on the Culture of Non- situation escalated into civil war. violence.’ In its first year, the Centre their work, which was viewed initially tension between the communities in with great suspicion. the region. As one commentator identified and trained local men and noted, ‘the distrust between the two women, who themselves had been victims of war, for the creation of Of the many projects that the seven communities (Serb and Croat) is peace teams have conducted in the huge. Both Croats and Serbs think multiethnic ‘Peace Teams’. These teams were charged with the area, the ‘Listening Project’ has had a exclusively of each other as guilty, as demonstrable impact on reducing the war criminals with whom joint promotion and strengthening of community based and community tensions which otherwise had the living is no longer possible.’1 generated activities that would potential to escalate into violence. cultivate non-violence and reconciliation.

100 Centre for Peace, Non-Violence and Human Rights Croatia 1999 - 2000 Internally displaced: For More information: Deaths: 47,000 Read Adam Curle’s book ‘Another Way: Positive Responses to 6,000 - 10,000 battle related in 2000 (UNHCR) Contemporary Violence’ (John Carpenter Publishing, UK, 1995) deaths from 1991 - 1995 (Uppsala) and Sister Mary Evelyn Jegen’s ‘Sign of Hope’ (Life and Peace Refugees: Institute, Uppsala, 1996) for a more in-depth look at the work of Cost of Involvement: the Centre. Also see www.zamir.net/~czmos/enfram.htm for the 340,000 $360,000 in 2000 (UNHCR) Centre’s official web site. per year for whole umbrella project.

The Listening Project seeks to heal The interviewers worked in multiethnic When the region was handed back to Villagers slowly began to participate in communities through ‘active listening’ pairs. Each interviewer was trained in Croatia in 1995 most displaced Croats community activities such as - an idea borrowed from US activist a variety of skills such as facilitation, returned and the majority of Serbs, workshops for women and children. Herb Walters who through his giving encouraging non-verbal who were living in Berak during organization ‘Rural Southern Voice for feedback, managing difficult and Serbian control, fled to Serbia. The Peace Teams have also been Peace’ used the method to improve emotional situations and articulating However the Serbs that stayed faced successful in channelling pre-existing inter-racial relations in the United appropriate questions and responses. severe recriminations (especially over support structures provided by their States. The method of listening the issue of ‘missing’ centre in Osijek, such as legal aid, as and posing questions Croats from the town) well as Government run projects, to The basic principle of the Listening was practiced through Despite and tensions soon the people in the village. According to Project is ‘to build trust and mutual role plays, so that Peace some initial escalated resulting in an OSCE representative the Listening respect, to encourage people to Team members were resistance the the murder of a Serb in Project in Berak was a breakthrough express their feelings, to release their prepared for potentially Peace Teams visited 1999. Fearing that the in the communication between a concerns, angers and fears and to difficult situations. both Serbian and situation may spiral out divided population. Since their enable people to articulate problems Before entering a Croatian homes and of control, the Centre for intervention, no further violent in communities and to begin to look at community, the Peace began listening to the Peace, Non-violence incidences have been reported.3 problems in a new way.’2 In addition, Team would learn as fears, needs and and Human Rights was the Listening Project sought to: (a) much about the hopes of the called in by the A recent evaluation of the work of the Identify feelings and needs among particular background people. Organisation for Security Centre for Peace Non Violence and different groups; (b) Identify common to the area so that they and Cooperation in Human Rights noted that it has been beliefs and hopes in the community; were aware of and sensitive to any Europe (OSCE) to help. ‘extremely successful in placing (c) Open communication between particular local issues that might Despite some initial resistance the Peace Teams in some of the most Croats and Serbs; and (d) Identify impact on their work. Peace Teams visited both Serbian volatile communities in the region.’4 It and implement joint community and Croatian homes and began went onto say that ‘Active Listening’ actions. One particularly poignant example of listening to the fears, needs and has unleashed a series of community their work in action is that of the hopes of the people. processes that are, ‘the foundation for The project took the form of one-to- village of Berak, a small mixed Serb- future peacebuilding and community one interviews between a Peace Croat village in East Slavonia. When Outcome development initiatives in the region.’ Team member and a community the war started, the Serbs in the town and that it had ‘has helped people to The Listening Project managed to member or a family group. The put one fifth of the Croat population in begin to process the trauma of war reach 90% of the families living in interviews consisted of a series of concentration camps, where many and ethnic conflict.’5 Berak. Over time Serbs and Croats open-ended questions which explored were tortured. Many people were started communicating through Peace issues such as war experiences, killed or went missing and have never Team members. perceptions of current problems and been found. attitudes towards reconciliation.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflicts Oxford Research Group 101 1997 - 1999 Christian Health Association of Liberia Sierra Guinea Liberia Leone Liberia Monrovia Background Such grotesque practices were used Involvement The first phase, ‘Awareness to alienate the child from his family Building’, was designed to build In 1997, following the signing of the In 1995 the Christian Health and community so that he had no support for the project from school 14th peace accord and the holding of Association of Liberia (CHAL), with choice but to remain with his militia. and local authorities, which they saw multiparty elections, the war in Liberia support from UNICEF, launched an The tactic was successful. ‘Keep him,’ as an essential first step. Activities formerly came to an end. For almost extensive programme aimed at said one mother to a local included providing key people with an eight years, ever since Charles tackling the problem of violence in humanitarian charity in response to overview of the programme as well as Taylor’s ‘National Patriotic Front of schools. CHAL’s aim was to enable their return of her child-solider-son conducting a three-day workshop for Liberia’ invaded the country from students to take on the responsibility after the war. ‘We don't want this ten teachers from selected schools to neighbouring Ivory Coast with the aim of building their own ‘world of peace, 2 help them better support each conflict of toppling the repressive government monster in our house.’ reconciliation and mutual co- management committee, known as of Samuel Doe, the country had been existence’4. This vision had already With the signing of the peace accord, the ‘Student Palaver Management locked in an extremely brutal civil war been given form through CHAL’s the reintegration of these child Committee’ (SPMC). which claimed the lives of over earlier work in several schools in the soldiers back into society was seen to 200,000 people and turned over half capital, Monrovia. Then, it was agreed be one of the country’s biggest ‘Capacity Building’ involved a series of the entire country’s population into that ‘conflict management challenges. While many of these training programmes for seven refugees. committees’ made up of trained children returned to school, they were students from each school who, as students should be set up in each ‘peer mediators’, would form the One prominent characteristic of the psychologically damaged, knowing school and that a senior staff member backbone of the SPMC. The first half war in Liberia was the widespread use little other than how to kill. Violent from each school serve as a of the training aimed to help the of child soldiers, many of whom had incidences escalated as children and supervisor for the committee. Sadly students change their attitudes been abducted. Some were as young teachers alike struggled with the task the work was seriously disrupted as towards themselves, others and the as six years old. Estimates vary, but of building a sustainable peace. The successive accords failed to bring conflict. Training modules included as many as 30,000 children may have consequence of failing was clear. peace to the country. trauma awareness and healing, fought in the war, during which time ‘Those we fail to reach will end up in the streets, robbing and killing at will. managing conflict related emotions, they were plied with marijuana and As a measure of stability returned to 3 reconstructing self-concept and self- amphetamines and forced to commit They will be pariahs.’ the country, especially after the esteem and prejudice reduction. unimaginable atrocities. One child elections in 1997, CHAL and UNICEF Exercises included learning how to reported that he had been forced to quickly recommitted themselves to the mourn, story telling and role playing. bayonet his pregnant sister in the project. They agreed that the process stomach as part of his initiation into be split into three phases: awareness the militia.1 building, capacity building and implementation.

102 Christian Health Association of Liberia Liberia 1997 - 1999 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 1,200,000 See www.child-soldiers.org for information on the 150,000 battle related deaths 1996 (US Dept of State) international campaign to ban the use of child soldiers. (Uppsala)

Refugees: Cost of Involvement: 750,000 $121,000 for three years (US Dept of State)

A strong element running through Students were introduced to a variety The last phase of the programme, When the causes of the violence were CHAL’s programme is the use of of tools such as the Thomas-Kilman ‘implementation’ involved CHAL staff investigated they ranged from name biblical stories to assist in the healing Conflict Mode Instrument - which visiting participating schools to give calling, perceived injustice and process. For instance as part of their helps people understand their own encouragement to the students who unrestrained violent tendencies. One ‘reconstructing self concept and self style for handling conflict situations - had been recently trained. The SPMC former child solider admitted taking a esteem’ module, CHAL returned to the as well as other classic problem managers from each school were also gun to school in order to ‘kill a friend creation story. ‘From this story,’ says solving and mediation skills. encouraged to form an association so who refused to take warning when I Sam Gbaydee Doe, member of that they could share insights, learn told him to stop calling me crazy.’6 CHAL, ‘we draw the conclusion that CHAL also selected and trained a from each other and above all provide humankind is imbued with immutable further 25 a support In total, around 400 teachers and intrinsic value, a worth that is students from network for participated in the ‘awareness never determined by criteria of our each school in 400 teachers participated each other. building’ workshops, 400 students in societies.’ He continues, ‘We an intensive 40 schools became peer mediators in the 'awareness building' emphasized that this self esteem and crisis Outcome and almost 2,000 students were worth is deep within us. It is about the management workshops, 400 students in trained in conflict management. Yet, When CHAL re- Spirit of God which was breathed into programme 40 schools became peer behind these impressive figures lie launched their the nostrils of the first human person. which enabled mediators and almost 2,000 the real successes. Violence in the work in 1997 We also tell the young people that this each class participating schools has dropped students were trained in the challenges worth comes with a responsibility - to section to have significantly. Teachers and students conflict management. were clear. An care for creation. To care for the world at least one attest to the change in atmosphere in earlier means to love and to do it no harm.’5 person ready some schools. A recent evaluation of assessment to intervene the training highlights some of the of the The second half of the training should a comments from students involved. potential provided students with tools and situation escalate. This program has made one ex- problem revealed that in the largest techniques for conflict transformation. combatant in my school reduce his state school in the country, around Modules included understanding Once the training was complete, a violent behaviour and is now doing 1,000 of its 2,400 students were conflict, effective communication, room - fully furnished, equipped and well in his lessons and has improved former fighters from eight different coping with conflict through play, funded by UNICEF - was set aside in his relations with friends’ says one. factions in the war. mediation skills and reconciliation. each school which CHAL hoped Another said, ‘I am grateful to the would enable students to come to the program in my school for it has helped Student Palaver Management me know how to control my anger, Committee with their problems, before behaviour and speech.’7 they turned violent.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflicts Oxford Research Group 103 1999

Lebanon Conflict Resolution Network Syria Lebanon

Beirut Background As the war in the Shouf intensified By 1999 it had grown to include a The next stage Christian and Druze villages that had network of over 30 Lebanese NGOs was to identify One of the most virulent strains of the Lebanon hitherto enjoyed good relations were and its activities had broadened in two youth activists, began in 1982 drawn into the conflict. Two such scope to include producing one from each village, around the Mount Lebanon region villages were Ramlieh and Majd El publications, training and hands-on who would ‘recruit’ ten Israel and in particular the district known as Maoush. During the summer of 1982 mediation. participants each to join the Shouf. This area - the southern Druze fighters attacked the the workshop. After some searching end of Mt Lebanon - had over recent predominantly Christian village of LCRN’s methodology focused on two young influential people were years become dominated by an Majd El Maoush. Over 100 civilians three core stages: (1) re-establish chosen. One was a Scout leader, the Islamic community known as the were massacred at Majd El Maoush lines of communication between the other an environmental activist. Druze while a Christian group known and very soon the entire village fled in two villages; (2) instigate trust building Following lengthy discussions the two as the Maronites1 controlled the larger terror, their homes quickly occupied measures; and (3) launch a series of leaders agreed to become ‘Partners’ Kesruan and Metn regions to the by Druze refugees from other areas. It joint projects to increase cooperation in the process. This was a major north. was only in 1993 that some of the amongst the parties. Three potential stepping stone for LCRN, for without Christian population returned. Since target groups were considered: the full support and active partnership With the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in then, however, tensions between the leaders of the villages, youth activists of these two people there would have 1982 the Christian Lebanese Forces two groups have been high. and school children. After much been little chance of entering the (then allied to the Israelis) attempted deliberation and research it was community and finding willing to take control of the Shouf, fuelled by decided that LCRN would focus on participants for the workshop. an old confrontation between the Involvement the youth activists. The reasons were Maronites and Druze over land and In 1999 the Lebanon Conflict twofold: firstly, that in such a sensitive Soon the two youth activists had political control of the region. In the Resolution Network (LCRN) decided situation the likelihood of securing identified ten people from each village last major confrontation between the to run a workshop on reconciliation cooperation with the village leadership who were felt to have significant two groups in 1860, 12,000 Christians and conflict resolution for members of was slim; secondly, the ‘spillover’ or leverage within their peer group. The were slaughtered, aided by Ottoman both villages. ‘multiplier’ effect was thought to have LCRN team insisted on meeting each troops. To this day, some Lebanese the greatest potential with the youth and every one of the participants in Christians still talk bitterly of the LCRN was established in Beirut in group. their own environment and on their madhabi al-sittin, the massacres of 1996 in order to ‘disseminate the own. This was especially important '60 and the Druze of the long Maronite knowledge and practice of conflict since several of the youths were domination since Lebanon's resolution, with the aim of highly sceptical that such a workshop independence. strengthening national reconciliation, civic peace and stability in a culture of would achieve anything. peaceful problem solving.’2

104 Lebanon Conflict Resolution Network Lebanon 1999 Internally displaced: For more information: Deaths: 810,000 (1975-1990) Read Thomas Friedman’s book ‘From Beirut to Jerusalem’ 167,000 battle related deaths 1975 - 350,000 - 400,000 (2000) (Global (Harper Collins, London, 1998) for an illuminating and easy to 1990 (COW) IDP database) read account of the Lebanese War and the situation in the middle east. For more information about LCRN see Cost of Involvement: Refugees: www.lcrn.org. $12,000 project cost unknown Annual income of LCRN $32,000.

After several dinners, in-depth Towards the end of the two-day As the workshop drew to a close Importantly, the municipal leaders meetings, phone calls, and ‘coffee workshop, the group began to discuss members of the group were asked for offered to pay all the costs of the sessions’ the LCRN finally won the possible ways in which they could their honest feedback. Said one, reforestation program, sending a consent of the 20 youths to run the work together once they returned to ‘What happened is of great powerful message to both youth workshop. The entire process, from their villages. The environment, which importance, thanks to LCRN. The groups and to their own communities deciding to run a workshop to had suffered enormously during State couldn’t do anything, that cooperation between the villages identifying the participants, took three the war, was seen as an neither could the was possible. In May the joint months of hard work. Throughout, issue that equally municipality. It’s now committee ran a firefighting public LCRN steered clear of the local media concerned and our challenge awareness day which attracted over and the local authorities. For them affected everyone. In As Armen Balian, to develop this 80 people from both villages. ‘staying away from poles of influence particular Lebanon's Director of LCRN recalls, initiative and take reduces the risk of politicising the famous cedar it to other The workshop and subsequent project.’3 forests had been 'It took a lot of courage for villages.’5 environmental project were the first of decimated, much the youths to attend this Another said, its kind involving the youth from the A neutral town was used to hold the to the dismay of ‘The notion of two villages and marked the meeting. As Armen Balian, Director of the entire workshop. The first few “you vs. us” beginning of a in their LCRN recalls, ‘It took a lot of courage country, hours were very tense.' has become relationship. Furthermore the youth for the youths to attend this workshop. and so it obsolete. The group continue to work together and The first few hours were very tense.’4 was past of have even organised several social Soon, however, the atmosphere agreed displacement events - again another first in almost changed as the LCRN team that the group should and war is behind us, we hope this 20 years. The work has also introduced the participants to launch a cooperative environmental cooperation will continue.’6 generated considerable local and dialogue, communication and project. A coordination committee was national media attention, which LCRN collaborative skills as well as empathy elected to supervise the project which Outcome members hope has shown other exercises. One particularly effective would include a joint reforestation The joint environmental project began Lebanese villagers what can be and popular exercise involved role program, a public awareness in January 2000 and ran for four achieved. playing based around issues directly campaign, fire fighting strategy and months. During this time other affecting their daily lives. Lunch and planning meetings. sections of both communities became dinner breaks proved to be particularly involved, first younger school children, valuable spaces where the group was then elders and finally municipal able to mix and talk informally and leaders. openly about everything from their upbringing to their social life.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 105 1946 - 1950 Moral Re-Armament France and Germany

Background Involvement On the German side this included , then Chairman of The post war relationship between In 1946 a group of Swiss members of Berlin the Parliamentary council, and over France and Germany was the ‘Moral Re-Armament” movement 82 key government officials. Germany unimaginably bad. France had fought (MRA) (see page 14 and 84), guided Bonn The French contingent was three wars with Germany in the past by the founder, Dr Frank Buchman, similarly impressive and century, which had left deep physical set in motion the process of Paris included the most influential of • and psychological scars. Under reconciliation between France and statesmen, Robert Schuman, who German occupation (1940 - 1945) the Germany. Ostensibly to discuss France maintained close contact with MRA French had suffered a massive and labour management relations and founder Frank Buchman throughout prolonged humiliation. inter-class reconciliation MRA Caux • this period. organised a series of conferences at Switzerland Germany on the other hand, its their new centre, known as Caux, Three of MRA’s central principles people little more than enemy civilians overlooking Lake Geneva. This were used with remarkable effect at under military occupation, was almost marked the first time senior French Caux during these years. They were: universally reviled, more so as the and Germans had met following the (a) the centrality of the individual - An example of these principles in revelations about war. became clear through the Nuremberg that in every situation there were one action can be seen in the case of or two key people who held the key - Madame Laure, French Member of trials. Furthermore, large parts of their Through well-placed MRA members in (b) peacemakers had to start the Parliament. As a member of the country were destroyed with around the Swiss, American, British and process of peace-making and French resistance, she wanted 25% of the nation’s housing damaged French governments, entry and exit reconciliation with themselves - nothing more than the total beyond use; the German people permits for all German participants that one’s own experience was an destruction of Germany. Her son had faced malnutrition and they were were arranged. This, given the essential element in helping people suffered extreme brutality at the denied movement within and outside restrictions on travel for Germans, filled with hate to become free, hands of the Gestapo and yet through their country. Indeed, even if they had itself was a remarkable achievement. (c) the centrality of the experience her experiences at Caux in 1947, managed to leave the country, In total, over 3,000 of the most of forgiveness - that the process of through talking about her feelings of virtually all other nations refused to influential Germans and 2,000 of the repentance, asking for and accepting hatred and anger towards Germans issue visas to them. most influential French took part in the forgiveness for personal and and through apologising to them for Caux meetings between 1946 and community or national wrongs, this hatred at the conference, she 1950, drawn from government, liberates all.1 underwent a profound change. industry, the media, religion, education and other key areas.

106 Moral Re-Armament France and Germany 1946 - 1950 Internally displaced: For more information Deaths: Unavailable Read Edward Luttwak’s account of the MRA/Caux meetings in Religion, the 16,600,000 battle related (COW) Missing Dimension of Statecraft (Oxford University Press, 1994). See also 50,000,000 total deaths (various) Refugees: the books of Michael Henderson published by Grosvenor Books which cover a Cost of Involvement: Unavailable range of issues from the activities of MRA over the years to inspiring stories of $524,000 cost of purchase of forgiveness and reconciliation. Also see www.mra.org.uk, www.caux.ch and Caux centre in 1946. Equivalent to www.afr.org.uk for more about MRA’s work. $4,600,000 today.

Speaking to six hundred people at The barriers that were broken down Outcome When Frank Buchman died, the Caux, she said ‘I have so hated and the relationships built at Caux In 1946, on a victory tour of war German Government Bulletin wrote Germany that I wanted to see her were also a highly significant factor in that ‘the foundations of the erased from the map of Europe. But I the creation of the European Coal and devastated Europe, gave a speech in Zurich which understanding between Germany and have seen here that my hatred is Steel Community (ECSC), fore-runner France were laid by the first meetings wrong. I am sorry and I wish to ask of the EU. The aim of the ECSC, shocked his audience: ‘If Europe is to be saved from infinite misery, and between Germans and French at the forgiveness of all the Germans unveiled as the 'Schuman Plan' in 8 indeed from final doom, there must be Caux’ Ultimately, MRA’s greatest present.’2 Peter Peterson, later to 1950, was to 'make war impossible' by an act of faith in the European achievement lies in the myriad of become a member of the German jointly managing the building blocks of personal transformations and the Parliament, had been ready to answer the arms industry. As Edward Luttwak family.The first step in the re-creation of the European family must be a relationships that were forged at back if Madame Laure attacked the comments, in Schuman's eyes it was Caux. Germans. But as he said later ‘I was the 'device which would embody partnership between France and dumbfounded. We knew, my friends both a guarantee of non- Germany. But I must give you warning. Time may be short. The profound personal transformation and I, that she had shown us the only aggression and the of Madame Laure, what Joseph way open to Germany if we wanted to promise of full The fighting has stopped; This but the dangers have not Montville in ‘The Psychodynamics of join in the reconstruction of Europe.’3 reconciliation'.5 International Relationships’ singles marked the first stopped. We must begin now.’6 out as ‘perhaps the signature event in For Madame Laure, Caux became her That top level officials terms of psychological breakthroughs Damascus and she, along with her from the coal and steel time senior French So soon after the in the Franco-German conflict’ and husband who died in 1960, spent the industries from both and Germans had ‘one of the most dramatic examples of next 40 years travelling the world Germany and France war, such thoughts of met following reconciliation were the power of a simple appeal for carrying her message of personal were present at 9 inconceivable. At a forgiveness’ was by no means apology, forgiveness and Caux on numerous the war. unique. ‘I am accustomed to reconciliation. In Germany alone they occasions, and that they time when virtually no major initiatives were taken to international conferences’ said Robert spoke at over 200 meetings, had developed warm relations over Schuman at one Caux conference addressing 10 out of the 11 state these years, was a decisive factor in bring together these two bitter enemies, MRA achieved something of session. ‘They usually end with great parliaments. Her relentless bridge- the success of the ECSC disappointments. Here we find nothing building between France and negotiations. almost incalculable significance; what Luttwak calls, ‘one of the greatest but satisfaction and great hope. I will Germany was praised by Konrad never give up.’10 Adenauer who said that she and her achievements in the entire record of 7 husband ‘had done more in the past modern statecraft.’ 15 years than any other two people to build unity between age old enemies.’4

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 107 What can be learned from

What leaps out from the pages is how In the story of Brazil, Paolo had been To meet and talk about The women of Wajir had to overcome personal are the processes which teaching poor people how to stick peace, when others can even the killing of a member of their bring about peace. How slow and together, and within 48 hours was 1see only violence as the own family in their commitment to painstaking they are, how abducted, tortured and killed. Yet it is solution, is no wimpish keeping the peace committees going unglamorous and undramatic. The perfectly ordinary people who do activity. To sit down with the enemy (page 62). In the Lebanon, it was stories repeatedly describe people these extraordinary things, often with can be an act of extreme bravery, and youth activists from Christian and who, full of suspicion and trepidation, no training, usually making it up as even to carry out the preparations to Druze villages at war who overcame finally agree to get together in they go along. enable that to happen requires the their scepticism to enrol other workshops or meetings, and talk to conquering of personal fear. Although youngsters to come to a workshop people whom they hate or fear. They The lessons we shall draw not much is said explicitly in (page 104). describe the methods and techniques here do not pretend to be these pages about the that worked – brainstorming sessions, an academic personal struggles of Key figures in the Tajikistan civil war training in communication, mediation evaluation; that has individuals, the proof agreed to meet, “to listen carefully, to techniques, role-plays, dialogue and been most ably ...it is of those struggles is speak from the heart and respect the just plain listening. Not the stuff of carried out perfectly ordinary abundantly evident. sensitivities of others” (page 78). high drama. elsewhere (see bibliography). people who do these The Dinka and The support of outsiders Yet under conditions of war, these What follows is Nuer chiefs in the is often critical in actions require courage of a high merely a common extraordinary things, Sudan listened to ensuring the physical and order. The initiatives recorded here sense drawing out often with no each other’s psychological2 survival of are exactly those which, under a of some of the stories for three full those who dare to do this regime of terror, are reason enough main points which training... days “as though they work. The witness of international for abduction, torture or murder. In emerge. were peeling back NGOs like Peace Brigades 1993 in Colombia, for example, six layer upon layer of pain International was essential to those in key members of the Committee for the and discovering afresh that at Columbia who were willing to risk their Defence of Human Rights were their core they are from one family” lives to defend human rights (page assassinated, simply for defending (page 52). 54). In Nicaragua it was American the rights of activists. In Buenos Aires citizens who volunteered their three of the mothers of the presence to deter Contra attacks disappeared were abducted and killed (page 46). for attempting to place an advertisement in the national newspaper.

110 What can be learned from these stories? these stories?

Nearly one half of the Business has a powerful Traditional processes For this work to be interventions were role to play. In two examples can be of key importance extended, far more 3carried out by people 5from South Africa it was 6in peace making. Somali 8evaluation needs to be with some spiritual basis for industrialists who provided both the people for example place a high value done. Even the best funded their activities. This is incentive and the techniques to on poetry, which in a nomadic society organisations don’t write up what they remarkable, considering that in our enable violent opposition groups to is as important as radio or television, do. Robert Ricigliano, CEO of the selection process religious or spiritual work towards ending the killing. addressing all aspects of Somali life. Conflict Management Group, wrote to affiliation played no part. Yet again The traditional elders therefore us: “Reflecting on our work is and again, the factor named by Business leaders in El Salvador brought in poets as well as religious something we do too little of …we are participants as being central to their organised a ‘goods for guns’ leaders to reconcile warring much better at doing it than effectiveness is a sense of direction scheme, which was so clans (page 36). documenting what we have done.” inspired by some connection with a successful that by the source of strength greater than their end of the second ...a sense of Women Chris Spies, a local peacemaker in own ego. The approach of Moral weekend almost frequently South Africa says: “My dreams of Rearmament, for example, is explicit; $103,000 worth of direction inspired offer the writing usually are put on the back it is to “engender a heightened vouchers had by some connection 7ingredients burner to make way for income spiritual sensitivity in both parties and been given out essential to generating work.” We recommend to thereby induce them to enter into a when the with a source of the therefore that grant-makers explicitly genuine and deep dialogue” (page organisers had strength greater establishment build evaluation, or at least write-up 14). only $19,500 in the of peace, costs, into grants. bank. The President than their own particularly in A slow steady process of intervened to provide addressing the trust-building is often enough money to ego. feelings involved. 4necessary before official continue and expand the This is implicit in several negotiations can start, if they programme (page 32). of the stories, and explicit in are to succeed. The work of the the cases of the Liberian Women’s Vatican in the Beagle Channel dispute Initiative, the Somali women, the is a good example of this, as is the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and the Dartmouth Conference Regional Wajir Peace Group, where Dekha Conflicts Task Force in Tajikistan, the Ibrahim Abdi says: “Most of what was Lutheran World Federation in accomplished was done by people Guatemala, the Lebanon Conflict with a heart for peace, rather than Resolution Network, and many others. training in conflict resolution.” (page 62).

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 111 The effectiveness of NGO When we compare this to the cost of For every one of these successful This initiative is called “Give Peace work in this field has military intervention, the result is stark. interventions, many others failed for a Bank”. It will enable those in strife- 9increased dramatically, NATO ’s bombing of Serbia in 1999 lack of funds or resources. It is for that torn areas to learn what has been but it should not become a cost approximately $4,000,000,000, in reason that the Oxford Research successful elsewhere, instead of re- replacement for government addition to the $20 - $30 billion then Group is setting up a fund to link inventing the wheel. It will provide action. A multi-track approach can needed to rebuild what was grassroots groups at the cutting edge simple invaluable resources like often be more effective than either a destroyed, and leaving the problems of conflict with each other, and with mobile phones and photocopiers. It government or NGO on its own. The of Kosovo and the dictatorship of sources of support. will enable effective initiatives, such case of St Egidio in Mozambique, and Milosevic unsolved. as those described in these pages, to the ‘Norwegian model’ used by FAFO be multiplied. in its work with Israelis and The issue however is not Palestinians, are good illustrations of simply the level of this point. Likewise in Mali the funding accorded to For every Norwegian government funded an non-violent NGO that knew what it was doing initiatives, but the one of these through a long-term involvement in way in which it is successful the area (page 90). disbursed, to make sure it interventions, many The interventions reaches those others failed for lack described in this who are 10book are competent, well of funds or extraordinarily cost-effective. organised and The maximum cost is $4 million for a determined. resources. series of meetings bringing together thousands of senior figures from If you would like to contribute to France and Germany after World War Give Peace a Bank, cheques should II, laying foundations for the unification of Europe, and the be made out to ‘Oxford Research Group’ and sent to minimum is $2,700 for community 51 Plantation Road, Oxford, OX2 6JE, or see our website level conflict resolution bringing about www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk for online contributions. peace in an area of Sierra Leone. OXFORD • RESEARCH • GROUP 51 Plantation Road, Oxford, OX2 6JE, United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0) 1865 242819 Fax: +44 (0) 1865 794652. www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk

112 What can be learned from these stories? Research Notes

After extensive reading, we contacted We are grateful to all those who gave This is true of many people doing this In this volume we thought it useful to 240 organisations world-wide precious time and advice. work, who agree that to prevent or distinguish the stories by virtue of requesting information on initiatives Organisations like International Alert, resolve a conflict, a ‘multi track’ whether the intervention took place undertaken by them. Some were Responding to Conflict, the Forum On process is needed working all the way before any violence had actually unable to send anything, some sent a Early Warning and Early Response, from the grassroots to the top broken out, while violence was few notes, some sent several books. the International Crisis Group and leadership, and sometimes the other escalating, during full- blown violence, The stories have been compiled others all undertake remarkable work way round. when violence had been contained, or making every effort to combine in advocacy, research, analysis or in a post- conflict stage. We have accuracy, balance and a sense of the training, but stories of their work are By highlighting the work of a single used different colours to indicate immediacy of the tasks undertaken. not included here, because organisation in each story, we these distinctions. However, because their main focus is not on do not mean to suggest conflicts tend to be cyclical, much Wherever possible, each case was intervention. that it was the only post-conflict work is actually also checked with the source, requested Our intention organisation involved preventive in nature; therefore these changes have been made, and The people who do throughout has been to or indeed that it was distinctions are certainly not rigid. In references included as fully as this work are make known the heroic the most important. order to summarise the cases, and to possible. Our criteria for inclusion was modest. When work of those who have In literally all of the show at a glance what worked at what that the story should be an example of trying to pin down neither the time to tell their cases featured, a stage in a conflict and how much it an intervention in a situation of a case history myriad of state cost, we have included a poster-size imminent or actual violence, from the Centre stories themselves nor in and non-state matrix at the back of this volume. producing a significant if not decisive for Conflict some cases the where actors were impact, rather than a longer-term Resolution in South withal to seek funds to involved. Our aim Our intention throughout has been to peace-building activity. The focus is Africa, the manager extend their was to highlight highlight the heroic work of those therefore quite specific, concentrating there said to us “The work. examples of those who who, in some cases, do not have the on preventing, stopping or healing image in my mind is that had a significant, if not time to tell their stories nor to seek violence, rather than on transforming of a river. As it takes many decisive, role in the conflict in funds to extend their work. We wanted the conditions which produced the streams to form a river, so with all question. There are many, many other to make known what they are doing in violence, which can take decades. major conflicts at national and stories we would like to be able to tell, order to raise substantial funding for regional level. Our inputs at many and we hope that this book will be the thousands of others to be enabled to levels are streams that feed into first in a series. do similar work. bigger processes. For this reason it is difficult to identify events where we can claim to have managed a complete process and delivered an outcome.”

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 113 OTPOR, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, The Holy See, Argentina and Chile, OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities, 1998 - 2000 (p.16) 1978 - 84 (p.20) Estonia, 1993 (p.28) Footnotes 1. See Serbia's Embattled Opposition, International 1. 'Pope John Paul II mediates' in Princen, Thomas. 1. Pope, Victoria. 'Unquiet on the Baltic front' in US Crisis Group, Report No. 94, May 2000. Intermediaries in International Conflict, Princeton News and World Report, August 24th 1992, p.50. Before any violence 2. 'A Of The Mind?' by a democracy University Press, 1995, p.182. 2. OSCE HCNM mandate see Committee for the Protection of Peoples Dignity, advocate (name withheld) May 26th 1999. Also see Saint Xavier's Social Service Society, India, www.osce.org/hcnm/mandate.htm Nigeria, 2000 (p.10) Demes, Pavol. Civil Society Development in post 1991, (p.22) 3. See Chigas, Diana 'Preventive Diplomacy and the war Kosovo and post war Serbia, Woodrow Wilson 1. According to a recent World Bank study, 23% of 1. See page 24. Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe' International Center for Scholars, East European countries where at least 1/4 of the economy depends in Chayes and Chayes (eds.), Preventing Conflict in Studies, No 57, Aug-Sep 1999. 2. See the analysis of St Xavier's Social Service on exports of primary commodities experience violent Society by Collaborative for Development Action: the Post-Communist World, Brookings Institution, conflict. Conversely, countries with no exports of 3. Note to Congress by President William J Clinton on www.cdainc.com Washington, 1996, pp.25-97. primary commodities have less than 1% chance of May 27, 1999. Source: The White House Office of the 3 - 6. ibid. 4. Stoel, Max Van der. 'The role of the High violent conflict. The link - that countries which depend Press Secretary, Yulee, Florida, May 27, 1999. Commissioner in conflict prevention' in Crocker, heavily on natural resources for their income remain 4. Cohen, Roger. 'Who really brought down Milosevic', Hampson, All (eds). Herding Cats - Multiparty underdeveloped (since governments are reluctant to New York Times Magazine, November 26th 2000, ______Mediation in a Complex World, United States invest in education or industry) and more prone to p.20. Institute of Peace Press, Washington, 1999, p.70. corruption and conflict - can be seen most clearly in Nigeria. 5. 'The kids who could topple Milosevic', Mojo 5. Quoted in Estonian Ministry daily news. See Newswire. Available on www.otpor.net/news. Escalating Violence http://muhu.cs.helsinki.fi/E-LIST/1993. 2. Personal communication with Peter Claver Oparah, City Montessori School, India, 1992 (p.24) 6. Sharp, Gene. The Politics of Non Violent Action, 6. Zaagman, Rob. Conflict Prevention in the Baltic October 10th 2000. 1. As quoted in 'India's City Montessori School Porter Sargent, Boston, 1972, p.10. States: The OSCE High Commissioner on Educates World Citizens' in People Building Peace - 3. Internal COPPED document. National Minorities in Estonia, Latvia and East West Institute, Serbia / Federal Republic of 7. Dobbs, Michael. 'US Advice Guided Milosevic 35 Inspiring Stories from Around the World, Lithuania, European Centre for Minority Issues, Yugoslavia, 1999 - 2000 (p.12) Opposition' Washington Post, Dec 11, 2000 p.A01. European Centre for Conflict Prevention, Utrecht Flensburg, Germany, Monograph 1, April 1999, p.51. 1. Demes, Pavol. Civil Society Development in 8. Cohen, Roger 'Who really brought down Milosevic' 1999, p.278. Post War Serbia - key findings and observations, 7. ‘Max van der Stoel, Minority Man’ The Economist, op cit p.14. 2. Government figures submitted to the Srikrishna Partners for Democratic Change, Hungary, 1996- Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Vol1998 352, (p.30) November 9th, 1999. Washington DC, September 1999, p.3. 9. Yugoslavia's Presidential Election: The Serbian Commission on the riots in Bombay. People's Moment of Truth, International Crisis 3. As quoted in 'India's City Montessori School 1 'Roma' is the collective term for 'Gypsies' - a name 2. International Crisis Group, Serbia's Embattled Group, Balkans Report No 102, September 19th now considered pejorative. Opposition, Report No. 94, May 2000, p.3. Educates World Citizens', op cit. 2000, p.7. The Mediation Network, Northern Ireland, 1995 2. Stoel, Max van der. 'Report on the situation of 3. ICG briefing August 2000. See www.crisisweb.org 10.Saferworld, Cohen, Roger Europe, 'Who really1992 brought- 2001+ down (p.18) (p.26) Roma and Sinti in the OSCE area' Organisation for 4. This echoed polls conducted by a variety of Milosevic'1. Laurance, op Edwardcit, p.18. J. 'Small arms, light weapons 1. Bryan, Dominic. Orange Parades, The Politics of Security and Cooperation in Europe, The Hague, organisations, including the Center for Policy Studies and conflict prevention' in Rubin, Barnett. Cases and Ritual, Tradition and Control, Pluto Press, London, Netherlands, March 2000, p.1. in Belgrade, which showed that 60% of Serbian Strategies for Preventive Action, The Century 2000, p.8. 3. Quoted from 'Reflecting on Peace Practice' study of people cited improved relations with the West as the Foundation Press, New York 1998, p.136. 2. McAllister, Brendan. 'The Difficult and the Possible - Partners Hungary by Collaborative for Development top policy priority for the country. 2. Saferworld was joined by other UK non Mediation in Northern Ireland' in Mediation in Action. See. www.cdainc.com 5. ICG briefing August 2000. See www.crisisweb.org governmental organisations such as the British Practice, INCORE Research Paper, see 4 - 6. ibid. www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/publication/research/medi Patriotic Movement Against Crime, El Salvador, 6. Spasic, Jasmina 'Victory without Gloating' in American Security Information Council (BASIC). ation/index.html 1995 - 1999 (p.32) DanasMoral ,Re-Armament, September 30th -1stIndia, October 1967 2000. - 1972 (p.14) 3. Clegg, Liz. NGO and government co-operation: 1. See briefing paper on Light Weapons by the British 1: Quoted in Luttwak, Edward. ‘Franco-German Experiences within Europe, Paper presented at a 3. Campbell, Joe. 'Partnering with Mennonites in Conference entitled 'Towards the 2001 Conference Northern Ireland' in From the Ground Up - American Security Information Council (BASIC), Reconciliation: The overlooked role of the Moral Re- www.basicint.org Armament Movement' in Johnston & Sampson (eds) and beyond: A critical role for civil society.' Mennonite Contributions to International Religion, The Missing Dimension in Statecraft, 4. Taken from Davis, Ian. 'Development of a EU Code Peacebuilding, Oxford University Press, New York, 2. Laurance, Edward & Godnick, William. Weapons Oxford University Press, New York, 1994, p.47. of Conduct on Arms Exports' in a forthcoming book 2000, p.103. Collection in Central America: El Salvador and under consideration by SIPRI/OUP, The Regulation 4. McAllister, Brendan. Encountering the Strange: Guatemala, Bonn International Centre for 2. Quoted in A Sign of Hope, Himmat Publications, Conversion, Jan 2000. Delhi, 1977, p.7. of arms and dual-use exports by EU member Mediation and Reconciliation in Northern states: a comparative analysis of Germany, Ireland's Parades Conflict, Paper presented at a 3. ibid. 3. Quoted in Henderson, Michael. From India with Sweden and the UK. conference entitled 'Promoting Justice and Peace Hope, Grosvenor Books, London, 1972, p.54. through Reconciliation and Co-existence alternatives' 4. Godnick, William. The 17th round of voluntary 5. ibid. weapons collection programme 'Goods for Guns, 4. ibid p.55. at The American University, Washington D.C. on 6. As quoted in Klare, Michael. 'Adding fuel to the February 20th 1999. San Salvador, July 1998, Program on Security and 5. Quoted in A Sign of Hope, op cit, p.8. fires: The conventional arms trade in the 1990s' in Development (SAND), Monterey Institute of 6. ibid p.6. Klare, Michael. Thomas, Daniel. World Security - International Studies. 7. Henderson, Michael. From India with Hope, op Challenges for a New Century, St Martins Press, 5. Briefing paper on Light Weapons by the British cit, p.55. New York, 1994, p.147. American Security Information Council (BASIC), op cit.

114 Footnotes 2. General Peace Agreement, Joint Communiqué, July 10th 1990 in The United Nations and 4. Mahony, Liam & Eguren, Luis Enrique. Unarmed Mozambique 1992-1995, United Nations Dept of Bodyguards: International Accompaniment for Public Information, New York, 1995, p.124. the Protection of Human Rights, op cit, p.4. 3. Bartoli, Andrea. 'Mediating Peace in Mozambique' 5. & 6. ibid p1. op cit p.260. Project on Ethnic Relations, Romania, 1991 - Lutheran World Federation, Guatemala, 1988 - 7. ibid p.85. 2001+ (p.34) 4. Bartoli, Andrea. 'Providing Space for Change in 1996, (p.48) 8. ibid p.28. 1. McPherson, William. ‘The Transylvania: Tangle’, Mozambique' in Herr & Herr (eds) Transforming 1. Taken from Costello, Patrick. 'Historical 9. Campo, Francisco. Regional Committee for the Wilson's Quarterly, Vol 18, Winter 1994, p.60. Violence, Herald Press, Scottdale 1998, p.198. Background' in Negotiating Rights, the Guatemalan 5. ibid p.199. Peace Process, ACCORD - an International Review Defence of Human Rights (CREDHOS) in Peace 2. Cadzow, J. Elteto, L. Ludanyi, A. (eds) Brigades International Annual Review, 1999. Transylvania - The Roots of Ethnic Conflict, The of Peace Initiatives, Conciliation Resources (www.c- Kent State University Press, Kent, Ohio, 1983, p.4. r.org). 3. Handelman, Louise. 'Negotiating Peace - Project 2. ibid. on Ethnic Relations teaches compromise' in Packet 3. Jeffrey, Paul. 'Ecumenical effort, without headlines, Online (http://pacpub.com/new/news/9-8-99/ paved the way to peace' in Ecumenical News ethnicrelations.html). Las Madres de Plaza de Mayo, International, ENI Bulletin 01/1997, Jan 15th 1997. Peace Community of San Jose de Apartado, Argentina, 1977 - 1983 (p.42) Colombia, 1997 (p.56) 4. From a presentation delivered by Allen Kassof to 4. As quoted in Ford, Peter. 'Norway as peacemaker' the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars 1. Speech given by Hebe de Bonafini, President of in Christian Science Monitor, Wednesday May 31st 1. Author unknown. Taken from ‘Peace Community of East European Studies Dept on Jan12th 2000 entitled The Association of Mothers of Plaza de Mayo on 6th 2000. San Jose de Apartado’, May 1999. Available online at July 1988. www.colombiasupport.net/ Mediating inter-ethnic relations: successes and 5. Personal email communication with Leopoldo failures in the new Europe, Meeting report #190. 2. ibid. Niilus. 2. As quoted in 'Colombia: Zone of Peace in the Heart of a Bitter War' in People Building Peace: 35 5. Handelman, Louise. 'Negotiating Peace - Project 3. Comision Nacion Argentina Sobre la Desaparicion 6. Quoted in Trexler, Edgar 'Behind the Scenes - on Ethnic Relations teaches compromise', op cit. de Personas (CONADEP) (Argentine National Inspiring Stories from Around the World & Lutherans boost peace in Guatemala' in The Zumpole, Liduine. Colombia’s growing peace 6. ibid. Commission on the Disappearance of Persons), Luterhan magazine, Feb 1997, P46 Nunca Mas (Never Again), Faber & Faber, New York, movement, Pax Christi paper. 7. Email communication with Allen Kassof. 1986, p.426, as quoted in Metres, Katherine Marie. 7. Quoted in Trexler, Edgar 'Peacemaking in Secret' in 3. As quoted on Oxfam web site 8. Handelman, Louise. 'Negotiating Peace - Project 'U.S and U.N Human Rights Policy Toward Argentina' The Lutheran magazine, Feb 1997, P58 www.oxfam.org.uk/campaign/cutconflict. on Ethnic Relations teaches compromise', op cit. in Michigan Journal of Political Science, Issue 19, 8. Jeffrey, Paul 'Ecumenical effort, without headlines, The Quakers, Nigeria, 1967 - 1970 (p.58) Fall 1995. paved the way to peace' op cit. 1. Quoted in Shriver, Donald. 'Religion and Violence Prevention' in Cases and Strategies for Preventive 4. Personal email communication with Alison Brysk. 9. ibid. ______Liberian Women’s Initiative, Action, The Century Foundation Press, New York, Full blown violence Liberia, 1993 - 1997 (p.44) 10. Quoted in Trexler, Edgar 'Behind the Scenes - 1996, p.185. 1. Sesay, Max Ahmedou. 'Bringing peace to Liberia' in Lutherans boost peace in Guatemala' op cit The Borama Process, Somalia, 1991 - 1993 (p.36) Natal Chamber of Industries, South Africa, 1989 - 2. Personal communication with Adam Curle. The Liberian Peace Process - 1990 - 1996, 1990 (p.50) 1. Farah, A.Y. 'Peacemaking endeavours of 11. ibid. November 4th 2000. contemporary lineage leaders: a survey of grassroots ACCORD, An International Review of Peace 1. Interview with Steve Simpson, 9th May 2001. Initiatives, Conciliation Resources, London. 3. Sampson, Cynthia. ‘“To make real the bond peace conferences in 'Somaliland'’, Action Aid, 2 - 3. ibid London, 1993, p.87. 2. As quoted in Anderlini, Sanam Naraghi. Women at between us all”: Quaker conciliation during the the Peace Table - Making a Difference, United New Sudan Council of Churches, ' in Johnston, Douglas & Sampson, Centre for International Development and Conflict Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Sudan, 1999 - 2001+ (p.52) Cynthia. Religion, the Missing Dimension of Management, Lebanon, 1984 (p.38) New York, 2000, p.19. 1. Quoted in Vick, Karl. 'Sudanese tribes confront Statecraft, Oxford University Press, New York, 1995, 1. The Maronites belong to the Patriarchate of modern war' in The Washington Post Foreign Antioch, one of the four Eastern Christian traditions 3. Speech by Mary Brownell to the 44th Session of p.89. Service, Wednesday July 7th 1999, p.1. South African Council of Churches that hold the Pope as the head of the Church. the Commission on the Status of Women (Beijing +5 and the Consultative Business Movement, PrepCom) New York, February 28th - March 17th 2. Lowrey, William ‘A Flicker of Hope in Sudan’. See: South Africa, 1990 - 1991 (p.60) 2. Azar, Edward. The Management of Protracted 2000. http://members.tripod.com/ Social Conflicts - Theory and Cases, Dartmouth 1. While there is no precise definition for the term 4. ibid. ~SudanInfonet/Nuer-Dinka/Flicker.html Publishing, Hampshire, 1990, p.21. Local Peace Commissions and CEPAD, 'political violence' it can best be described as 'violent Nicaragua, 1984 - 2001+ (p.46) 3 - 5. ibid behaviour which is intended in some way to influence 3. ibid p.50. 1. See CEPAD report May/June 1999 p.1. Peace Brigades International, the political process'. For a brief overview of the Colombia, 1997 (p.54) various definitions of the term 'political violence' see 4. ibid p.51. 2. 'Peacemaking at the grassroots' in CEPAD Report, 1. For background information on La Violencia see pp 9-10 of Peter Gastrow's book 'Bargaining for 5. ibid p.33. September/October 1989, p.2. page 56. Peace - South Africa and the National Peace 6. Taken from CIDCM publicity. See 3. Jeffrey, Paul. 'Nicaraguans still making peace', in Accord' (United States Institute of Peace Press, 2. Figures from the Andean Commission of Jurists as www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/ Christian Century, p.5. Washington, 1995). The Community of Sant Edigio, quoted in Mahony, Liam & Eguren, Luis Enrique. Mozambique, 1989 - 1992 (p.40) 4. ibid 2. Gastrow, Peter. Bargaining for Peace - South Unarmed Bodyguards: International Africa and the National Peace Accord, United 1. Quoted in Bartoli, Andrea. 'Mediating Peace in 5. Chupp, Mark. 'Creating Space for Peace - The Accompaniment for the protection of Human States Institute of Peace Press, Washington, 1995, Mozambique' in Crocker, Hampson, Aall (eds), Central American Peace Portfolio' in Lederach and Rights, Kumarian Press, Connecticut, 1997, p.225. p.14. Herding Cats - Multiparty Mediation in a Complex Sampson, From the Ground Up - Mennonite World, USIP Press, Washington, 1999. p.258. Contributions to International Peacebuilding, 3. Barrancabermeja: a city under siege, Amnesty 3. Peter Gastrow is a lawyer and former member of Oxford University Press, New York, 2000, p.119. International, Report AMR 23/36/99 May 1999, p.4. parliament who participated in the establishment of the National Peace Accord. 4. ibid p.22. War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 115 7. Quoted in Miller, Joseph. 'History of Mennonite Peacebuilding' in Lederach, John Paul & Sampson, Cynthia From the Ground Up - Mennonite Contributions to International Peacebuilding, 5. As quoted in Gastrow, Peter. 'A Joint Effort - The Oxford University Press, New York, 2000 p.27. JAMAA, Burundi, 1994 - 2000, (p.82) South African Peace Process' in People Building Contained violence 1. For background information on the conflict in Peace - 35 Inspiring stories from around the Action Aid Burundi, Burundi, 1993 - 2001+ (p68) Burundi see page 68 and 92. world, European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1. Quoted in Gough, David. 'Burundi: Working Utrecht, Netherlands, 1999 p.108. towards peace' in Choices, United Nations 2. International Crisis Group Report Summary Dec 2000. 6. Collin Marks, Susan. Watching the Wind - Development Program, December 1999. Conflict Management Group, Conflict Resolution During South Africa's 2. Dodd, Robert. Peace building in Burundi: An Peru / Ecuador, 1995 - 1998, (p.76) 3. Personal email communication with Adrien Tuyaga transition to democracy, United States Institute of evaluation of the contribution made by ActionAid 1. Reifenberg, Steve & Cervenak, Christine. 16th March 2001. Peace Press, Washington, 2000, p.13. Burundi to peace and reconciliation in the Facilitated Joint Brainstorming: A Case Study of 4. As quoted in Out of Sight, Out of Mind - Conflict Wajir Peace and Development Committee, province of Ruyigi, ActionAid, 1998, Section 1, Point the Ecuador-Peru Border Dispute, Conflict and Displacement in Burundi, Women’s Kenya, 1992-1995 (p.62) 7. Management Group Paper November 1996, p.5. Commission for Refugee Women and Children, New 1: Abdi, Dekha Ibrahim. 'Breaking the Cycle of 3. ibid, section 2, Point 7.1. 2. ibid p.11. York Jan 2001, p.14. Violence in Wajir' in Herr & Herr (eds) Transforming 5 - 6. ibid. Violence, Herald Press, Scottdale 1998, p.139. 4. Gough, David. 'Burundi: Working towards peace' 3. Falcao, Horatio 'The Peru-Ecuador Border Dispute' op cit. Conflict Management Group internal paper, date 7. As quoted in Hranjski, Hrvoje. ‘Burundi killers break 2. ibid p.39. 5. Dodd, Robert. Peace building in Burundi: An unknown, p.1. code of silence, join hands’ in Associated Press 3. ibid p.46. evaluation of the contribution made by ActionAid 4. ibid p.2. News Release, Saturday April 1st 2000. Witness for Peace, Nicaragua, 1983 - 1990 (p.62) Burundi to peace and reconciliation in the Dartmouth Conference Regional Task Force, 8. ibid. Tajikistan, 1993 - 2001+, (p.78) 1. As quoted in Griffin-Nolan, Ed. Witness for Peace, Academicprovince of AssociatesRuyigi, op cit, PeaceWorks, Section 1, Point 3. 9. Email communication with Adrien Tuyaga March Westminster Press, Louisville, Kentucky, 1991, p.28. Nigeria, 1997 - 1999, (p.70) 1. Saunders, Harold. 'The Multilevel Peace Process in 16th 2001. 1. See Threats to a New Democracy - Human Tajikistan' in Crocker, Hampson, Aall (eds) Herding 2. ibid p.74. Cats - Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World, 10. Email communication with Louis Putzel March Rights Concerns at Election Time, Human Rights 15th 2001. 3. ibid p.18. Watch, New York, June 1993, p.17. USIP Press, Washington, 1999, p.166. Women’s Groups, Somalia, 1991-2001+ (p.66) 2. The concept of Sustained Dialogue was first 11.Moral Hranjski, Re-armament, Hrvoje ‘Burundi Killers Break Code of 2. Asuni, Judith. 'The Tiv-Jukun Conflict in Wukari, Silence, Join Hands’ op cit. 1. Beurden, Jos van. 'In a State of Permanent Conflict' Taraba State' in Searching for Peace in Africa - An articulated by Gennady Chufrin and Harold Saunders Zimbabwe, 1974 - 1980, (p.84) in Searching for Peace in Africa, European Platform Overview of Conflict Prevention and Management in an article entitled 'A Public Peace Process' in 1. Interview with Joram Kucherera, Johannesburg for Conflict Prevention, Utrecht, Netherlands, 1999, Activities , European Platform for Conflict Prevention, Negotiation Journal Plenum Publishing, April 1993, Star, Monday Nov 18th 1996 p.12. p.155-177. p.156. Utrecht, Netherlands, 1999, p.356. 2. Interview with Ian Robertson, May 25th 1991 as 2. Bryden and Steiner. Somalia between Peace and 3. ibid p.357. 3. Imomov, Ashurboi. Saunders, Harold. Chufrin, quoted in Kraybill, Ron 'Transition from Rhodesia to War, UNIFEM, Nairobi, 2000, p.2. Amnesty International, Turkey, 1990 - 2000 (p.72) Gennady. 'The Inter-Tajik Dialogue within the Zimbabwe: The role of religious actors' in Johnston 1. Turkey - no security without human rights, framework of the Dartmouth Conference' in Journal and Sampson (eds) Religion the Missing 3. Ditmars, Hadani. 'Women rebuild shattered of Social and Political Studies - Central Asia and economy' in African Business, IC Publications, Dec Amnesty International Campaign Report, 1996. Dimension of Statecraft, OUP, New York, 1995, the Caucases. p.211. 1994, No.194, p.31. Christian Peacemaker Teams, 4. Crocker, Hampson, Aall (eds). Herding Cats - 3. ibid p.223. 4. Lorch, Donatella. 'Somali Women Stride Ahead The Occupied Territories, 1995 - 1999 (p.74) Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World, op cit Despite the Scars of Tradition' in The New York 1. Sider, Ronald. Jesus' Call to be Peacemakers, p.168. 4. Kanodereka later became Treasurer of the ANC, Times, New York, December 22nd 1992. Speech given at 11th Mennonite Conference in and through Alec Smith met Ian Smith many times. France, 1984. See www.prairienet.org/cpt/sider.php 5. Chufrin, Gennady and Saunders, Harold. 'A Public After meeting Kanodereka for the first time, Ian Smith 5 Bryden and Steiner. Somalia between Peace and Peace Process' in Negotiation Journal, Plenum War, op cit, p.55. for full text. FAFO Institute for Applied Social Sciences, Israel said to his son 'Alec I really want to thank you for Publishing, April 1993, p.173. bringing Arthur (and Gladys) here. If all black 2. See Kern, Kathleen. 'Applying Civilian Peace & the Occupied Territories, 1989 - 1993, (p.80) 6 ibid p.6. nationalists were like him, I'd have no trouble handing Teams' in Herr, Robert and Herr, Judy Zimmerman 1. Egeland, Jan. 'The Oslo Accord - Multiparty the country over tomorrow' (p.85 Smith, Alec. Now I (eds) Transforming Violence, Herald Press, Facilitation through the Norwegian Channel' in Call Him Brother, Marshall, Morgan & Scott ______Scottdale, 1998 p.169. Crocker, Hampson, Aall (eds). Herding Cats - publishers, Basingstoke, Hants, 1984,) He was 3. Gish, Art. ‘Love Overcomes Fear in Hebron’, in Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World, United assassinated in 1978 just before putting the finishing Signs of the Times, Vol. X, No. 1, Winter 2000. p.5. States Institutes of Peace Press, Washington, 1999, touches to a peace plan that he had masterminded p.531. 4. 'CPTers Arrested for 'Getting in the Way'' in Signs between Smith, Mugabe and Nkomo. of the Times, Winter 1999. See 2. Quoted in Corbin, Jane. Gaza First, Bloomsbury 5. Smith, Alec. Now I Call Him Brother, Marshall, www.prairienet.org/cpt/ . Press, London, 1994, p.45. Morgan & Scott publishers, Basingstoke, Hants, 5. ibid. 3. ibid p.138. 1984, p.83. 6. See Collaborative for Development Action 4. ibid p.175. 6. ibid p.85. 'Reflecting on Peace Practice' case study on Christian 5. ibid p.169. 7. Interview with Joram Kucherera, Johannesburg Peacemaker Teams. Available on CPT website: Star, Monday Nov 18th 1996 p.12. www.prairienet.org/cpt/. 8. Kraybill, Ron. 'Transition from Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: The role of religious actors' op cit p.211.

116 Footnotes Moldovan Initiative Committee of Management, Search For Common Ground, Moral Re-Armament, Moldova, 1992 - 2001+, (p.86) Burundi, 1995 - 1999, (p.92) After the violence France and Germany, 1946-1950, (p.106) 1. Featured in Hall, Michael. Conflict Resolution - 1. Lund, Rubin, Hara. 'Learning from Burundi's failed Archdiocese of São Paolo, 1. Henderson, Michael. All her paths are peace - the Missing Element in the Northern Ireland democratic transition 1993-96 - Did International Brazil, 1979 - 1985, (p.98) Women pioneers in peacemaking, Kumarian Peace Process, Island Pamphlets, 1999, p.6. Initiatives match the problem?' in Rubin. Cases and 1. As quoted in Weschler, Lawrence. A Miracle a Press, Connecticut, 1994, p.18. Strategies for Preventive Action, The Century Universe - Settling Accounts with Torturers, 2. Spoerri, Pierre. Frank Buchman and his 2. The second workshop was jointly organised by University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998, p.11. MICOM and the Center for Conflict Analysis (CCA) at Foundation Press, New York 1998, p.50. philosophy of reconciliation, Text of a paper given George Mason University. CCA were heavily involved 2. Sinduhije, Alexis. Ijambo: "Speaking Truth" Centre for Peace, Non-Violence and in August 1998 at a conference on the theme with the MICOM initiative from the beginning but most Amidst Genocide, Discussion Paper D-30, The Human Rights, Croatia, 1999 - 2000, (p.100) 'Agenda for Reconciliation' Caux, Switzerland, p.6-10. participants in the process refer to the workshops as Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and 1. As quoted in www.life- 3. Henderson, Michael. All her paths are peace - the 'MICOM workshops' Public Policy, John F Kennedy School of peace.org/nroutes/yugo496.htm Women pioneers in peacemaking, op cit p.22. 3. From In Focus, the magazine of the Charles Government, , July 1998, p.17. 2. Taken from official web site. 4. ibid p.22. Stewart Mott Foundation, p.27. 3. Personal correspondence with Francis Rolt. 3. See Building a Democratic Society based on a 5. ibid p.23. Sulima Fishing Community Development Project, 4. Ataman, Yuri. Chairperson of the Joint Committee Sierra Leone, 1997 - 2001+, (p.94) culture of non-violence. Post war peace building 6. Luttwak, Edward. 'Franco-German reconciliation: in Eastern Croatia 1999-2000 - The listening for Democratisation and Conciliation in 1. See Massaquoi, John. Building Mechanisms for The overlooked role of the Moral Re-Armament Programme - Action Research in Berak, Life and http://home.moldpac.md/~savelkin/Peace.htm Conflict Resolution in South East Sierra Leone, Movement' in Johnston and Sampson (eds). Peace Institute, 2000, Annex 2. p.83. Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft, 5. Hall, Michael. op cit, p.16. Paper presented at the first conference on All African Principles of Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation, 4. Jordan, Jessica. Center for Peace, Non-violence OUP, New York 1995, p.51. 6. Nan, Susan Allen. 'Case study: conflict resolution in , November 1999. Also see www.c- and Human Rights, Peacebuilding Project, Impact 7. Speech given by Winston Churchill at the University the conflict over Transdniestria' in Complimentarity r.org/occ_papers/Sulima.html Assessment Findings, Lessons Learned and of Zurich, Sept 19th 1946. See Canadine, David. The and Coordination of Conflict Resolution efforts in 2. Meijer, Guus. Reconstructing peace in Sierra Recommendations, October 2000, p.38. Speeches of Winston Churchill, Penguin Books, London, 1990 p.312. the conflicts over Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Leone - some civil society initiatives, Paper Christian5. ibid. Health Association of Liberia, Transdniestria, DPhil Dissertation, Institute for presented at the conference 'Facing Ethnic Conflicts' Liberia, 1997 - 1999, (p.102) 8. Luttwak, Edward. 'Franco-German reconciliation: Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason Nairobi Peace Initiative, Ghana, 1994 - 1996, (p.88) organised by the Center for Development Research 1. Taken from the Coalition to stop the use of child The overlooked role of the Moral Re-Armament University, Virginia, Fall 1999. (ZEF Bonn) December 14 - 16th 2000. Movement' op cit p.38. 1. As quoted in Assefa, Hizkias. Co-existence and Witness, India, 1998, (p.96) soldiers Africa Report. See www.child- 9. Brown, Mike & Williams, John. Caux, Healing the Reconciliation in the Northern Region of Ghana. 1. Official sanction for killings in Manipur, Amnesty soldiers.org/reports_africa/ liberia.html. past - Forging the Future, Fondation pour le Paper provided by Hizkias Assefa. International, Report ASA 20/014/1997, p.1. Rearmament Moral, Caux edition, 1996 p.17. Norwegian Church Aid, Mali, 1995 - 1996, (p.90) 2. Quoted in Purvis, Andrew. 'Beware the Children - 2. ibid p.1. 10. As quoted in Henderson, Michael. Forgiveness, 1. Lode, Kare. Civil Society Takes Responsibility - Civil war has spawned a legion of young warriors who Breaking the Chain of Hate, Book Partners Inc, Popular Involvement in the Peace Process in 3. See Witness web site www.witness.org. must now learn to discover their childhood' in Time Magazine, December 4th, 1995. Oregon, 1999, p.150. Mali, International Peace Research Institute (PRIO) 4. Witness Annual Report 1997. Office of Human Rights of the Archdiocese of Report, Norway, p.4. 3. Ibid. Guatemala,11. Henderson, Guatemala, Michael. All her1995, paths (p.108) are peace - 5. Thacker, Shane. ‘Videos bear witness to human Women pioneers in peacemaking, op cit p.25. 2. ibid p.8. rights abuses' in Philanthropy News Network 4. Evaluation of CHAL work. 1. Beristain, Carlos Martin. 'The Value of Memory' in 3. By the time that Lode had been brought in by NCA, Online, Dec 24th, 1999. 5. Ibid. Forced Migration Review, Feb 1998, p.28. he had already been asked independently to 6. 'QuickTime’ is a software programme that allows 6. Quoted in Doe, Sam Gbaydee. 'Former child 2. As quoted in Jeffrey, Paul. 'In Search of Post-War contribute to the peace process by various groups in footage to be downloaded and played on a computer soldiers in Liberia: call me by my real name, a cry for Healing. Guatemala's Church Digs Up Past' in the conflict. National Catholic Reporter. in a relatively short space of time. lost identity' in Humanitarian Practice Network 4. Adekanye, 'Bayo J. Norwegian Church Aid's Newsletter, November 1998, Vol 12. 3. As quoted in 'Working for Peace in Guatemala' in 7. Thacker, Shane. 'Videos bear witness to human Humanitarian and Peace-making work in Mali, Lebanon Conflict Resolution Network, People Building Peace - 35 Inspiring Stories from rights abuses' op cit. 7. CHAL evaluation. Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, October, 1997, p.25. Lebanon, 1999, (p.104) Around the World European Centre for Conflict 8. Transcript of interview with Michael Stipe as 1. The Maronites belong to the Patriarchate of Prevention, Utrecht, Netherlands, 1999 p.227. featured on NBC's 'News of the week' April 3rd 2001. Antioch, one of the four Eastern Christian traditions 4. Beristain, C. Martin 'The Value of Memory' op cit. that hold the Pope as the head of the Church. 5. Guatemala - Never Again: The Official Report of ______2. LCRN Promotional literature, "THE LCRN the Human Rights Office. Archdiocese of PROFILE". Guatemala, Catholic Institute for International 3. LCRN newsletter, Spring 2000. Relations, London, 1999, p.32. 4. Personal communication with Armen Balian, 6. Case 3967, Caserio Pal, Quiche, 1981, op cit Executive Director of LCRN, 16th Jan 2001. p.xxxii., ibid 5. Participant, as featured in LCRN newsletter, Fall 7. Case 7462, Aldea Chichupuac Massacre, Baja, 2000. Verapaz, 1982, p.100, ibid. 6. ibid.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 117 Organisations profiled Groups from the 50 stories listed alphabetically

Academic Associates Center for International Committee for the Protection of East West Institute PeaceWorks Development and Conflict Peoples Dignity (COPPED) Prague Centre, 78/2000 Rasínovo 9 Esomo Close, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria. Management 9 Bayo Shodipo Street, Off Afisman Drive, Nabrezi, 120 00 Praha 2, . Contact: Judith Burdin Asuni, Director. University of Maryland, 0145 Tydings Hall, Anifowoshe, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria. Contact: Aleksandar Lojpur, Coordinator, Tel: +234 17743203. College Park, Maryland 20742 - 7231, Contact: Peter Claver Opara, Director. Task Force on FRY. Tel: +420 22198 4222. Email: [email protected] USA.Contact: Ernest J Wilson, Director. Email: [email protected] Fax: +420 22491 7854. Web: www.aapeaceworks.org Tel: +1 301 314 7703. Fax: +1 301 314 Web: www.copped.org Email: [email protected] ActionAid Burundi 9256. Email: [email protected] Community of Sant'Egidio Web: hwww.iews.cz/frytf/index2.html BP 2170, Bujumbura, Burundi. Web: www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm Piazza Sant'Egidio 3/a, 00153 Rome, FAFO Institute for Applied Social Contact: Samuel Braimah, Director Centre for Peace, . Contact: Fr Matteo Maria Zuppi. Sciences Tel: +257 226393. Fax: +257 226791. and Human Rights Tel: +39 06 585 661. P.O. Box 2947, Toyen, N-0608 Oslo, Email: [email protected] Zupanijska 7, HR-31000, Osijek, Croatia. Fax: +39 06 580 0197. Norway. Tel: +47 220 88600. Fax: +47 220 Web: www.actionaid.org Contact: Branka Kaselj, Executive Email: [email protected] 88700. Email: [email protected] American Friends Service Director. Tel: +385 31 206 886. Fax: +385 Web: www.santegidio.org/ Web: www.fafo.no/engelsk/ Committee (Quakers) 31 206 889. Email: [email protected] Consejo de Iglesias Pro-Alianza JAMAA 1501 Cherry Street, Philadelphia, PA Web: http://www.zamir.net/~czmos Denominacional (CEPAD) Contact: Adrien Tuyaga 19102, USA. Tel: +1 215 241 7000. Christian Health Association of Apartado 3091, Managua, Nicaragua. Email: [email protected] Fax: +1 215 241 7275. Liberia Contact: Ms. Damaris Albuquerque, Lebanon Conflict Resolution Email: [email protected] P.O. Box 10-9056, 7th Street, Sinkor, 1000 Executive Director. Tel: +505 266 4628. Network (LCRN) Web: www.afsc.org Monrovia, Liberia. Contact: James Nagbe Fax: +505 266 4236. c/o Lebanese Center for Policy Studies, Amnesty International Doe, Coordinator, Healing and Email: [email protected] Tayyar Center Sin el-Fil, Box 55215, 1 Easton Street, London WC1X 80J, UK. Reconciliation Unit. Tel: +231 226187. Web: www.cepad.org.ni/ Beirut, Lebanon. Contact: Armen Balian, Tel: +44 (0)171 413 5500/ Fax: +231 226823. Email: [email protected] Conflict Management Group Director. Tel: +961 1 490 561/6. Fax: +961 Fax: +44 (0)171 956 11 57/ Christian Peacemaker Teams The Roger Fisher House, 9 Waterhouse 1 490 375. Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] P.O. Box 6508, Chicago, Illinois 60680, Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, Web: www.lcrn.org Web: www.amnesty.org USA. Contact: Gene Stoltzfus, Director. USA. Contact: Michael DeKoster, Liberian Women's Initiative Archdiocese of São Paolo Tel: +1 312 455 1199. Fax: +1 312 432 Operations Manager. 11 Broad Street, PO BOX 1063, Monrovia, Av. Higienópolis, 890 - Higienópolis, 1213. Email: [email protected] Tel: +1 617 354 5444. Liberia. Contact: Etweda Cooper, 01238-908 - São Paulo, SP Brazil. Web: www.prairienet.org/cpt/ Fax: +1 617 354 8467. Secretary General. Tel: +231 227 095 Tel: +55 11 3826 0133. City Montessori School, Lucknow Email: [email protected] Web: www.cmgroup.org/ Lutheran World Federation Fax: +55 11 3825 6806. 12 Station Road, Lucknow, UP 26001, 50, route de Ferney, Case postale 2100, Email: [email protected] India. Tel: +91 522 215 483. Dartmouth Conference Regional CH-1211 Genève 2, Switzerland. Web: www.arquidiocese-sp.org.br/ Fax: +91 522 212 888. Conflicts Taskforce Tel: +41 22791 6111. Fax: +41 22791 Asociación Madres de Plaza de Contact: Dr Bharti Gandhi, Director. c/o The Kettering Foundation, 200 6630. Email: [email protected] Mayo Email: [email protected] Commons Road, Dayton, OH 45459, Web: www.lutheranworld.org/ Hipólito Yrigoyen 1442 (1089),Buenos Web: www.cmseducation.org/ USA. Contact: Harold Saunders, Director Aires, Argentina. Tel: +54 11 43830377. Coalition of Grassroots Women's of International Affairs. Tel: +1 937 434 Fax: +54 11 49540381. Email: Organisations (COGWO) 7300. Fax: +1 937 439 9804. [email protected] Web: P.O. Box 71135, Nairobi, Kenya. Email: [email protected] www.madres.org Tel: +252 121 5292. Fax: +252 121 5048. Web: www.kettering.org/ Email: [email protected]

118 Organisations profiled Mediation Network for Northern Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Peace Brigades International St Xavier's Social Service Society Ireland Arzobispado de Guatemala (PBI) - Ahmedabad 10 Upper Crescent, Belfast BT7 1NT, (ODHAG) 5 Caledonian Road, London N1 9DX, UK. Post Box 4088, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad Northern Ireland, UK. Contact: Peter 6a Calle 7-70, Zona 1, Guatemala 01001, Contact: Helen Yuill, International 380009, Gujarat, India. O'Reilly, Development Manager. Apartado Postal 723, Guatemala. Coordinator. Tel: +44 (0)20 7713 0392. Contact: Father Cedric Prakash, Director. Tel: +44 (0)28 9043 8614. Contact: Claudia Agreda. Tel: +502 232 Fax: +44 (0)20 7837 2290. Tel: +91 79 7417654 or 79 495238. Fax: +44 (0)28 9031 4430. Email: 4604. Fax: +502 232 8384. Email: [email protected] Fax: +91 79 6426362. [email protected] Email: [email protected] Web: www.peacebrigades.org Email: [email protected] Web: www.mediation-network.org.uk Web: www.odhag.org.gt/ Project on Ethnic Relations (PER) Sulima Fishing Community Moldovan Initiative Committee of OSCE High Commissioner on 15 Chambers Street, Princeton, New Development Project Management National Minorities Jersey 08542-3718, USA. Contact: Allen c/o Conciliation Resources, 173 Upper, c/o Farset Complex, 638 Springfield P.O. Box 20062, 2500 EB, The Hague, Kassof, President. Tel: +1 609 683 5666. Street, London N1 1RG, UK. Road, Belfast, BT12 7DY, Northern The Netherlands. Contact: Max van der Fax: +1 609 683 5888. Contact: Jeanette Eno, West African Ireland. Contact: Joe Camplisson, Stoel, High Commissioner on National Email: [email protected] Programme Manager. Tel: +44 (0)20 7359 Executive Director. Tel: +44 (0)2890 222 Minorities. Tel: +31 70 312 5500. Fax: +31 Web: www.per-usa.org/ 7728. Fax: +44 (0)20 7359 4081. 400. Fax: +44 (0)2890 438913. 70 363 5910. Email: [email protected] Saferworld Email: [email protected] Web: www.c-r.org Email: [email protected] Web: www.osce.org/hcnm/ 46 Grosvenor Gardens, London SW1W Wajir Peace and Development Moral Rearmament OTPOR 0DB, UK. Contact: Ian Davis, Arms Trade Committee (WPDC) 24 Greencoat Place, London, SW1P 1RD, 49 Knez Mihailova St, 11000 Beograd, Programme Manager. Tel: +44 (0)20 7881 P.O. Box 444, Wajir, Kenya. UK. Contact: Jim Baynard Smith. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 9290. Fax: +44 (0)20 7881 9291. Contact: Nuria Abdullahi, Coordinator Tel: + 44 (0)20 7798 6000. Tel: +381 11 638 171. Fax: +381 11 637 Email: [email protected] and trainer. Tel: +254 136 21 427/175/369. Fax: + 44 (0)20 7798 6001. 500. Email: [email protected] Web: www.saferworld.co.uk Fax: +254 136 21 563. Email: [email protected] Web: www.otpor.net Search for Common Ground Witness Web: www.mra.org.uk/ Partners for Democratic Change 1601 Connecticut Avenue N.W., Suite 200, Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Nairobi Peace Initiative (NPI) 823 Ulloa Street, San Francisco, California Washington DC 20009, USA. Contact: 333 Seventh Avenue, 13th Floor, New P.O. Box 14894, Nairobi, Kenya. 94127, USA. Contact: Raymond Susan Collin Marks, Executive Director. York, NY 10001, USA. Contact: Gillian Contact: George Wachira, Director. Shonholtz, President.Tel: +1 415665 Tel: +1 202 265 4300. Fax: +1 202 232 Caldwell, Director. Tel: +1 212 845 5243. Tel: +254 2 441 444. Fax: +254 2 442 533. 0652. Fax: +1 415665 2732. 6718. Email: [email protected] Fax: +1 212 845 5299. Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Web: www.sfcg.org Email: [email protected] New Sudan Council of Churches Web: www.partners-intl.org South African Council of Churches Web: www.witness.org PO Box 66168, Nairobi, Kenya. Patriotic Movement Against Crime P O Box 4921, Johannesburg 2000, South Witness for Peace Contact: Elizabeth Philippo.Tel: +254 (MPCD) Africa. Tel: +27 11 492 1380. Fax: +27 11 1229 15th Street, NW, Washington, DC 2446966. Fax: +254 2447015. Plaza Suiza, 3rd Floor, L.C-5, P.O.Box 01- 492 1448. Email: [email protected] 20005, USA. Email: [email protected] 229, San Salvador, El Salvador. Contact: Web: www.sacc.org.za/ Contact: Steve Bennett, Executive Web: sudaninfonet.tripod.com/NSI/ David Gutierrez, Director. Director. Tel: +1 202 588 1471. Norwegian Church Aid (NCA) Tel: +503 223 6574. Fax: +503 223 6574. Fax: +1 202 588 1472. P.O.Box 4544, Nydalen, 0404 Oslo, Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Norway. Tel: +47 2209 2700. Fax: + 47 Web: www.witnessforpeace.org 2209 2720. Email: [email protected] Web: www.nca.no/

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 119 Organisations contacted Other useful organisations listed alphabetically

Abraham Fund, 477 Madison Avenue, Arias Foundation for Peace and Catholic Justice and Peace Centre for Conflict Resolution, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10022, USA. Human Progress, Apartado 8-6410- Commission, Ashmun Street (near University of Cape Town, Private Bag, 1000, San José, Costa Rica. corner Mechlin Street), P.O. Box 10- 7700 Rondebosch, South Africa. AC Génocide Cirimoso (Burundi), B.P. 3569, 1000 Monrovia 10, Liberia. 600 Bujumbura, Burundi. ASEAN, 70A Jl. Sisingamangaraja, Centre for Conflict Resolution (CCR- Jakarta 12110, Indonesia. Catholic Relief Services, GPO Box Kenya), PO Box 16389, Nakuru, Kenya. ACCORD, c/o University of Durban- 1657, Islamabad 46000, Pakistan. Westville, Private Bag X54001, Durban Balkans Initiative, United States Centre for Conflict Resolution 4000, South Africa. Institute of Peace (USIP), 1200 17th CDR Associates, 100 Arapahoe (CENCOR), P.O. Box 33, Legon, Accra, Street NW, Suite 200, Washington, Avenue, Suite 12, Boulder, Colorado Ghana. ACORD, Dean Bradley House, 52 DC20036-3011, USA. 80302, USA. Horseferry Road, London SW1P 2AF, Centre for Defence Studies, King’s United Kingdom. Balkans Peace Teams International Center for Civil Society International College London, Strand, London WC2R (BPT), Ringstr. 9a, D-32427 Minden, (CCSI), 2929 NE Blakeley Street, 2LS, UK. Afghan Development Association, Germany. Seattle, WA 98105, USA. P.O. Box 922, Peshawar, Pakistan. Centre for Development Research, Bangladesh Interreligious Council for Center for Conflict Resolution Gammel Kongevej 5, DK - 1610 Africa Museum, Leuvensesteenweg Peace & Justice (BICPAJ), 14/20, Iqbal (CECORE), National Insurance Copenhagen V, . 13, 3080 Tervuren, Belgium. Road, Mohammadpur, -1207, Building, Pilkington Road, P.O. Box Centre for the Study and African Dialogue Center for Conflict Bangladesh. 5211, Kampala, Uganda. Management of Conflict, Leninsky Management and Development, Berghof Centre for the Constructive Center for Nonviolent Action, P.O. Prospekt 32a, Moscow 117 334, Russia. Arusha International Conference Management of Conflict, Box 31603, Jerusalem 91163, Israel. Centre, Serengeti Wing, Room 628/629, Centre for the Study of Violence and Altensteinstrasse 48a, 14195 Berlin, Arusha, Tanzania. Center for Nonviolent Reconciliation (CSVR), P O Box Germany. Communication (CNVC), P.O. Box 30778, Braamfontein, Johannesburg, African National Congress (ANC), PO Bonn International Centre for 2662, Sherman, Texas 75091-2662, 2017, South Africa. Box 61884, Marshalltown 2107, South Conversation, An der Elisabethkirche USA. Africa. Centre for World Indigenous Studies, 25, 53113 Bonn, Germany. Center for Preventive Action (CPA), 1001 Cooper Pt. Rd. S.W. Suite 214, African Peacebuilding and British American Security Council on Foreign Relations, Council Olympia, WA. 98502, USA. Reconciliation Network, P.O.Box Information Council (BASIC), Lafone on Foreign Relations, 58 East 68th 63560, Nairobi, Kenya. Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI), House, 11-13 Leathermarket Street, Street, New York, NY 10021, USA. Fantoftvegen 38, 5036 Fantoft, Norway Albert Einstein Institution, 427 London SE1 3HN, UK. Center for Preventive Diplomacy, Newbury Street, Boston, MA 02115- Church of the Brethren, 500 Main St, Cambodian Centre for Conflict Center for Strategic and International 1801, USA. PO Box 188, New Windsor, MD 21776- Resolution, Cambodia (CSIS), 1800 K Street NW, 0188, USA. All Africa Conference of Churches, Resource Institute, P.O. Box 622, Washington D.C. 20006, USA. P.O. Box 14205, Nairobi, Kenya. Phnom Penh 1, Cambodia. Clonard Monastery, Clonard Gardens, Centre for Conflict Analysis, Belfast BT13 2RL, Northern Ireland. American Friends Service Canadian International Institute of Department of Politics and International Committee, 1501 Cherry Street, Applied Negotiation, Cambodia Relations c/o Rutherford College, Coalition of Grassroots Women’s Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA. Development Resource Institute, P.O. University of Kent at Canterbury, Organizations (COGWO), P.O. Box Box 622, Phnom Penh 1, Cambodia. Canterbury CT2 7NX, United Kingdom. 71135, Nairobi, , Kenya.

120 Organisations contacted Collaborative for Development Action Conflict Resolution Consortium, Department of Peace Studies, European Negotation and Conflict (CDA), 26 Walker St., Cambridge, MA University of Colorado, Campus Box Bradford University, Richmond Road, Resolution (ENCORE), Sdr. Fasanvej 02138, USA. 327, Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0327, Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1DP, UK. 10, 2000 Frederiksberg, Denmark. USA. Collectif des Associations et ONGs Development Resource Centre, c/o European Platform for Conflict Feminines du Burundi (CAFOB), B.P. Conflict Resolution Program (CRP), NARC, 5th Floor Bhardawadi Hospital, Prevention and Transformation, P.O. 56, Bujumbura, Burundi. Carter Center, One Copenhill, 453 Bhardawadi Road, Andheri, Bombay, Box 14069, 3508 SC Utrecht, The Freedom Parkway, Atlanta, GA 30307, India. Netherlands. Colombia Support Network, PO Box USA. 1505, Madison, WI 53701, USA. Dor Shalom (Peace Generation), 10 Femmes Africa Solidarité (FAS), 8 rue Conflict Resolution Research and Ben Gurion Street, Ramat-Gan 52573, du Vieux-Billard, P.O. Box 5037, CH- COMDEPAZ, Juan Wiliams Noon 643, Resource Institute (CRI), 615 Israel. 1211 Geneva 11, Switzerland. Santiago, Providencia, Chile. Commerce Street, Suite 100, Tacoma, Eastern Mennonite University, Forum for Early Warning and Early Commission Nle de Lutte Contre les Washington 98402-4645, USA. Harrisonburg, Virginia 22802-2464, Response (FEWER), The FEWER Armes Legeres, Legeres, Bamako, Consensus Building Institute, 131 Mt. USA. Secretariat, Old Truman Brewery, 91-95 Mali. Auburn Street, Cambridge, Brick Lane, London E1 6QN, UK. Economic Community Of West Commonwealth, The Commonwealth Massachusetts 02138, USA. African States (ECOWAS), 60, Yakubu Foundation for Global Community, Secretariat, Marlborough House, Pall Copenhagen Peace Research Gowon. 222 High Street, Palo Alto, California Mall, London SW1Y 5HX, UK. Institute (COPRI), Fredericiagade 18K, 94301-1040, USA. Crescent, Asokoro District P.M.B. 401 Community Relations Council, 6 DK-1310 Copenhagen K., Denmark. Abuja, Nigeria. Foundation for Peace Studies Murray Street, Belfast BT1 6DN, Council of Europe, F-67075 Aotearoa / New Zealand, 29 Princes Northern Ireland. Ecumenical Youth Peace Initiative Strasbourg, France. Street, P.O. Box 4110, Auckland 1015, Commission (EYPIC), PO Box 359, Compagnie des Apôtres de la Paix Aotearoa/New Zealand. CRC, Nyankunde-Bunia, D.R. Congo, Bamemba, Cameroon. (CAP), P.O. Box 2605, Bujumbura, P.O. Box 21285, Nairobi, Kenya. Gaston Z. Ortigas Peace Institute Burundi. Environmental Rights Action, PO Box (GZOPI), 2nd Floor, Cardinal Hoeffner Creative Associates International Inc. 10577, Ugbowo, , Nigeria. Conciliation Resources, 173 Upper Building, Social Development Complex, (CAII), 5301 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Street, London N1 1RG, United Ethnic Conflict Project (ECOR), Ateneo De Manila University, Loyola Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20015, Kingdom. Brachterhof 38, NL-5932 XM, Tegelen, Heights, Quezon City 1108, Philippines. USA. The Netherlands. Conflict Resolution and GERDDES / IRCD, 01 BP 1258, Creative Exchange, 18 Percy Road, Peacebuilding Programme (CRP), EU Conflict Prevention Network Cotonou, Benin, German. London E11 1AJ, UK. International Peace Research Institute (CPN), P.O. Box 15 11 20, D-10673 Marshall Fund of the US, 11 Dupont (PRIO), Fuglehauggata 11, N-0260 Department for International Berlin, Germany. Circle,, NW Suite 750, Washington, DC Oslo, Norway. Development (DFID), 94 Victoria European Cultural Foundation, Jan 20036, USA. Street, London SW1E 5JL, UK. Conflict Resolution Catalysts, P.O. van Goyenkade 5, NL - 1075 HN Helsinki Citizens Assembly, Veletrzni Box 836, Montpelier, VT 05601, USA. Department of Peace and Conflict Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 24, 170 00, Praha 7, Czech Republic. Research, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 514, , 751 20 Uppsala, Sweden.

4 WarContents prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 121 Organisations contacted Other useful organisations listed alphabetically

Heritiers de la Justice, B.P. 109 International Action Network on International Peace Research National Democratic Institute for Bukavu, Sud-Kivu, R.D.Congo, B.P. 234 Small Arms (IANSA), Box 422, 37 Association (IPRA), c/o COPRI, International Affairs (NDI), 1717 Cyangugu, Rwanda. Store St., London, WC1E 7BS, UK. Fredericiagade 18, DK-1310 Massachusetts Avenue, NW 5th Floor, Copenhagen K., Denmark. Washington, DC 20036, USA. Human Rights Alert, PO BOX 183, International Alert, 1 Glyn Street, Imphal 795001, Manipur, , India. London SE11 5HT, UK. John Templeton Foundation, PO BOX National Endowment for Democracy, 8322, Radnor, PA, 19087-8322, USA. 1101 Fifteenth Street, NW, Suite 700, Human Rights Watch, 350 Fifth International Center for Ethnic Washington, DC 20005, USA. Avenue, 34th floor, , New Studies, 2 Kynsey Terrace, Colombo - JUSTAZPAZ, Calle 32 No. 14-42, 1er. York 10018-3299, USA. 08, . Piso, Apartado Aereo 209B, Bogota (NPC), 291/50 D.C., Colombia. Havelock Gardens, Colombo 6, Sri Humanitarian Early Warning System International Centre on Conflict and Lanka. (HEWS), Policy and Analysis Division, Negotiation (ICCN), 16 Chavchavadze Kazakhstan Centre for Conflict Department of Humanitarian Affairs, DC Ave., entry 3, 1st floor, Tbilisi 380079, Management (CCM), 57’V’ Timiryazev National Peace Foundation (NPF), 1-15th Floor, New York, NY 10017, Georgia. Street, Apt. 23, Almaty 480 070, 1835 K Street NW, Suite 620, USA. Kazakhstan. Washington DC 20006, USA. International Committee of the Red IGAD, P.O.Box 2653, Djibouti, Republic Cross, Public Information Centre, 19 Letsema, P.O. Box 81, Roodepoort Netherlands Organization for of Djibouti Independent Projects Trust avenue de la Paix, CH 1202 Genève, 1725, South Africa. International Development (IPT), 1802 Old Mutual Centre 303 West Switzerland. Cooperation (NOVIB), P.O. Box 30919, Life and Peace Institute - Horn of Street, 4001 Durban, South Africa. 2500 GX The Hague, The Netherlands. International Conflict Resolution Africa programme, P.O. Box 21123, Initiative on Conflict Resolution & Centre, Uni of Melbourne, School of Nairobi, Kenya. Nonviolence International / Middle Ethnicity (INCORE), Aberfoyle House, Behavioural Science, University of East office, Nuzha Building, PO Box Life and Peace Institute (LPI), P.O. Northland Road, Londonderry BT48 Melbourne, Parkville Victoria 3052, 20999, Jerusalem 91202, Israel. Box 1520, 751 45 Uppsala, Sweden. 7JA, Northern Ireland, UK. Australia. Nonviolence International / South Mediation and Change, La Trade Fair, Institute for Disarmament and International Crisis Group (ICG), 149 East Asia, 495/44 Soi Yu-omsin, P.O. Box C 1433, , Cantonments, Accra, Development studies, 675 Avenue Louise - Level 16, B-1050 Jaransanitwong 40, , Bangkok 10700, Ghana. Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA Brussels, Belgium. Thailand. 02139, USA. Mennonite Conciliation Services International Fellowship for Nordic Africa Institute, P O Box 1703, (international div), Menonite Central Institute for Multi Track Diplomacy, Reconciliation (IFOR), Spoorstraat 38, SE-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden. Committee, 21 South 12th Street, PO 1819 H Street, NWSuite 1200, 1815 BK Alkmaar, The Netherlands. Box 500, Akron, USA. OAS, 17th Street and Constitution Ave, Washington, DC 20006, USA. International Institute for Peace and Washington, DC 20006, USA. Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation, Box Instituto de Relaciones Security, Magnambougou-Est, Plateau 21493, Kitwe, Zambia. OAU, P.O. Box 3243, Addis Ababa, Internacionales y de Investigaciones no.2, Lot no.1, BP E2539, Bamako, Ethiopia. Para la Paz (IRIPAZ), 1a Calle 9-52, Mali. National Business Initiative, P O Box Zona 1, Ciudad de Guatemala, 294, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, Organization for Security and International Peace Academy, 777 Guatemala. 2006, South Africa. Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), United Nations Plaza, New York City, OSCE. Secretariat, Kärntner Ring 5- Inter Agency Consortium c/o OXFAM New York 10017-3521, USA. 71010 Vienna, Austria. Ghana, P.O. Box 432, Tamale, Ghana.

122 Organisations contacted Oxfam, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 Program on Security and Swedish Institute for Public USAID’s Office of Transition 7DZ, UK. Development, Monterey Institute of Administration (SIPU), Box 70338 Initiatives, Office of Transition International Studies, 425 Van Buren Sweden, SE-107 23 Stockholm, Initiatives, For Humanitarian Response, Palestinian Conflict Resolution Street, Monterey, California, 93940, Sweden. Building, 209 B Center, Wi’am Center, P.O. Box 1039, USA. Washington, DC 20523-8602, USA. Bethlehem, West Bank, Israel. Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Quaker Peace and Service, Friends Gustav Adolfs, Torg 1, 103 39 Viva Rio, Ladeira da Gloria, 98 Rio de Pax Christi International, Oude House, 173 Euston Road, London NW1 Stockholm, Sweden. Janeiro, Brazil. Graanmarkt 21, 1000 Brussels, 2BJ, UK. Belgium. Synergies Afrique, P.O. Box 2100, Vuleka Trust, P.O. Box 88, Botha’s Hill, Responding to Conflict (RTC), 1046 1211 Geneva 2, Swizerland. 3660 Durban, South Africa. Peace Now, 9 Karl Neter, P.O. Box Bristol Road, Selly Oak, Birmingham 29828, Tel-Aviv 61297, Israel. The Peruvian Institute for Resolution WANEP, AMPOMAH House 3rd, 37 B29 6LJ, UK. of Conflicts, Negotiation and Mediation Dzorwulu Highway, P.O. Box CT4434, Peacebuilding Unit, Canadian Richardson Institute at Lancaster (INPRECONM), Apartado Postal 14- Cantonments, Accra, Republic of International Development Agency University, Department of Politics and 0035, Lima 14, Peru. Ghana. (CIDA), Multilateral Programmes , Lancaster Branch, 200 Promenade du Portage, Thirdside, Project on Preventing War, Women for Life without Wars and University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, UK. Hull, Quebec K1A 0G4, Canada. Harvard Law School, 1563 Mass Ave., Violence, St Streletskya, 6—28, Rotary International, One Rotary Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. Moscow, Russian Federation, 127018. Peruvian Association for the Study Center, 1560 Sherman Ave., Evanston, and Investigation for Peace (APEP), Transcend, 51 Bois Chatton, 01210 Women Waging Peace, 168 Brattle IL 60201, USA. Avenida Salaverry 2020, Lima 11, Peru. Versonnex, France. Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. SERAPAZ, Patricio Sanz #449, Mexico, Presbyterian Church in America, Transnational Foundation for Peace Women’s Commission for Refugee D.F., C.P. 03100, Mexico City, Mexico. 1852 Century Place, Atlanta, Georgia and Future Research (TFF), Women and Children, 122 East, 42nd 30345, USA. SIDA, 105 25 Stockholm, Sweden. Vegagatan 25, 224 57 Lund, Sweden. Street, 12th Floor, New York, New York 10168-1289, USA. Program in Citizen Peacebuilding, SIPAZ, Box 2415, Santa Cruz, CA UN Dept of Political Affairs, United Center for Global Peace & Conflict 95063, USA. Nations, New York, NY 10017, USA. Women’s Initiative For Peace In Studies (GPACS), University of South Asia, Gandhi Ashram, Kingsway Slovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs, United Nations High Commissioner California, Irvine, 3151 Social Science Camp, Delhi, 110009, India. Hlboká cesta 2, 833 36 Bratislava, for Refugees (UNHCR), CP 2500, 1211 Plaza, Irvine, CA 92697-5100, USA. Slovak Republic. Geneva, 2 Dépôt, Switzerland. World Bank, Post-Conflict Unit, World Program On Negotiation (PON), Bank, 1818 H Street, Washington D.C., Stockholm International Peace United States Institute of Peace, Harvard Law School, 513 Pound Hall, USA. Research Institute (SIPRI), Frösunda, 1200, 17th Street NW, suite 200, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, 17153 Solna, Sweden. Washington, DC 20036-3011, USA. World Conference on Religion and USA. Peace (WCRP), 777 United Nations Sudanese Women Civil Society Uniting Church of Australia, National Program on Nonviolent Sanctions Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA. Network for Peace, c/o Dr. Amina A. Assembly, P.O. Box A2266, Sydney and Cultural Survival (PONSACS), Rahana, Ahfad University for Women, South, NSW 1235, Australia. World Council of Churches, 150, PONSACS / WCFIA - Harvard P.O. Box 167, Khartoum, Sudan. Route de Ferney, P.O. Box 2100, 1211 University, 1737 Cambridge Street, Geneva 2, Switzerland. Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138,USA.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 123 Annotated bibliography

For good case studies Religion, the Missing People Building Peace Searching for Peace in Africa Dimension of Statecraft (European Centre for Conflict (European Centre for Conflict (Douglas Johnston and Cynthia Prevention, Utrecht, Netherlands, Prevention, Utrecht, Netherlands, Words over War Sampson, Oxford University Press, 1999). Aimed at the non specialist, 1999). An overview of the violent (John Barton, Melanie Greenburg, New York, 1995). Possibly the best this engaging and inspiring book conflicts taking place in Africa as of Margaret McGuinness, Rowman and book written to date on the role of features 35 conflict 1999 as well as a look at all official Littlefield, Maryland, 2000). 12 case religious actors in conflict prevention prevention/resolution stories from and non-official attempts at resolving histories where mediation has been and resolution. The book is the result around the world. Also features and preventing the conflicts in each used with varying success. of a 7 year research project headed contributions from some of the world's country. Part of a series currently Herding Cats - Multiparty by the Center for Strategic and leading conflict specialists. being written by the ECCP. Mediation in a Complex World International Studies (www.csis.org) Intermediaries in The Politics of Non Violent (Crocker, Hampson, Aall (eds), USIP and features case studies from International Conflict Action Press, Washington, 1999). Good around the world. (Thomas Princen, Princeton (Gene Sharp, Porter Sargeant, series of case histories (official and Watching the Wind University Press, New Jersey, 1995). Boston 1973). A must-have three non official) including some very (Susan Collin Marks, USIP Press, Some good examples of official and volume work on the theory and interesting personal accounts of Washington, 2000). A personal non-official interventions as well as practice of non violent action including efforts to prevent or resolve violent account of the local peace efforts interesting theory on the role of third 198 cases of successful non violent conflicts from people such as Richard launched after the signing of the parties in conflict. action. Holbrooke and Max Van der Stoel. National Peace Accord in South Opportunities Missed, Africa. Some good case histories. Cases and Strategies for Opportunities Seized Preventive Action The Peacemakers (Barnett Rubin (ed), Century For theory / analysis (Bruce Jentleson (ed), Rowman and (Hugh Miall for the Oxford Research Foundation Press, New York, 1998). Littlefield, Maryland, 2000). Interesting Group, Macmillan, London, 1992). Good examination of several Do No Harm - How Aid Can and widely acclaimed book Good list of conflicts that were 'hotspots' around the world and the Support Peace - or War commissioned by the Carnegie resolved peacefully during the 20th efforts taken by official and non official (Mary Anderson, Lynne Reiner Commission on Preventing Deadly Century. actors to prevent or resolve conflict. Publishers, Boulder, Colorado, 1999). Conflict (www.ccpdc.org). All Good on the impact of foreign aid on examples of successful (and failed) conflict. Essential reading for all interventions are track one (i.e. development NGOs. Very easy read. official).

124 Annotated bibliography Websites

The Management of Peace by Peaceful Means Preventing Violent Conflict www.refugees.org Protracted Social Conflict (Johan Galtung, Sage Publications, (Michael Lund, USIP Press, Superb website from the US (Azar, Dartmouth Press, Hampshire, London, 1996). A very clear Washington, 1997). Brilliant, Committee for Refugees giving in- UK, 1990). Interesting theory on the exploration of the issues of peace, accessible book which analyses the depth information on the number of role of track two interventions in conflict, development and civilisation. range of actors involved in preventive refugees in each country. protracted social conflicts'. Three diplomacy, what methods work and www.euconflict.org good case histories (Lebanon, Forgiveness and why and how governments can One of the most comprehensive Srilanka, Falklands). Reconciliation: Religion, Public overcome the challenges to effective sources of information on NGOs Policy, & Conflict preventive action. The Promise of Mediation Transformation working in conflict on the web. (Robert A. Baruch Bush and Joseph Raymond G. Helmick and Rodney Contemporary Conflict www.colorado.edu/conflict/ P. Folger, Jossey Bass Wiley, 1999). Lawrence Petersen (eds), Templeton Resolution An extensive site run by the Conflict One of the most interesting books on Foundation Press, 2001). An excellent (Miall, Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, Research Consortium of Colorado the different theories of mediation. book on the importance of forgiveness Polity Press (eds), Cambridge, 1999). University. Masses of information on and reconciliation in conflict One of the best general theory books the theory and practice of conflict Working with Conflict transformation with a particular available. Charts the history and resolution. (Fisher et al, Zed Books, London, emphasis on the religious development of the study and practice 2000). An excellent training manual interpretation of forgiveness. of conflict resolution. www.usip.org. for those working in the field offering The web site of the United States easy to follow exercises and analysis. The Warrior's Honor Getting to Peace Institute of Peace. USIP publish A powerful tool for all practitioners. (Michael Ignatieff, Viking Press, (Bill Ury, Viking Press, New York, several good newsletters (available 1998). An engaging look at ethnic war. 1999). Very easy, non technical book online) and many of their reports are Beyond Machiavelli from one of the experts in negotiation. available online too. (Roger Fisher, Elizabeth Kopelman, Building Peace: Sustainable Some very interesting stories/case www.crisisweb.org Andrea Kupfer Schneider, Harvard Reconciliation in Divided histories and theory. University Press, 1996) Originally Societies Official site of the International Crisis drafted as a handbook for diplomats (JP Lederach, USIP Press, Group. All reports available online. and senior officials advised by Fisher. Washington, 1999). Excellent and Excellent analysis of various current Contains interesting theory and cases. easy to read book by one of the key conflicts. experts in the field. www.crinfo.org Getting to Yes Another mammoth site run by the (Roger Fisher and William Ury, Arrow people from the Conflict Research Press, 1997) The classic book on Consortium at Colorado University. principled negotiation techniques from two of the leaders in the field.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 125 Please photocopy and return to: Oxford Research Group 51 Plantation Road Contribute Oxford OX2 6JE, UK Tel: +44 (0)1865 242 819 We are keen to learn of more examples of effective intervention. Fax: +44 (0)1865 794 652

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Contact Details: Your contact details / comments: ______Website(s): ______Time and Place of involvement: ______Nature of involvement: ______Please inform me of other ______work in this area. ______Tell me more about the ______Oxford Research Group. ______Please send me details of ______a covenant with ORG. ______Thank you ______Oxford Research Group

126 Contribute Acknowledgments About the author So many people have given their time generously Dylan Mathews has worked for the in the development of this project. They include: Oxford Research Group (ORG) since 1999.

Claudia Agreda Bharti Gandhi Aleksandar Lojpur Before working on 'War Prevention Oxford Research Group aimed to help Damaris Albuquerque Paula Garb Susan Collin Marks Works' Dylan was Co-ordinator of develop a new generation of leaders Sanam Anderlini Leone Gianturco Kate McCoy Oxford Research Group's 'C21' young better able to manage the challenges Mary Anderson William Godnick Julia Metcalfe leaders initiative. The aim of that lie ahead. The project Hayden Allen Helen Gould Joe Montville C21 was to engage 500 of awaits sufficient funding to the world's emerging proceed. Dylan is also the Hizkias Assefa Rob Green Leopoldo Niilus leaders in the challenges Founder and Director of Judith Asuni Michael Hall David Nyheim and possibilities of the Rwenzori Armen Balian Michael Henderson Andries Odendaal developing a Development Amy Barbor Sowore Omoyele cooperative and Foundation Laura Barratt Peter Claver Oparah integrated approach to (www.rwenzori.org), a Andrea Bartoli Peter O'Reilly In addition to global security. By UK registered charity that Jim Baynard Smith Elizabeth Phillippo the countless people sensitising young leaders to supports the needs of local Cyndi Beck Meredith Pierce cutting edge thinking and communities in Uganda. who helped bring this Elise Boulding Rosie Pike practice on the most important current project to fruition, special Alison Brysk Livia Plaks and future global security issues, thanks must go to the Joseph Gillian Caldwell Cedric Prakash Rowntree Charitable Trust Meghan Camirand Louis Putzel (UK), Lifebridge Foundation Joe Camplisson Francis Rolt The producer The designer (US) and Serve All Trust Sally Chin Barnett Rubin (UK) for their generous is director of the has worked as a Mark Chupp Harold Saunders Scilla Elworthy Paul V Vernon financial support. Oxford Research Group since its freelance illustrator and designer for 5 Kevin Clements Christian P. Scherrer foundation in 1982. She trained as a years. He has worked on many issues Adam Curle Stephen Simpson social scientist and after working for including peace, human rights, roads, John Davies Margareta Sollenberg 10 years in Africa became consultant ecology, genetics, refugees rights, Ian Davis Sharon Hostetler Alyson Springer on women's issues to UNESCO, and climate change, globalisation etc. Michael J. DeKoster Emily Joliffe Jessica Steinberg research director for the Minority Since graduating as a psychologist he Kate Dewes Sylvère Kabwa Gene Stoltzfus Rights Group in France. She is author has also worked as a teacher, a Roshan Dodenwala Allen Kassof Paul van Tongeren of studies on the role of women in lollipopman, a pavement artist, and a Jeanette Eno Branka Kaselj Adrien Tuyaga international relations and on many tree-surgeon. For over a year he has Paulo Evaristo Florence Kiff George Wachira aspects of international security. Her painted an ultra-violet ‘trompe l’oeil’ Peter Gastrow Birgitta Kok Rachel Watson best-known book, ‘Power and Sex’, mural. Today he works for a wide Samuel Gbaydee Doe Ami Liggett Paul Wee was published in 1996 by Element range of small NGOs and grass roots Books, and her PhD from Bradford campaign groups, which partially Dietrich Fischer James Logan Katharine Wheatley University was on the subject of explains why he lives in a shed. Mari Fitzduff Kare Lode Cecilia Zarate British nuclear weapons policy.

War prevention works: 50 stories of people resolving conflict Oxford Research Group 127 “A wonderful collection of stories about how local communities war prevention works participate in transforming conflicts that have been 50 stories of people resolving conflict destroying the lifeways of their society.” Here are 50 short accounts from all Elise Boulding over the world of what ordinary Professor Emerita of Sociology, Dartmouth College, USA. people are doing to stop war and killing - armed only with integrity, stamina and courage. These stories show how powerful non- violence can be.

“Peace builders need moral support and financial support from From community level violence to inter state wars and from 1946 to around the world to encourage them and give them the present day, these easy-to- confidence to go on. I welcome this initiative.” read true stories highlight the tools and techniques used by ordinary people, non Rt. Hon. Mo Mowlam governmental organisations, Former Minister for the Cabinet Office, UK. church groups and many others to help resolve conflicts around the world. Each story includes maps, facts and figures relating to the conflict.

The book also shows how readers can support this work. This is a valuable resource for practitioners, decision makers, students and activists alike.

Cover painting “Lightness in Dark” ISBN 0-9511361-6-X by Gabrielle Rifkind