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Women with Mustaches and Men Without Beards: Gender and Sexual Women with Mustaches and Men without Beards The publisher gratefully acknowledges the generous contribution to this book provided by the General Endowment Fund of the University of California Press Associates. Women with Mustaches and Men without Beards Gender and Sexual Anxieties of Iranian Modernity afsaneh najmabadi University of California Press berkeley los angeles london University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press, Ltd. London, England © 2005 by the Regents of the University of California Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Najmabadi, Afsaneh, 1946– Women with mustaches and men without beards : gender and sexual anxieties of Iranian modernity / Afsaneh Najmabadi. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 0-520-24262-9 (cloth : alk. paper)—isbn 0-520-24263-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Women—Iran—Social conditions—19th century. 2. Women—Iran—Social conditions—20th century. 3. Gender identity—Iran—History. I. Title. hq1735.2.n35 2005 305.42'0955'09034—dc22 2004017984 Manufactured in the United States of America 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 10987654321 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum require- ments of ansi/niso z39.48–1992 (r 1997) (Permanence of Paper). For Tally Contents List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgments xi Introduction 1 part i. beauty, love, and sexuality 1. Early Qajar 11 2. Nineteenth-Century Transformations 26 part ii. cultural labor of sexuality and gender 3. The Eclipse of the (Fe)Male Sun 63 4. Vatan, the Beloved; Vatan, the Mother 97 5. Women’s Veil and Unveil 132 6. The Tragedy of Romantic Marriage 156 7. Crafting an Educated Wife and Mother 181 8. Women or Wives of the Nation? 207 Epilogue: Feminism and Its Burden of Birth 232 Notes 245 Glossary 307 Bibliography 311 Credits 341 Index 343 Illustrations 1. Amorous couple, early nineteenth century 12 2. Portrait of Fath‘ali Shah. Mihr ‘Ali. 1809–10. 14 3. Prince Yahyá, attributed to Muhammad Hasan, c. 1830. 28 4. Embracing lovers, attributed to Muhammad Sadiq, c. 1770–80 29 5. Lid of casket with scene of ladies on a terrace, attributed to Muhammad ‘Ali ibn Zaman 31 6. A girl playing a mandolin. Muhammad Sadiq, c. 1770–80 33 7. Bare-breasted woman holding an apple 40 8. Back of a mirror depicting the court women of Egypt, nineteenth century 43 9. Shaykh San‘an and the Christian maiden, from Husayn Bayquara, Majalis al-‘ushshaq, sixteenth century 49 10. Shaykh San‘an looking after pigs, from a sixteenth-century Majalis al-‘ushshaq manuscript 50 11. Shaykh San‘an and the Christian maiden, c. 1830 51 12. Order of Lion-and-Sun medallion, 1836 64 13. Narinjistan, Shiraz, Qajar period building 65 14. Official state emblem, 1907 66 15. Official state emblem, early 1970s 67 16. Jewish wedding document (ketuba), 1870 68 17. ‘Ashura banner, c. 1900 69 18. Twenty-tuman coin, 1796 71 ix x/Illustrations 19. Ruznamah-i akhbar-i dar al-khalafah-i Tihran, 5 February 1851 74 20. Detail from pavilion of a Qajar building, mid–nineteenth century 76 21. Simnan gate, early nineteenth century 77 22. Circular dish, gift of Fath‘ali Shah to the East India Company 78 23. Playing cards, early nineteenth century 84 24. Order of Aftab badge, given by Muzaffar al-Din Shah to Queen Mary in 1904 85 25. Logo of official gazette, Ruznamah-i vaqayi‘-i ittifaqiyah, 17 June 1851 87 26. Logo of official gazette, Ruznamah-i vaqayi‘-i ittifaqiyah, 25 October 1859 88 27. Logo of official gazette, Iran, 20 May 1871 89 28. ‘Ashura banner, Tehran, early 1990s 90 29. Wall hanging, glorifying Riza Khan as the savior of Iran 91 30. Iran, the nation, as a pahlavan, Kashkul, 8 June 1907 121 31. Iran as a male nation, Tanbih, clockwise from top left: 26 June 1907, 19 July 1911, 10 June 1913, 15 December 1913 122 32. Iran as a female homeland, Tanbih, 30 December 1910 128 33. Iran as a sick mother, Shukufah, 6 May 1915 129 34. A feeble, aged mother Iran begging Riza Kahn to embrace her tight for one night to make her young again 130 35. Triumphant, standing tall, mother Iran in the morning of Riza Khan’s accession to the throne 131 36. Adab, 26 April 1905 140 37. Tanbih, 15 March 1911 147 38. Tanbih, 24 July 1913 220 39. Taj al-Saltanah 234 40. Taj al-Saltanah 236 Acknowledgments A book that has taken more than a decade to finish accumulates enormous debts of gratitude. But in repaying them one reenacts one’s initial plea- sures, remembering collegial conversations, insights gained, suggestions and criticism that pushed one’s thinking along or made one rethink an argument or pursue another direction in the archives. This book began during my year at the Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women, Brown University, in 1988–89. Intending to pur- sue a very different research project, by the end of that year I had discarded it and embarked on what became this book. That year’s conversations with other fellows and our weekly seminars produced the intellectual transition that shaped this book. My continued conversations with Elizabeth Weed, then the Center’s Associate Director and now its Director, have been invaluable. During the years I worked on this book I taught at Barnard College. I want to thank most affectionately Natalie Boylen Kampen for her trust and support of my work over all those years, and for patiently prodding me to learn how to see visual texts and interpret them productively.As the reader will see, I have come to depend on visual material for many arguments in this book. My other colleagues at Barnard (and at Columbia University), among them Elizabeth Castelli, Janet Jakobsen, Laura Kay, Irena Kelpfisz, Ann Pellegrini, Susan Shapiro, Deborah Valenze, Judith Weisenfeld, Liz Wiesen, and Angela Zito, gave me support and intellectual companionship. And we had fun together. I am also thankful to Elizabeth Boylan, Dean of Faculty, for her unfailing support. Several graduate students at Columbia and Harvard have contributed to this book. They participated in seminars I taught organized around some of the themes of this book; they also read parts of the manuscript and gave me xi xii / Acknowledgments helpful feedback. I thank Judy Chen, Kouros Esmaeli, Houman Sarshar, Aneesa Sen, and Jennifer Snow.Avi Rubin read the entire manuscript with the critical insight that I had come to expect of him. Mana Kia and Sima Shakhsari provided me with insightful suggestions on the entire manuscript after it had gone to publishers. Though too late for revising this book, their generous commentaries have given me a new direction in which to move. In particular, Shakhsari’s sharp critique—that the book is complicit in the amnesia that erases same-sex practices and desires of women—calls for an entire supplementary project, the kind of Derridian supplementarity that I recognize unwinds the whole fabric of this manuscript one more time. At the end, I decided to let go of this book and begin a new project. In 1994–95 I was a fellow at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study, where the Social Science faculty and fellows created a challenging and sup- portive intellectual atmosphere. Like many historians of gender, I owe a great deal to Joan Scott’s books and articles. But the year at the Institute also gave me a unique opportunity for conversations with her that have continued since then and have sustained my thinking. In 1995 Layla Diba invited me to contribute to a seminar at the Brook- lyn Museum she organized in preparation for an exhibition she curated with Maryam Ehtiar,Royal Persian Paintings:The Qajar Epoch, 1785–1925 (Brooklyn Museum, 23 October 1998 through 24 January 1999). Involve- ment in this project introduced me to the field of Qajar visual texts and led me ultimately to the central arguments of this book. I presented early drafts of several chapters at workshops on modernity organized by Timothy Mitchell and Lila Abu-Lughod (Cairo, 1993; New York, 1996, 1999); at conferences organized in conjunction with the Brook- lyn exhibition (at the Brooklyn Museum and at New York University in 1998 and at London University in 1999); at two workshops on Middle East historiography, organized by Ursula Wokoeck, Israel Gershoni, Hakan Erdem, and Amy Singer held at Bogazici University (1999, 2002); at a Bela- gio conference organized by Joan W. Scott and Debra Keates (2000); at con- ferences at Ben Gurion University (1997, 1999); at the University of Aarhus, Denmark (1997); at the “Queer Middle Ages Conference” at New York University (1998); and at Harvard University, the University of Chicago, the University of Massachusetts (Amherst), Columbia Univer- sity, the University of California (Davis and Berkeley), Georgetown Uni- versity, New York University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor), the Institute of Fine Arts (New York University), and the Radcliffe Institute. I am thankful to organizers of these Acknowledgments / xiii events for the invaluable opportunities to discuss my work. In each case, questions and comments pushed me to go further in my arguments and in my archival research. Several participants at Belagio—Elizabeth Weed, Judith Butler, Rosi Bridotti, and Joan Scott—gave me useful comments on my paper. Some of the papers presented on these occasions were subse- quently published, in Iranian Studies 26 (Winter/Spring 1993); Feminist Studies 19:3 (Fall 1993); Comparative Studies in Society and History 39:3 (July 1997); Gershoni, Erdem, and Woköck 2002; and Iranian Studies 34:1–4 (2001). I spent the years 2001–2 as a fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University, reworking the manuscript.
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